A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to

produce an electric current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-

detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor. These diodes are
particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means that
the P-side of the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of
the battery, and the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery. This diode is very sensitive to light so when light falls on the
diode it easily changes light into an electric current. The solar cell is
also branded as a large-area photodiode because it converts solar
energy into electric energy. Though, solar cell works only in bright light.

What is Photodiode?

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into
current or voltage based on the mode of operation of the device. It
comprises optical filters, built-in lenses, and also surface areas. These
diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the
photodiode increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor
diodes, but that they may be either visible to let light reach the delicate
part of the device. Several diodes intended for use exactly as a
photodiode will also use a PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN
junction.

Some photodiodes will look like a light-emitting diode. They have two
terminals coming from the end. The smaller end of the diode is the
cathode terminal, while the longer end of the diode is the anode
terminal. See the following schematic diagram for the anode and
cathode sides. Under the forward bias condition, the conventional
current will flow from the anode to the cathode, following the arrow in
the diode symbol. Photocurrent flows in the reverse direction.

Photodiodes are a class of diodes that converts light energy to

electricity. Their working is exactly the opposite of LEDs which are also
diodes but they convert electricity to light energy. Photodiodes can also
be used in detecting the brightness of the light. Let’s explore more
about the photodiodes in this article.
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to
produce an electric current. They are also called a photo-detector, a
light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are designed to work in
reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon,
Germanium and Indium gallium arsenide.
Symbol of Photodiode

The following image shows the symbol of the photodiode:

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED, but here the
arrow points inwards.
Photodiode Working

A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of light which affects

the generation of electron-hole pairs. If the energy of the falling photons
(hv) is greater than the energy gap (Eg) of the semiconductor material,
electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion region of the diode.
The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other before
recombining due to the electric field of the junction. The direction of the
electric field in the diode forces the electrons to move towards the n-
side and consequently the holes move towards the p-side. As a result of
the increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and holes on the
p-side, a rise in the electromotive force is observed. Now when an
external load is connected to the system, a current flow is observed
through it.
The more the electromotive force created, the greater the current flow.
The magnitude of the electromotive force created depends directly
upon the intensity of the incident light. This effect of the proportional
change in photocurrent with the change in light intensity can be easily
observed by applying a reverse bias.

Since photodiodes generate current flow directly depending upon the

light intensity received, they can be used as photodetectors to detect
optical signals. Built-in lenses and optical filters may be used to
enhance the power and productivity of a photodiode.

ypes of Photodiode

Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the

market and they all work on the same basic principles, though some are
improved by other effects. The working of different types of photodiodes
works in a slightly different way, but the basic operation of these diodes
remains the same. The types of photodiodes can be classified based on
their construction and functions as follows.

 PN Photodiode
 Schottky Photo Diode
 PIN Photodiode
 Avalanche Photodiode
PN Photodiode

The first developed type of photodiode is the PN type. As compared with

other types, its performance is not advanced, but at present, it is used
in several applications. The photo detection mainly happens in the
depletion region of the diode. This diode is quite small but its sensitivity
is not great as compared with others. Please refer to this link to know
more about the PN diode.

PIN Photodiode

At present, the most commonly used photodiode is a PIN type. This

diode gathers the light photons more powerfully as compared with
standard PN photodiode because the wide intrinsic area between the P
and N regions allows for more light to be collected, and in addition to
this, it also offers a lower capacitance. Please refer to this link to know
more about the PIN diode.
Avalanche Photodiode
This kind of diode is used in low light areas due to its high gain levels. It
generates high levels of noise. So this technology is not appropriate for
all applications. Please refer to this link to know more about
the Avalanche diode.

Schottky Photodiode

The Schottky photodiode uses the Schottky diode, and it includes a

small diode junction that means, there is small junction capacitance so,
it operates at high speeds. Thus, this kind of photodiode is frequently
utilized in high bandwidth (BW) optical communication systems like
fiber-optic links. Please refer to this link to know more about
the Schottky diode.
Each type of photodiode has its own benefits and drawbacks. The
selection of this diode can be done based on the application. The
different parameters to be considered while selecting photodiode
include noise, wavelength, reverse bias constraints, gain, etc. The
performance parameters of photodiode include responsivity, quantum
efficiency, transit time or response time.

These diodes are widely used in applications where the detection of the
presence of light, color, position, the intensity is required. The main
features of these diodes include the following.

 The linearity of the diode is good with respect to incident light

 Noise is low.
 The response is wide spectral
 Rugged mechanically
 Lightweight and compact
 Long life
The required materials to make a photodiode and the range of
electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range includes the following

 For silicon material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range

will be (190-1100) nm
 For Germanium material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength
range will be (400-1700) nm
 For Indium gallium arsenide material, the electromagnetic spectrum
wavelength range will be (800-2600) nm
 For Lead (II) sulfide material, the electromagnetic spectrum
wavelength range will be <1000-3500) nm
 For Mercury, cadmium Telluride material, the electromagnetic
spectrum wavelength range will be (400-14000) nm
Because of their better bandgap, Si-based Photodiodes produce lower
noise than Ge-based Photodiodes.

Construction
The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-
type. In this design, the formation of P-type material can be done from
the diffusion of the P-type substrate which is lightly doped. So, the P+
ions layer can be formed because of the diffusion method. On the
substrate of N-type, the N-type epitaxial layer can be grown.

Photodiode Construction

The development of a P+ diffusion layer can be done over the heavily

doped N-type epitaxial layer. The contacts are designed with metals to
make two terminals like anode and cathode. The front region of the
diode can be separated into two types like active & non-active surfaces.

The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon dioxide
(SiO2). On an active surface, the light rays can strike over it whereas,
on a non-active surface, the light rays cannot strike. & the active
surface can be covered through the material of anti-reflection so that
the energy of light cannot lose and the highest of it can be changed into
the current.

Working of Photodiode

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample

energy strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This
mechanism is also called the inner photoelectric effect. If the
absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are
removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion
region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons
move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The
entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and
the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize
the sensitivity of the device.

Modes of Operation

The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely

Photo voltaic mode, Photo conductive mode, an avalanche diode mode

Photo voltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero-bias mode, in

which a voltage is produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a very
small dynamic range & non-linear necessity of the voltage formed.

Photo conductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photo

conductive mode is more usually reverse biased. The reverse voltage
application will increase the depletion layer’s width, which in turn
decreases the response time & the junction capacitance. This mode is
too fast and displays electronic noise

Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse

bias condition, which permits the multiplication of an avalanche
breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. This outcome is
an internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases the device
response.

Applications of Photodiode
  Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The
reason for their prominent use is their linear response of
photodiode to light illumination.
 Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric
isolation. When two isolated circuits are illuminated by light,
optocouplers are used to couple the circuit optically. Optocouplers
are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke
detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are
used in instruments that analyze samples, detectors for computed
tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity
of light in science and industry.
 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction
diodes and hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and
optical communication.

Photodiode Circuit

The circuit diagram of the photodiode is shown below. This circuit can
be built with a 10k resistor and photodiode. Once the photodiode
notices the light, then it allows some flow of current throughout it. The
sum of current that supplies through this diode can be directly
proportional to the sum of light noticed through the diode.
 Circuit Diagram

Connecting a Photodiode in an External Circuit

In any application, the photodiode works in reverse bias mode. The

anode terminal of the circuit can be connected to the ground whereas
the cathode terminal is connected to the power source. Once
illuminated through light, then current flows from the cathode terminal
to the anode terminal.

Once photodiodes are utilized with exterior circuits, then they are allied
to a power source within the circuit. So, the amount of current
generated through a photodiode will be extremely small, so this value is
not sufficient to make an electronic device.

Once they are connected to an exterior power source, then it delivers

more current toward the circuit. In this circuit, the battery is used as a
power source to help in increasing the value of current so that external
devices give a better performance.

Photodiode Efficiency

The photodiode’s quantum efficiency can be defined as the division of

the absorbed photons which donate to the photocurrent. For these
diodes, it is openly associated with the responsivity ‘S’ with no effect of
an avalanche, then the photocurrent can be expressed as

I =S P= ηe/hv . P

Where,

‘η’ is the quantum efficiency

‘e’ is the charge of the electron

‘hν’ is the energy of the photon

Photodiodes’ quantum efficiency is extremely high. In some cases, it will

be above 95% however changes extensively through wavelength. High
quantum efficiency requires the control of reflections apart from a high
inner efficiency like an anti-reflection coating.

Responsivity

The responsivity of a photodiode is the ratio of the photocurrent which

is generated as well as absorbed optical power can be determined
within the linear section of the response. In photodiodes, it is normally
maximum in a wavelength area wherever the photon energy is fairly
higher than the bandgap energy & declining within the bandgap region
wherever the absorption reduces.

The photodiode calculation can be done based on the following equation

R = η (e/hv)

Here, in the above equation, ‘h ν’ is the energy of photon; ‘η’ is the

efficiency of quantum & ‘e’ the charge of elementary. For instance, the
quantum efficiency of a photodiode is 90% at an 800 nm wavelength,
then the responsivity will be 0.58 A/W.
For photomultipliers & avalanche photodiodes, there is an extra factor
for the multiplication of inner current, so that possible values will be
above 1 A/W. Generally, the multiplication of current is not included
within the quantum efficiency.

PIN Photodiode Vs PN Photodiode

Both the photodiodes like PN & PIN can be attained from a lot of
suppliers. A photodiode selection is very important while designing a
circuit based on the required performance as well as characteristics.
A PN photodiode doesn’t work in a reverse bias & consequently, it is
more appropriate for the applications of low light to enhance the
performance of noise.

The PIN photodiode that works in reverse bias can introduce a noise
current to decrease S/N ratio
For the applications of high dynamic range, the reverse biasing will give
good performance
For high BW applications, reverse biasing will provide good performance
like the capacitance among the regions of P & N and the storage of
charge capacity is small.

Advantages

The advantages of photodiode include the following.

Less resistance

Quick and high operation speed

Long life span.

Fastest photodetector.

Spectral response is good.

Doesn’t use high voltage.

Frequency response is good.

Solid and low-weight.

It is extremely responsive to the light.

Dark current is less.

High quantum efficiency.

Less noise.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of photodiode include the following.

Temperature stability is poor.

Change within current is extremely little, therefore may not be enough

to drive the circuit.

The active area is small.

Usual PN junction photodiode includes a high response time.

It has less sensitivity.

It mainly works by depending on the temperature.

It uses offset voltage.

Applications of Photodiode
The applications of photodiodes involve similar applications of
photodetectors like charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and
photomultiplier tubes.

These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke

detectors, compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in
VCRs.

In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and
street lights, photoconductors are more frequently used rather than
photodiodes.

Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity

of light in science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more
linear response than photoconductors.

Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like

instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography,
and also used in blood gas monitors.

These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction
diodes and hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and in
optical communications.

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The

characteristics of the photodiode are shown clearly in the following
figure, that the photocurrent is nearly independent of reverse bias
voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is almost
zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano amperes.
As optical power rises the photocurrent also rises linearly. The max
photocurrent is incomplete by the power dissipation of the photodiode.
Characteristics

Thus, this is all about the photodiode working principle, characteristics,

and applications. Optoelectronic devices like Photodiodes are available
in different types which are used in almost all electronic devices. These
diodes are used with IR light sources such as neon, laser LED &
fluorescent. As compared with other light detection diodes, these diodes
are not expensive. We hope that you have got a better understanding of
this concept. Furthermore, any queries regarding this concept or to
implement click electrical and electronic projects for Engineering
Students.