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Form 5 Biology

Chapter 4 Reproduction and Growth

4.3 Early Development of the Human Zygote

- Four days after fertilisation, the zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis to form a
solid ball of cells called morula.

- The morula then develops into a hollow ball of cells known as the blastocyst
[also known as blastula].
[1] During copulation, about 400 million sperms are released. However, only small
number will reach the Fallopian tube and only one sperm will fuse with the ovum. - The blastocyst has a localised thickening called the inner cell mass. The
The fusion between an ovum and a sperm is called fertilisation. remainder of the blastocyst is made up of cells called trophoblast.

[2] A fertilised egg is known as a zygote. Immediately after its formation, after its - The blastocyst will be implanted at the endometrium of the uterus about
formation, the zygote forms a protective layer around itself to prevent the entry seven days after fertilisation.
of other sperms.
Table 4.8 Development of a zygote prior to implantation
[3] Morula and blastocyst are the two main stages in the development of a
zygote in preparation for implantation.

[4] The inner cell mass of the blastocyst will develop into the embryo.

[5] The trophoblast will send out fingerlike projections called villi into the wall of
uterus. The whole structure, including the trophoblastic villi and the surrounding
uterine tissue, is known as the placenta.

4.3 [1] The Formation of Twins

- In the course of formation of identical twins, if the splitting of the zygote

stops halfway, while the embryo continues to develop, then Siamese twins will
be formed.

- Siamese twins are identical twins joined at certain parts of their bodies. In
some cases they may be sharing certain organs.

- It is possible to separate Siamese twins by surgery if they do not share vital

organs.

Table 4.10 Siamese twins who share the same heart

4.3 [2] Fraternal Twins

- The formation of identical twins involves only one ovum and one sperm.

- Only one zygote is formed. The zygote splits into two halves by mitosis. Each
half develops into a foetus.

- The two foetuses share the same placenta.

- Since the two foetuses are the result of mitosis form a single zygote, they
have the same genetic information. Hence, they have identical characteristics [1] The formation of fraternal twins involve two ova and two sperms.
and are of the same sex. [2] If two ova are released at the same time by the ovaries and each is fertilised
by a sperm, two zygotes will be formed. Each zygote develops into an
Table 4.9 The formation of identical twins independent foetus.
 VIVA Solution

4.3 [3] Comparison between Identical twins and Fraternal Twins

Diagram 4.13 The formation of fraternal twins

[3] Each of the two foetuses has its own placenta.

[4] Since the foetuses originate from two different zygotes, they have different
genetic information. Hence, they have different characteristics and may be of
different sexes.

VIVA Reproduction Checkpoint [4.5]

How many sperms and ova are involved in the formation of identical twins and
fraternal twins?
Table 4.11 Comparison Identical twins and Fraternal Twins

4.3 [3] Functions of the placenta in foetal development

[1] Since the organs in a foetal are not fully developed yet, the foetus depends on
the mother for food and oxygen, and to get rid of its waster products.
 - After the exchange of substances, foetal blood containing oxygen and food is
carried back to the heart of the foetus by the umbilical vein.

- As the exchange of substances occurs by diffusion, any molecule which is

small enough will be able to cross from the maternal blood to the foetal blood.

- Thus harmful substances such as alcohol, nicotine, drugs, lead particles,

viruses such as the rubella virus and human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] are
able to cross the placenta into the foetus.

- Hence, it is important for the mother to be careful with what she takes and
does during pregnancy.

- It is important for the foetus to have a separate circulatory system from the
mother’s. If the foetus has a blood group which is not compatible with the
mother’s, the mixing of their blood could lead to agglutination and death.
- The placenta functions in the exchange of substances between the foetus
and the mother. - A separate circulatory system prevents larger microorganisms like bacteria
from entering the foetal blood.
- The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord. The umbilical
cord contains two umbilical arteries and an umbilical vein. - A separate circulatory system also protects the foetus from the high pressure
of maternal blood.
- In the placenta, the umbilical arteries branch into a network of blood
capillaries in the trophoblastic villi of the placenta. Table 4.12 Functions of the placenta in foetal development

- Surrounding villi is a space filled with maternal blood.

- In the placenta, foetal blood and maternal blood do not mix. They are
separated by only two layers of cells. This facilitates diffusion.

-
Oxygen, food and some antibodies diffuse from the maternal blood into the
foetal blood.

Carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste products diffuse from the foetal
blood into the maternal blood and are excreted by the mother.
4.4 The contribution of Science and Technology to Human Reproduction - Intrauterine devices are made from either plastic, copper or stainless steel.
They come in various shapes such as T-shape, loop or coil. Intrauterine devices
[1] Some couples may wish to start a family soon after marriage. Some may want are inserted into the uterus by doctors. They prevent conception by preventing
to postpone it due to their careers or other reasons. the implantation of the embryo.
[a] Natural Method
- By using a diaphragm
- Ovulation occurs around day 14 of the menstrual cycle.

- The period between day 12 and 16 of the menstrual cycle is considered the
‘fertile period’.

- Avoiding sex during this period helps couples to prevent conception.

- Alternatively, a female can detect ovulation by measuring her body - A diaphragm is a dome-shaped structure made of rubber. It is placed at the
temperature daily. cervix to prevent sperms from entering the uterus.
- Ovulation is accomplished by a rise in body temperature. - By using a condom

- Having sex during this fertile period increases the chance of conception.

Table 4.13 Natural Methods of conception

[b] Mechanical methods

- By using an intrauterine device [IUD].

- A condom is a rubber sheath worn by the male to prevent sperms from

entering the female reproductive system.

- Besides prevent the spreading of sexually transmitted diseases, including

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Table 4.14 Mechanical Methods of conception

 [c] Chemical methods - Sterilisation of the male

- By taking oral contraceptive pills

-To sterilise a male, the vas deferens is tied and then cut. This is known as
-Contraceptive pills contain oestrogen and progesterone. These hormones can vasectomy. Sperms are still being produced by the testes but are unable to
prevent the formation of follicles in the ovaries, and thus prevent conception. reach the urethra. They disintegrate and are eventually reabsorbed. Seminal
A contraceptive pill is eaten every day for 21 days. The intake is then stopped fluid is still produced but does not contain sperms.
for seven days. During this period, menstruation occurs. After menstruation,
the intake of the pill is resumed. - Sterilisation of the female

- By using spermicides

- Tubal ligation is a method in which the Fallopian tube is ligated [tied] and cut.
- Spermicides are chemicals applied on the vagina to kill sperms. Spermicides Sperms are unable to reach the ovum. Hence, fertilisation does not occur.
are available in the form of gel, cream, foam, tablets or sprays.
Table 4.16 Surgical Methods of conception
Table 4.15 Chemical Methods of conception
[2] There are some moral issues related to the application of science and
[d] Surgical methods technology in contraception. Availability of contraceptive measures may
- Prevent conception in a permanent way. The effects of sterilisation are not encourage premarital sex. The use of IUD to prevent implantation of blastocyst,
reversible and thus the decision must be well thought out. which is considered a new life, is also questionable.
4.4 [1] Sperm bank [6] A baby born by this technique is called a test tube baby.

[1] Sperms from donors can be kept alive in cold storage in a sperm bank.

[2] These sperms can be used for artificial insemination by couples having sterility
problems.

[3] Again, moral issues arise as sperms from high achievers and physically
attractive donors are preferred over less favourable ones.

4.4 [2] Artificial Insemination

[1] In this technique, an instrument is used to inject semen into the uterus of a
female during her ovulation so that she can conceive.

[2] No copulation is involved.

[3] Artificial insemination enables a female who has no husband, or whose

husband is sterile, to have a baby, using sperms from other males obtained from
the sperm bank. Hence, artificial insemination enables a female to have a child
without having sexual relationship with a man.

[4] Artificial insemination also enables a female whose husband has passed away
to conceive by using the late husband’s sperms that had previously been stored in
the sperm bank.

4.4 [3] in vitro fertilisation

[1] ‘In vitro’ means ‘outside the body’.

[2] In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is used to overcome sterility caused by blockage in

the Fallopian tubes.

[3] The female concerned is given daily injections of hormones to stimulate the
production of ova. Surgery is then carried out to extract an ovum.

[4] The ovum is placed in a Petri dish containing the husband’s sperms. The Petri
dish is filled with culture medium and is incubated for a few hours.

[5] Fertilisation occurs in the Petri dish. The embryo formed is then implanted
into the female’s uterus by using a catheter. Here, the embryo continues with its
development as in normal conception.
 4.4 [5] Sexually transmitted diseases

[1] Sexually transmitted diseases are also known as venereal disease. They are
spread through sexual contact.

[a] Syphilis

[b] Gonorrhoea

Table 4.17 in vitro fertilisation

4.4 [4] Surrogate mother

[c] AIDS [caused by the human immune-deficiency virus [HIV]

[1] A female whop is unable to conceive due to abnormalities of the uterus may
consider engaging the service of a surrogate mother. The surrogate mother is a
woman who gives birth to a baby for another woman who is unable to conceive.

[2] The female’s ovum is fertilised in vitro using her husband’s sperm. The embryo
Table 4.18 Examples of Sexually transmitted diseases
formed is then implanted into te uterus of the surrogate mother to continue its
development.

[3] Woman who are unable to produce an ovum may use the surrogate mother’s VIVA ACADEMY 2019 COPYRIGHT RESERVED
ovum to have a child. In this case, artificial insemination.