UNIT-III

SYLLABUS:
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: Resources, types of wells, methods of harnessing the energy.
OCEAN ENERGY: OTEC, Principles of utilization, setting of OTEC plants, thermodynamic
cycles. Tidal and wave energy: Potential and conversion techniques.

GEOTHERMAL SOURCE

QUESTIONS:
1. What is the geothermal energy potential in India? Explain
2. Why has geothermal energy gained popularity in recent times? Why should we
carefully utilize geothermal resources?
3. Define geothermal energy and explain the sources of Geothermal Energy

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
● It is thermal energy in the Earth's crust which originates from the formation of the planet
and from radioactive decay of materials in currently uncertain but possibly roughly
equal proportions.
● The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and
solid mantle to behave plastically. This results in parts of the mantle convecting upward
since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary can
reach over 4000 °C (7200 °F).
● Geothermal energy is classified as renewable because the earth’s interior is almost as
inexhaustible as solar, wind energy, so long as its sources are actively sought and
economically tapped.

Fig: Magma Fig: Inside the earth

 ● Geothermal source as “all of the heat stored in the earth’s crust above 15°C to a depth of
10 km.” It occurs when the immense heat energy in the core of earth rises closer to the
surface of the earth due to cracks or faults as accounted by the “Plate Tectonics Theory”,
in the crust and heats the surrounding rock.
● These hot spots can be liquid dominated, vapor dominated, Petro thermal or geo pressure
systems.
● These in turn are tapped artificially to use the vast stored heat energy, for power generation
and several other uses, depending upon the temperature of occurrence and other
parameters.
● Hot molten (or partially molten) rock, called “Magma” is commonly present at depths
greater than 24 to 40 km. In some places, however, anomalous geologic conditions cause
the magma to be pushed up toward the surface, in an active volcano; the magma actually
reaches the surface, where heat of the magma is being conducted upward through an
overlying rock layer. Magma is composed of hot molten rock and is stored in the Earth's
crust.
● Lava is magma that reaches the surface of our planet through a volcano vent.

Fig. Typical geothermal field

In typical geothermal field:

1. The hot magma (molten mass) near the surface (A) solidifies into igneous rock (B).
(Igneous rock found at the surface is called volcanic action rock).
2. The heat of the magma is conducted upward to this igneous rock. Ground water that finds
its way down to this rock through fissures in it will be heated by the heat of the rock or by
mixing with hot gases and steam emanating from the magma.
3. The heated water will then rise convectively upward and into a porous and permeable
reservoir (C) above the igneous rock.
4. The reservoir is capped by a layer of impermeable solid rock (D) that traps the hot water
in the reservoir. The solid rock, however, has fissures (E) that act as vents of the giant
underground boiler. The vents show up at the surface as geysers fumarols (F) (steam is
continuously vented through fissure in the ground, these vents are called fumarols) or hot
springs (G).
5. A well (H) taps stem from the fissures for use in a geothermal plant.
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES/ METHODS OF HARNESSING
THE ENERGY:
QUESTIONS:
1. Enumerate the various methods of harnessing geothermal energy. Explain any one method in detail.
2. Explain the methods of harnessing Geothermal energy.
3. Explain the different types of wells in geothermal energy conversion.
a) Hydrothermal (Vapor dominated systems & Liquid dominated systems),
b) Geo pressured systems,
c) Petro thermal systems or Hot Dry Rocks (HDR),
d) Magma resources.
(a). Hydrothermal systems:
● Water is heated by contact with the hot rocks. Hydrothermal resources arise when water
has access to high temperature rocks, accounts for the description as “hydrothermal”.
● These are wet reservoirs at moderate depths containing steam and/or hot water under
pressure at temperatures up to about 350°C. These systems are further subdivided,
depending upon whether steam or hot water is the dominant product.
● Hydrothermal resources represent only a small fraction of the potential geothermal
resources, but they are the only ones that have been utilized commercially so far. If the
temperature is high enough, the water or steam can be used to generate electricity,
otherwise the geothermal energy is best supplied to process and space heating.
● The heat is transported from the hot rocks by circulating movement (i.e., by convection of
the water in a porous medium).

Fig; Hydrothermal convective region

● The molten rock (magma), raised by internal earth forces is overpaid by an impervious
rock formation, through which heat is conducted upward. Above this is a permeable layer
into which water has penetrated, often from a considerable distance, the permeability could
result from fractures or intergranular pores.
● The heat taken up by the water from the rocks below, is transferred by a convection to a
layer of impervious rocks above, (In convection, the heated water rises, because of its lower
density, and then descends when it is cooled by transferring heat to the colder rocks above).
● Hydro thermal resources are subdivided into
1. Vapor dominated (Dry steam) and
2. Liquid dominated (Wet steam) types
 Vapor dominated systems Liquid dominated systems
● In Vapor dominated systems, the wells ● In liquid dominated systems, the wells
deliver steam with little or no liquid produce a mixture of steam and hot
water usually temperatures of about water.
1500C to 2500C ● Hot water circulating and trapped
● Water is vaporized into steam that underground is at a temperature range
reaches the surface in relatively dry 175 to 315oC.
conditions at about 200oC and rarely ● When tapped by wells drilled in the right
above 7kg/cm3 (8 bar). places and to the right depths, the water
● Suitable for use in turbo electric power flows naturally to the surface or is
plants, with the least cost. pumped upto it.
● Suffer problems from presence of ● Power production is adversely effected
corrosive gases and erosive material and by dissolved solids because they
environmental problems precipitate and cause scaling in pipes
and heat exchanger surfaces, thus
reducing flow and heat transfer.
● Liquid dominated systems, are much
more plentiful than vapor dominated
systems,
● Require the least extension of
technology.

Fig: Vapor Dominated System Fig: Liquid Dominated System

(b). Geo-pressured systems:
● These resources occur in large, deep sedimentary basins.
● The reservoirs contain moderately high temperature water (or brine) under very high
pressure.
● They are of special interest because substantial amounts of methane CH4 (natural gas) are
dissolved in the pressurized water (or brine) and are released when the pressure is reduced.
● Geo-pressured water is tapped in much deeper underground aquifers (it is a water-bearing
stratum of permeable rock, gravel or sand), at depths between about 2400 to 9000 m. This
water is thought to be at the relatively low temperature of about 160°C and is under very
high pressure, from the overlying formation above, of about 1050 kg/cm2 (more than 1000
bar).
● They could be used for the generation of electric power and the recovery of natural gas if
suitable technology could be developed and if individual reservoir productivity and
longevity prove to be adequate.
(c). Hot Dry Rocks Resources or Petro thermal Systems:
● It is composed of hot dry rock but no underground water.
● These are very hot solid rocks occurring at moderate depths but to which water does not
have access, either because of the absence of ground-water or the low permeability of the
rock (or both).
● In order to utilize this resource, means must be found for breaking up impermeable rock at
depth, introducing cold water, and recovering the resulting hot water (or steam) for use at
the surface.
● The known temperatures of HDR vary between 150 to 290°C.
● In order to extract thermal energy out of it, fracturing (either high presser water or nuclear
explosives), and water will have to be pumped into it and back out to the surface.
● It is necessary for the heat transport mechanism that a way is found to render the
impermeable rock into a permeable structure with a large heat transfer surface.

Fig: Heat extraction from hot dry rocks

(d). Magma resources:
● These consist of partially or completely molten rock, with temperatures in excess of 650°C,
which may be encountered at moderate depths, especially in recently active volcanic
regions.
● These resources have a large geothermal energy content, but they are restricted to a
relatively few locations.
● Furthermore, the very high temperatures will make extraction of the energy a difficult
technological problem.

Selection of Site for a Biogas Plant

Following factors must be considered while selecting the site for a biogas plant.
(i) Distance: The distance between the plant and the site of gas consumption, should be less in
order to achieve economy in pumping of gas and minimizing gas leakage. For a plant of capacity
2 mg, the optimum distance is 10 m.
(ii) Minimum gradient: For conveying the gas a minimum gradient of 1% must be made vailable
for the line.
(iii) Open space: The sunlight should fall on the plant as temperature between 150C to 300C is
essential for gas generation at good rate.
(iv) Water table: The plant is normally constructed underground for ease of charging the feed and
unloading slurry requires less labor. In such cases care should be taken to prevent the seepage of
water and plant should not be constructed if the water table is more than 10 ft. (3 m).
(v) Seasonal run off Proper care has to be taken to prevent the interference of run-off water during
the monsoon. Intercepting ditches or bunds may be constructed.
(vi) Distance from wells: The seepage of fermented slurry may pollute the well water. Hence a
minimum of 15 m should be maintained from the wells.
(vii) Space requirements: Sufficient space must be available for day-to-day operation and
maintenance. As a guideline 10 to 12 m2 area is needed per mg of the gas.
(viii) Availability of water: Plenty of water must be available as the cow dung slurry with a solid
concentration of 7% to 9% is used.

QUESTIONS:
1. Discuss the advantages, disadvantages and applications of geothermal energy.

Advantages of geothermal energy:

1. Environmentally Friendly
Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than conventional fuel sources such as coal
and other fossil fuels. In addition, the carbon footprint of a geothermal power plant is low. While
there is some pollution associated with geothermal energy, this is relatively minimal when
compared to fossil fuels.
2. Renewable
It is a renewable, carbon-free, and sustainable source of energy. The Earth will continuously
transmit heat from its core for billions of years.
3. Huge Potential
Worldwide energy consumption is currently around 15 terawatts, which is far from the total
potential energy available from geothermal sources. While we can’t currently use most reservoirs
there is a hope that the number of exploitable geothermal resources will increase with ongoing
research and development in the industry.
4. Sustainable / Stable
Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as compared to other renewable resources such
as wind and solar power. This is because the resource is always available to be tapped into, unlike
with wind or solar energy.
5. Heating and Cooling
Effective use of geothermal for electricity generation requires water temperatures of over 150°C
to drive turbines. Alternatively, the temperature difference between the surface and a ground
source can be used. Due to the ground being more resistant to seasonal heat changes than the air,
it can act as a heat sink/ source with a geothermal heat pump just two meters below the surface.
6. Reliable
Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does not fluctuate in the same way
as other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This means we can predict the power output from
a geothermal plant with a high degree of accuracy.
7. No Fuel Required
Since geothermal energy is a naturally occurring resource, there is no fuel required, such as with
fossil fuels that are a finite resource which needs mining or otherwise extracting from the earth.
8. Rapid Evolution
There is a great deal of exploration into geothermal energy at the moment, meaning that new
technologies are being created to improve the energy process. There are an increasing number of
projects to improve and grow this area of industry. With this rapid evolution many of the current
cons of geothermal energy will be mitigated against.

Disadvantages of geothermal energy:

1. Location Restricted
The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is location specific. Geothermal
plants need to be built in places where the energy is accessible, which means that some areas are
not able to exploit this resource.
2. Environmental Side Effects
The construction of geothermal sites may be hazardous for the environment as the process may
discharge highly toxic gases like Sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. However, these gas
emissions are still far lower than those associated with fossil fuels.
3. High Costs
It is hard for developing countries to build thermal plants because of their high initial cost
4. Sustainability
In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to be pumped back into
the underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that geothermal energy needs to
be properly managed to maintain its sustainability.
Applications of geothermal energy:
Electricity Production:
• Geothermal energy extracted from Earth through dry steam technique. Steam from hot water
is converted into power using the turbine and generator then injected back into the Earth's
surface after cooling down.
• This renewable source of energy generates through three different techniques, i.e., dry steam,
binary and flash.
Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHP):
• This GHP system is made with a pump and a loop of pipes implanted in the ground that
transfers heat energy between the surface air and Earth. The GHPs help draws warm air from
a building to cool them down during summer. On the contrary, it warms the buildings in the
winter season.
• heating buildings through district heating systems in which they directly transport hot water
through springs to buildings via pipelines.
Direct Uses
• The direct uses of geothermal energy are using heated water from the ground. of some
swimming pools, spas and greenhouses.
• It is the most common application of geothermal energy in which low-temperature geothermal
resources are used, such as natural hot springs, therapeutic spas, aquaculture ponds, and
greenhouses. Also, it is an excellent source for cooking, milk pasteurization, drying fruit,
vegetables, and timber in industries.
 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC):

● The temperature gradient can be utilized in a heat engine to generate power. This is called
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC).
● This energy form has very low efficiency and has very high capital cost, because the
temperature difference is small even in tropics.
● The conversion of solar energy stored as heat in the ocean into electrical energy by making
use of the temperature difference between the warm surface water and the colder deep
water.
● The facilities proposed for achieving this conversion are commonly referred to as OTEC
plants or sometimes as solar sea power plants (SSPP). Since the ocean waters are heated
by the sun, they constitute a virtually in-exhaustible source of energy.
● Unlike direct solar energy, the ocean energy is available continuously rather than only in
the daytime.
● Solar energy absorption by the water takes place according to Lambert’s law of absorption,
which states that each layer of equal thickness absorbs the same fraction of light that passes
through it. Mathematically
𝑑𝐼(𝑥)
− = 𝐾𝐼 => 𝐼(𝑥) = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐾𝑥
𝑑𝑥
● Where, I0and I(x) are the intensities of radiation at the surface (x = 0) and at a distance x
below the surface.
● K is an extinction coefficient (or absorption coefficient) is
1. 0.05 m-1for very clear fresh water,
2. 0.27 m-1 for turbid fresh water and
3. 0.50 m-1 for very salty water.
Principles of utilization:
● The operation of the OTEC plant is based on a well-established physical (thermodynamic)
principle.
● If a heat source, is available at a higher temperature and a heat sink at a lower temperature,
it is possible in principle, to utilize the temperature difference in a machine or prime mover
(e.g., a turbine) that can convert part of the heat taken up from the source into mechanical
energy and hence into electrical energy.
● The residual heat is discharged to the sink at the lower temperature.
● In the OTEC system, the warm ocean surface water is the heat source and the deep colder
water provides the sink.
Site selection:
1. In selecting a site for an OTEC facility, the primary consideration is, of course, a significant
temperature difference—at least about 20°C between surface and deep ocean waters (for
700-900 m depth or more) that will permit year-round operation. The greater the difference,
the lower will be the cost of generating electricity. The best sites are in the tropical belt
between about 20°N and 20°S latitude.
2. In choosing a site, consideration should be given to the potential for bio-fouling effects as
noted earlier.
3. As a general rule, an OTEC plant would be located offshore in order to provide access to
the deep colder water.
 4. However, an ideal situation might be one where the shoreline dropped steeply to a
considerable depth.
5. Most of the installation could then be more conveniently build on land.

Setting of OTEC plants:

QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the setting of OTEC plants with necessary diagram

● Special technical requirements for onshore OTEC plants and because of the limited market
potential (at least in the near term) for OTEC electricity at such sites.
● Onshore OTEC power plants will be viable mainly at locations where three requirements
are all simultaneously satisfied with satisfactory economics:
1. Coastal zone land must be available,
2. Sea floor must descend sufficiently rapidly from the shore-based plant location; and
3. The seasonal availability of warm and cold water without undue gradation by the warm
and cold-water effluents from the OTEC plant must meet certain criteria. In any event, it
is probable that available and attractive on shore and near shore OTEC power plant
locations will be populated early in the development and implementation of the OTEC
concept, both as convenient locations for pilot and demonstration plants and because they
will constitute attractive intermediate markets for OTEC electricity and by-products.
Methods of ocean thermal electric power generation:

QUESTIONS:
1. Explain OTEC open and closed cycles.
2. Describe the open cycle OTEC system with a neat sketch. List out the
problems associated with OTEC system.
3. What is OTEC? Describe open cycle Claude OTEC plant with help of flow
diagram and T-S diagram?
4. Explain the potential energy and conversion techniques of OTEC.

There are two different methods for harnessing ocean thermal differences.
1. Open cycle, also known as the Claude cycle, and
2. Closed cycle system, also known as the Anderson cycle.
Open cycle system:

Fig: Schematic of an OTEC open cycle system

● In the open cycle turbine system, water is the working fluid.

● The warm surface water is caused to boil by lowering the pressure, without supplying any
additional heat.
● The low-pressure steam produced then drives a turbine, and the exhaust steam is condensed
by the deep colder water and is discarded.
● A heat exchanger is not required in the evaporator, and direct contact between the exhaust
steam and a cold-water spray makes a heat exchanger as necessary in the condenser.
● On the other hand, because of the low energy content of the low-pressure steam, very large
turbines or several smaller units operating in parallel would be required to achieve a useful
electric power output.
Closed cycle system:

Fig: Schematic of an OTEC closed cycle system

 ● Closed cycle known as the Rankine cycle, uses a working fluid with higher vapour
pressure.
● In the closed cycle system, a liquid working fluid, such as ammonia or propane, is
vaporized in an evaporator (or boiler); the heat required for vaporization is transferred from
the warm ocean surface to the liquid by means of a heat exchanger.
● The high-pressure vapor leaving the evaporator drives an expansion turbine, similar to a
steam turbine that is designed to operate at a lower inlet pressure. The turbine is connected
to an electric generator in the usual manner.
● The low-pressure exhaust from the turbine is cooled and converted back into liquid in the
condenser.
● The cooling is achieved by passing cold, deep ocean water, from a depth of 700 to 900 m
or more, through a heat exchanger.
● The liquid working fluid is then pumped back as high-pressure liquid to the evaporator,
thus closing the cycle.
● This cycle is favored for future development in expectation of higher efficiency.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Ocean Thermal Energy:

QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of OTEC

Advantages of Ocean Thermal Energy:

1. Renewable Energy: OTEC is among the various green energy sources that are gaining a
presence in some countries worldwide. Oceans are in full accessibility with about zero
chances of ever running out. Also, the variance in temperatures in the ocean bodies will
almost always occur. This causes the generation of ocean thermal energy to be renewable.
Thus, we can generate electricity for a lifetime without this source draining.
2. Clean energy: Nowadays, we might notice that many countries are trying to go green. That
doesn’t apply to just tree planting but also to electrical power production. Clean energy
production is an aim of the future for numerous countries. Ocean thermal energy is one of
the common kinds of clean energy. The floating OTEC plants don’t need coal, natural, or
any other fossil fuels to run, and thus the generation of electricity is through the water.
3. Reliable: Even though we may get tempted to become excited over renewable energy
production, some of the production techniques might prove unreliable. Due to weather
variations, electrical generation techniques like wind or solar power can be inaccurate.
Therefore, ocean thermal energy is a reliable source of energy due to having minimal
variations. Hence, firms that provide ocean thermal energy don’t have to search for
substitute techniques for electricity generation.
4. Environmentally friendly: The ocean thermal energy plants are mainly situated in the sea
and away from human settlements. This makes sure that there is no interaction among the
dense human population on the land and the energy plant. Also, hence it doesn’t need any
usage of fossil fuels for production; it encourages the status of the environment and
especially the atmosphere. We can thus get purer air when we adapt to ocean thermal
energy production.
5. Low Maintenance: Many of us would like to buy something long-lasting with little or no
maintenance. Ocean thermal energy plants have such qualities. The machinery utilized,
once it is installed, needs low maintenance. Also, the team wanted to achieve these floating
OTEC plants that are primarily minor and hence cheap.
 6. Independent of Weather: We know that the ocean thermal energy power plants are
situated in the water. Only the top portion appears like it is floating on the water. Therefore
the weather doesn’t significantly affect these plants and is known to be a hurricane and all
weather-proof.

Disadvantages of Ocean Thermal Energy:

1. The locality of Production: Just as with other energy generation techniques, we know
many suitable places for this energy harnessing. This is a disadvantage to some countries
with a coastal line or even landlocked nations.
2. High Commencing Cost: We can see that the price to obtain and fix the required devices
for controlling OTEC is relatively high. As we are at a time when the standards of living
are high in many countries, establishing ocean thermal energy plants might be limited to
some of our countries. And it might need a large number of professionals to install the
plant.
3. Interfere with navigation: The ocean thermal plant might appear as though it is floating
on the water, but it has an enlarged and massive construction beneath the water. Large ships
might experience difficulties in navigation with the floating body nearby.
4. Slight temperature difference: The discrepancy in temperatures between surface water
and deep water might be small. So, this may generate electric energy with moderate
efficiency. It can also be very costly to small electricity businesses that depend on this form
of energy production.
5. Large size turbines with expensive liquid: The ocean thermal energy plant might need
large sizes of turbines. These plants employ massive turbines because of the low stress in
the boiling propene. The disadvantage comes in when the prices of turbines might be
unaffordable and huge.
6. Harmful on Marine life: The ocean thermal energy plant has pipes running down to the
deepest parts of the ocean. Thus, we can see that these pipes might disturb marine life.
Also, small water animals might get drawn by force to the pipes through the pumping action
of the water.

Thermodynamic cycle:
QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the thermodynamic cycle of oceans.

 The cycle is named after Scottish engineer William John Macquorn Rankine, who created
it in the middle of the 19th century.
 A thermodynamic cycle consists of linked sequences of thermodynamic processes that
involve transfer of heat and work into and out of the system, while varying pressure,
temperature, and other state variables within the system, and that eventually returns
the system to its initial state
 In the process of passing through a cycle, the working fluid (system) may convert heat
from a warm source into useful work, and dispose of the remaining heat to a cold sink,
thereby acting as a heat engine.
 Thermodynamic cycles are used to explain how heat engines, which convert heat into work,
operate.
 A thermodynamic cycle is used to accomplish this. The application determines the kind of
cycle that is employed in the engine.
  The thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of interrelated thermodynamic processes
involving heat and works going in and out of the body, simultaneously changing pressure,
temperature, and other changes in body state, and eventually returning to the initial state.
 The thermodynamic cycle is a closed cycle that has many changes due to temperature,
pressure, and volume, but whose end and initial states are equal.
 This cycle is important because it allows the piston in the engine to move continuously and
the fluid working in the refrigerator to expand/compress.
Types of Thermodynamic Cycle:
 There are various types of cycles in thermodynamics, and some of those important cycles
are listed as follows:
1. Carnot Cycle
2. Rankine Cycle
3. Otto Cycle
4. Diesel Cycle
5. Brayton Cycle
6. Stirling Cycle
Rankine Cycle:
 A steam turbine’s method of converting heat into mechanical work is described by the
Rankine cycle, a thermodynamic cycle.
 The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamically reversible cycle, which means that all of the
heat input may be converted back into labour.
 Friction, heat transmission, and other variables cause losses in practice nevertheless.
 As a result, the Rankine cycle’s efficiency is normally between 30 and 40%.
 Step 1: Isentropic compression
Within a pump, the working fluid (water) is compressed from low pressure to high
pressure. Since no heat is added to or lost from the fluid during this isentropic process.
 Step 2: Heat addition
The heated compressed water is next converted to steam by vaporization in a boiler. A
combustion process, such as burning coal or natural gas, is usually used to generate heat.
 Step 3: Isentropic expansion
A turbine expands the steam, turning its thermal energy into mechanical work.
Additionally, since no heat is added to or taken from the fluid, this process is isentropic.
 Step 4: Condensation
After that, a condenser converts the steam back into water. In this process, heat is released
and often transmitted to a cooling medium like water or air.
Applications:
 Thermal Power Plant
 Nuclear power Plant
 Solar Thermal Power Plants (STP)
 Geothermal Power Plants
 Ocean Thermal power plants (OTEC)
 TIDES
Introduction:

QUESTIONS:
1. Briefly explain the difference between wave and tide.
2. Explain the difference of wave and tide in brief.
3. What is a tide and justify the underlying phenomenon how a tide is formed.
Tide: It’s a periodic rise and fall of sea water levels which are carried by the action of the sun
and moon on the sea water of the earth.
● The large-scale up and down movement of sea water represents an unlimited source of
renewable energy.
● Surface water is pulled away from the earth on the side facing the moon, and at the same
time the solid earth is pulled away from the water on the opposite side. Thus, high tides
occur in these two areas with low tides at intermediate points.
● As the earth rotates, the position of a given area relative to the moon changes, and so also
do the tides. There is thus a periodic succession of high and low tides.
● Although there are exceptions, two tidal cycles (i.e., two high tides and two low tides)
occur during a lunar day of 24 hours and 50 minutes.
● The time between high tides and low tide at any given location is a little over 6 hours. A
high tide will be experienced at a point which is directly under the moon.
● At the same time, a diametrically opposite point on the earth’s surface also experiences a
high tide due to dynamic balancing. Thus, a full moon as well as a no moon produces a
high tide.
Lunar day: It is the apparent time of revolution of the moon about the earth.
Semidiurnal tides: In a period of 24 hours 50 minutes, there are therefore, two high tides and two
low tides. These are called semidiurnal tides
Tidal Range:
● Difference between high and low water levels
● R=water elevation at high tide- water elevation at low tide=A-B

● At times near a full or new moon, when the sun, moon and earth are approximately in a
line, the gravitational forces of the sun and moon enhance each other.
Spring tides: The tidal range is then exceptionally large; the high tides are higher and low tides
are lower than the average. These high tides are called spring tides,
Neap tides: near the first and third quarters of the moon, when the sun and moon are at right angles
with respect to the earth, neap tides occur.
● The tidal range is then exceptionally small; the high tides are lower and the low tides higher
than the average. Hence the range is not constant. It varies during the 29.5-day lunar month
 being maximum at the time of new and full moons, called the spring tides, and minimum
at the time of the first and third quarter moons, called the neap tides.
● The spring neap tidal cycle lasts one-half of a lunar month. A typical mean range is roughly
one third of the spring range.
● The actual variations in range are somewhat complicated by seasonal variations caused by
the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit around the sun

PRINCIPLE OF TIDAL POWER:

QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the principle of working of a simple tidal energy conversion plant.
2. Explain the principle of Tidal energy extraction.

Fig: During High Tide Fig: During Ebb (Low) Tide

● At the time of high tide, sea water enters into the basin to be stored at a high level there.
● The same water can be let back into during the low tide through the turbine, thus producing
power.
 ● Since basin water level is high sea water is low, there is a differential head comparable to
the tidal range.

Components of tidal power plant:

There are three main components of a tidal power plant i.e.
a. The power house.
b. The dam or barrage (low wall) forms a pool or basin.
c. Sluice ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.

Fig: During High Tide Fig: During Ebb (Low) Tide

● The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment are the main equipment of
a power house.
● The function of a dam is to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or between one
basin and another in case of multiple basins.
● The sluice ways or gates are used either to fill the basin during high tide or empty basin
during the low tide as per operational requirements.
● The design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in either
direction.
● If reversible pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be taken over at any
time by the same machine. The modern tubular turbines are so versatile that they can be
used either as turbines or as pumps in either direction of flow.
● In addition, the tubular passages can also be used as sluice ways by locking the machine to
a standstill.
Operation Methods of Utilization of Tidal Energy:
QUESTIONS:

1. Describe the principle of working of a simple tidal energy conversion plant.

● The generation of electricity from water power requires that there should be a difference
in levels (or heads) between which water flows.
● The power generation from tides involves flow between an artificially developed basin and
the sea.
● Types of arrangements:
(1) Single basin arrangement,
(2) Double basin arrangement.
 Fig: Schematic layout of tidal Power House

(1). Single Basin Arrangement:

● In a single basin arrangement, there is only one basin interacting with the sea.
● Basin and sea water are separated by a dam (or barrage) and the flow between them is
through sluice ways located conveniently along the dam.

Fig: Schematic diagram of single basin arrangement

● Potential head is provided by rise and fall of tidal water levels, this is usually accomplished
by blocking the mouth of a long narrow estuary with a dam across it, thereby creating a
reservoir.
● The dam or barrage embodies a number of sluice gates and low head turbine sets.

Fig: During High Tide Fig: During Ebb (Low) Tide

● At the time of high tide, sea water enters into the basin to be stored at a high level there.
● The same water can be let back into during the low tide through the turbine, thus
producing power.
● Since basin water level is high sea water is low, there is a differential head comparable to
the tidal range.
● The generation of power can be achieved in a single basin arrangement either as a
(a) Single ebb cycle system,
(b) Single tide cycle system,
(c) Double cycle system
 Single ebb cycle system Single tide cycle system Double cycle system
● In a single ebb cycle system, the ● In a single tide cycle system, power ● In a Double cycle system,
reservoir is filled with sea water during generation is started during flood power generation is affected
high tide while turbine sets are shut; tide/high tide while the basin is filled during the ebb as well as in the
next water lets it back to the sea during with sea water. flood tide. In this generation of
low tide while turbine sets are in ● Plant will be large power is accomplished both
operation. ● suitable for off loads during emptying and filling
● Plant will be small ● power generation is intermittent cycles
● suitable for peak loads ● unidirectional turbine is required ● Plant will be small
● power generation is intermittent ● Power is generated during filling ● suitable for peak and off loads
● unidirectional turbine is required ● power generation is continuous
● reversible turbine is required
● Power is generated during emptying
● Power is generated during
filling and emptying
(2). Double basin arrangement:

Fig: Schematic arrangement of double basin arrangement

● In this system the turbines are located in between the two adjacent basins, while the sluice
gates are as usual embodied in the dam across the mouths of the two estuaries.
● At the beginning of the flood tide, the turbines are shut down, the gates of upper basin A
are opened and those of the lower basin B are closed.
● The basin A is thus filled up while the basin B remains empty. As soon as the rising water
level mA provides sufficient difference of head between the two basins, the turbines are
started. The water flows from A to B through the turbines, generating power. The power
generation thus continues simultaneously with the filling up of basin A.
● At the end of the flood tide when A is full and the water level in it is the maximum, its
sluice gates are closed.
● When the ebb tide level gets lower than the water level in B, its sluice gates are opened
whereby the water level in B, which was rising and reducing the operating head, starts
falling with the ebb.
● This continues until the head and water level in A is sufficient to run the turbines. With the
next flood tide the cycle repeats itself.
● With this twin basin system, a longer and more continuous period of generation per day is
possible.
● The small gaps in the operation of such stations can be filled up by thermal power.
Estimation of energy and power in simple single basin arrangement:

During the emptying process, the differential work done by the water is equal to its potential energy
at the time.
Considering a tidal range R, and intermediate head, at a given time, the amount of work is
calculated, considering a small head dh, for an intermediate head h.
dw = dm.g.h
but, dm = -ρ.A.dh
so that dw=-ρA.dh g h
Here,
w = work done by water (in kcal/kg or Joule)
g = gravitational constant
m = mass flowing through turbine (in kg)
h = head (in m)
ρ = water density (kg/m3)
A = basin surface area, considered constant ( in m2)
The total theoretical work during a full emptying (or filling) period is obtained by integrating the
expression i.e.
0 0
1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = −𝑔𝜌𝐴 ∫ ℎ𝑑ℎ = 𝑔𝜌𝐴𝑅 2
𝑅 𝑅 2

● The work is proportional to the square of the tidal range.

● The power is the rate of doing work.
The power is generated during emptying (or filling) and no power is generated during the rest of
the time.
The average theoretical power delivered by the water is W divided by the total time it takes each
period to repeat itself.
Duration is 6h, 12.5 minutes as shown in Fig (Here 6h 12.5 minutes = 22,350 seconds).
Thus, average theoretical power generated (in watts) in one filling or emptying of the basins:
𝑊 𝑔𝜌𝐴𝑅 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 × 22350
1
= 𝑔𝜌𝐴𝑅 2
44700

Assuming an average sea water density (ρ)= 1025 kg/m3,

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 1
Average power per unit basin area = 𝐴 = 44700 × 9.81 × 1025𝑅 2 = 0.225𝑅 2

For actual power generated by a practical system head can’t be zero.

When head reaches a minimum value which operation becomes uneconomical
𝑅 𝑅
1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑔𝜌𝐴 ∫ ℎ𝑑ℎ = 𝑔𝜌𝐴(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
𝑟 𝑟 2

Modified average power generated in one filling or emptying of the basins

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 1
= × 9.81 × 1025 (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) = 0.225(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
𝐴 44700

Estimation of power in double cycle system:

Let V=volume of the basin= Ah0
A=Average cross-sectional area of basin (in m2)
H0=Difference between max and min water levels
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴ℎ
Average discharge (Q) = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡 0
t=total duration of generation in one filling/emptying operation.
Power generated at any instant
𝜌𝑄ℎ 𝜌𝑄ℎ
𝑃= × 𝑛0 𝐻. 𝑃 = × 𝑛0 × 0.736𝑘𝑊
75 75
Assuming an average sea water density (ρ)= 1025 kg/m3,
h=available head at the instant,
𝑡 𝑡 𝜌𝑄ℎ
Total energy=∫0 𝑃𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 75 × 𝑛0 × 0.736𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑡 𝜌𝑄ℎ
Yearly power generation=∫0 × 𝑛0 × 0.705 𝑘𝑊 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
75
𝑡
Available head h is function of time and ∫0 ℎ 𝑑𝑡 can be obtained graphically

Site Requirements/Selection:
• The utilization of tidal energy requires construction of barrier across a narrow inlet to an
estuary or bay thus forming an enclosure or basin in which ocean water can be impounded.
• Electricity can be generated by allowing water to flow through a turbine from the basin
filled at high tide to the open ocean during falling tides and also as the basin is being filled
from the ocean during rising tides.
• In each case, the maximum amount of electrical energy that can be generated depends on
the product of the tidal range (R) and the mass (or volume) of water flowing through the
turbine.
• The volume is equal to the range multiplied by the area of the impounded water.
• Hence, the electrical energy is proportional to the square of the range and the area of the
enclosed basin.
• A favorable site for a tidal power plant should then have a large tidal range, and the
geographic features should permit enclosure of large areas with reasonably short dams or
other barrages. Sluice gates in the dams permit water to pass to or from the enclosed basin
(or basins).
Advantages of tidal power Generation:
1. Tidal energy is renewable / inexhaustible.
2. Tidal energy is free from pollution.
3. These plants do not demand large area of valuable land because are on the bays (sea
shores).
4. Peak power demand can be effectively met when it works in combination with thermal or
hydel power plant.
Disadvantages of tidal power Generation:
1. Sea water is corrosive and it was feared that the machinery may get corroded.
2. All methods of generating tidal power are the variability in output caused by the variations
in the tidal range.
3. The tidal ranges are highly variable and thus the turbines have to work on a wide range of
head variation. This affects the efficiency of the plant.
4. Since the tidal power generation depends upon the level difference in the sea and an inland
basin, it has to be an intermittent operation, feasible only at a certain stage of the tidal cycle.
This intermittent pattern could be improved to some extent by using multiple basins and a
double cycle system.
5. The tidal range is limited to a few meters. Thus, the bulb turbine technology was not well
developed, use of conventional Kaplan runners was the only alternative. This was found to
be unsuitable. Now with the development of reversible flow bulb turbines, this difficulty
is overcome.
6. The duration of power cycle may be reasonably constant but its time of occurrence keeps
in changing, introducing difficulties in the planning of the load sharing every day in a grid.
This handicap can be removed now with the help of computerized programming.
 WAVES
Introduction:

QUESTIONS:
1. Briefly explain the difference between wave and tide.
2. Explain the difference of wave and tide in brief.
● Sets of unbroken sine waves of irregular wave lengths, phase and directions.
● The power in the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude and to the period of
the motion.
E=Ek+Ep=1/4ρga2+1/4ρga2
𝑎2
𝐸 = 𝜌𝑔
√2
● Wave energy devices are designed to extract energy from deep water waves.
● Motion of waves in shallow sea water is elliptical.
● Motion of waves in deep sea water is circular.
● Very large energy fluxes can occur in deep sea water waves.
● The circular particle motion has an amplitude that decreases exponentially with depth and
becomes negligible for D>λ/2
D=Mean depth of sea water bed
λ=Wave length
Properties of deep-sea water:
● The surface waves are sets of unbroken sine waves of irregular wave lengths, phase and
directions.
● The motion of any particle of water is circular.
● Water on the surface remains on the surface.
● Amplitude of the water particle motion decreases exponentially with depth.
● For deep sea water waves, frictional, surface tension and inertial forces are small
compared to the two dominated forces of gravity and circular motion.
● A particle of water on the surface has a circular motion of radius equal to the amplitude
of the wave.
H =Wave height from top of a crest to the bottom of a trough
=Twice the amplitude =2a
a=Amplitude
ω=Angular velocity of water particle
● Particle motion in water waves. (a) Deep water, circular motion of water particles. (b)
Shallow water, elliptical motion of water particles.

Fig: (a) Deep Sea water (b) shallow sea water

● For deep water waves, frictional, surface tension and inertial forces are small compared
with the two dominant forces of gravity and circular motion.
● As a result, the water surface always takes up a shape so that its tangent lies perpendicular
to the resultant of these two forces. Water surface perpendicular to the resultant of
gravitational and centrifugal force acting on an element of water, mass m.

● A particle of water on the surface has a circular motion of radius a equal to the amplitude
of the wave. The wave height H from the top of a crest to the bottom of a trough is twice
the amplitude: H = 2a. The angular velocity of the water particles is ω (radian per second).
● The wave surface has a shape that progresses as a moving wave, although the water itself
does not progress. Along the direction of the wave motion the moving shape results from
the phase differences in the motion of successive particles of water. As one particle in the
crest drops to a lower position, another particle in a forward position circle up to continue
the crest shape and the forward motion of the wave.

● The resultant forces F on water surface particles of mass m are indicated in Figure below.
The water surface takes up the position produced by this resultant, so that the tangent to
the surface is perpendicular to F.
1. A particle at the top of a crest, position P1, is thrown upwards by the centrifugal
force ma2. A moment later the particle is dropping, and the position in the crest is
taken by a neighboring particle rotating with a delayed phase.
2. At P2 a particle is at the average water level, and the surface orientates
perpendicular to the resultant force F.
3. At the trough, P3, the downward force is maximum.
4. At P4 the particle has almost completed a full cycle of its motion.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
QUESTIONS:
1. Discuss the advantages and limitations of wave energy conversion.
Advantages:
1. It is a free and renewable energy source.
2. Wave power devices do not use up large land masses unlike solar or wind.
3. These devices are relatively pollution free and, because they remove energy from the
waves, leave the water in a relatively placid (calm) state in their wakes.
Disadvantages:
1. Wave energy converters must be capable of withstanding very severe peak stresses in
storms.
2. There is relatively scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity.
3. Wave energy conversion devices are complicated devices.
4. Wave periods are commonly ~5S to10S (frequency ~ 0.1Hz to 0.2Hz). It is extremely
difficult to couple this irregular slow motion to an electrical generator requiring ~500 times
greater frequency.
5. The major disadvantage of wave energy, as compared to wind, is that the energy is
available on the ocean. The extraction equipment must operate in a marine environment
with all that implies in terms of maintenance, construction cost, life time, and reliability.
The energy may have to be transported a greater distance to shore.
6. Economic factors such as the capital investment, costs of the marine, repair and
replacement as well as problems of biological growth of marine organisms are all relatively
unknown and seem to be on the large side.
WAVE ENERGY CONVERSION DEVICES/ CONVERSION
TECHNOLOGIES:
QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the wave energy conversion system with a neat sketch.
a) Wave Energy Conversion by Floats
b) High Level Reservoir Wave Machine
c) Dolphin Type Wave Power Machine:

(a). Wave Energy Conversion by Floats:

● In this conversion, the square float moves up and down with the water.
● It is guided by four vertical manifolds that are part of a platform. There are four large underwater
floatation tanks which stabilize the platform.
● Platform is supported by buoyancy forces and no vertical or horizontal displacement occurs due
to wave action. Thus, the platform is made stationary in space.
● A piston which is attached to float as shown in figure moves up and down inside a cylinder. The
cylinder is attached to the platform and is therefore relatively stationary. The piston and cylinder
arrangement is used as a reciprocating compressor.
● The downward motion of the piston draws air into the cylinder via an inlet check valve.
● This air is compressed by upward motion of the piston and is supplied to the four underwater
floatation tanks, through an outlet check valve via the four manifolds. In this way, the four
floatation tanks serve the dual purpose of buoyancy and air storage, and also the four vertical
manifolds and float guides.
● An air turbine is run by the compressed air which is stored in the buoyancy storage tanks, which
in turn drives an electrical generator, producing electricity which in then transmitted to the shore
via an underwater cable.

(b). High Level Reservoir Wave Machine:

● In this wave machine a magnification piston is used.
● The pressurized water is elevated to a natural reservoir above the wave generator, which would
have to be near a shore line, or to an artificial water reservoir.
● The water in the reservoir is made to flow through a turbine coupled to an electric generator, and
then back to sea level.
(c). Dolphin Type Wave Power Machine:

This device uses the float which has two motions:

1. The first is a rolling motion about its own fulcrum with the connecting rod. Revolving
movements are caused between the float and the connecting rod.
2. The other is a nearly vertical or heaving motion about the connecting rod fulcrum. It causes
relative revolving movements between the connecting rod and the stationary dolphin.
In both the cases, the movements are amplified and converted by gears into continuous rotary motions
that drive the two electrical generators.

Energy and Power in wave:

The characteristic of an ideal deep water surface wave (water depth more than about half the wave
length) in shown in figure.

Fig: (a) Deep Sea water (b) shallow sea water

Wave motion is expressed by
y=a sin(kx-ωt)
y=displacement above mean sea level in meters
a=amplitude in meters
λ=wavelength in meters
T=Period in seconds
t-time in seconds
k=2П/λ and ω2=2Пg/λ and ω =2П/T
Here
k is wave number
λ is wave length
ω is angular frequency
g is gravitational constant 9.81m/sec
T=Period in seconds

𝜔λ λ 𝜔 g
wave velocity in direction ‘x’ is given by 𝑣 = =𝑇= =𝜔
2𝜋 𝑘
Volume per unit width

dV=dx.1.dz= dx dz
Mass
dm=ρ dV
dm=ρ dx dz
(a). Kinetic Energy (Ek):
The contribution of element “dx” to Kinetic energy in vertical column from the seabed to the surface is
δEk dx=½ mv2
δEk dx =½ ( ρ dx dz )(rω)2
δEk dx =½ ρr2 ω2dz dx

δEk =½ ρr2 ω2dz

Radius of the circular orbit r=aekz

Where z is negative below surface
δEk=½ ρ a2 e2kz ω2dz
Total K.E
𝑧=0
1 2 2 2𝑘𝑧
𝛿𝐸𝑘 = ∫ 𝜌𝑎 𝜔 𝑒 𝑑𝑧
𝑧=−∞ 2

1 𝜔2 𝑎2
𝐸𝑘 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑘
Since k=2П/λ and ω2=2Пg/λ
Here
k is wave number
λ is wave length
ω is angular frequency
1 2 2Пg/λ
𝐸𝑘 = 𝜌𝑎
4 2П/λ
𝟏 𝟐
𝑬𝒌 = 𝝆𝒂 𝒈
𝟒
(b). Potential Energy (Ep):
Water mass(dm) for small element dx = ρ dx dz

Potential energy (δEp) for small element dx = m g h

δEp = (ρ dx dz) g 2z

Total potential energy (P)

x=λ/2 𝑧=ℎ
𝐸𝑝 = ∫ ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑔 2𝑧
𝑥=0 𝑧=0

x=λ/2 𝑧=ℎ
𝐸𝑝 = 2𝜌𝑔 ∫ ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑧=0

x=λ/2 𝑧=ℎ
𝑧2
𝐸𝑝 = 2𝜌𝑔 ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 2 𝑧=0

x=λ/2
𝑧=ℎ
[𝑧 2 ]𝑧=0
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0

x=λ/2
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0

AT t=0=>y=h=> h=a sin(kx-ωt) = a sin(kx)

x=λ/2
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ (asin (𝑘𝑥))2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0

x=λ/2
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑘𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0
 x=λ/2 1 − cos (2𝑘𝑥)
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 2

𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 x=λ/2
𝐸𝑝 = ∫ ( 1 − cos (2𝑘𝑥))𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥=0

𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 sin (2𝑘𝑥)) 𝑥=λ/2

𝐸𝑝 = [𝑥 − ]
2 2𝑘 𝑥=0

2𝑘λ
𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 λ − 0 sin ( 2 ) − sin (2𝑘 × 0)
𝐸𝑝 = [ − ]
2 2 2𝑘

Since k=2П/λ and ω2=2Пg/λ

𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 λ − 0 sin(2 × 180) − 0
𝐸𝑝 = [ − ]
2 2 2𝑘

𝜌𝑎2 𝑔 λ − 0 0 − 0
𝐸𝑝 = [ − ]
2 2 2𝑘

1
𝐸𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑎2
4
For unit wave length λ=1

𝟏
𝑬𝒑 = 𝝆𝒈𝒂𝟐
𝟒

𝝆𝒈𝒂𝟐 𝝆𝒈𝒂𝟐 𝝆𝒈𝒂𝟐

Total energy(E) per unit surface area= Ek+ Ep= + =
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐
𝝆𝒈𝒂𝟐 𝛌
Total energy(E) for wave length λ Eλ=E λ= 𝟐

Power(P):
Power carried forward per unit width of wave front:
𝜌𝑔𝑎2 𝑣
𝑃 = 𝐸𝑢 =
2 2
Where u=v/2 is called group velocity of deep-water waves
𝜌𝑔𝑎2 𝑔
𝑃 = 𝐸𝑢 =
2 2𝜔
𝜌𝑔𝑎2 𝑔 1
𝑃=
2 2𝜔
We know ω2=2Пg/λ and T=2П/ ω

𝜌𝑔2 2 𝜌𝑔√𝑔 2
𝑃= 𝑎 𝑇= 𝑎 √λ
8𝜋 4√2𝜋