Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machine

• When fluid is at rest - Shear force = 0 du

= velocity gradient
• Normal force ≠ 0 dy
⇓ dθ
• Negative normal force i.e. compressive force ⇒ Rate of shear strain or shear deformation.
dt
• Mohr's circle - Point
Dynamic Viscosity (µ)–
Note- Liquids are generally treated as incompressible τ
fluid but in case of water hammer, the liquid becomes µ=
du / dy
compressible.
Note- µHg > µH2O
• Gases are generally treated as compressible fluid that in
case of those application where (Ma ≤ 0.3) gas behaves µ H2O > µPetrol > µair
as incompressible fluid. Unit of Viscosity-
SI – N-s/m2 or Pa–s
Properties of Fluid
CGS – dyne–s/cm2
Properties Formula Unit Dimension M.K.S– kgf–s/m2
Density or m 1
Mass ρ= kg/m3 ML−3 1 poise = N–s/m2
Density V 10
Specific 1 Centipoise = 10-2 Poise
W mg N/m3 or
Weight or w= = = ρg
V V kg ML−2 T −2 Temperature Cause Dynamic
Weight
Density wwater = 9.81 × 1000 m 2s 2 Viscosity
Density or wt. density of substance For liquid T↑ Cohesion µ↓
SLiquid =
Density or wt. density of std.substance ↓
Specific Wt. density of liquid Dimension For gases T↑ Molecular µ↑
Unitless
Gravity = S×1000×9.81 N/m3 less
momentum
Density of liquid
exchange
= S×1000 kg/m3
↑
Specific V 1
v= = m3/kg M −1L3 Kinematic Viscosity–
Volume m ρ
Dynamic Viscosity µ
Bulk K= −dp dp υ= =
Modulus dV / V
=
dρ / ρ
N/m2 ML−1T −2 Mass Density ρ
Compressi 1 Unit- SI – m2/sec
β= M −1LT 2
bility K m2/N CGS – cm2/sec or stoke
F 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/sec or 1 cm2/sec
σ=
l
SI - 1 m2/sec = 104 stoke
Surface • At Critical Point N/m Note- υair > υwater
Tension σliquid = 0 CGS - MT −2
For liquid- surface tension ↓(decrease) with ↑
• σ H 2O / air = 0.0736 dyne/cm
(increase) in temperature.
N/m Excess Pressure-
SI - Pressure inside drop 4σ
Vapour Force  F N/m2 p=
 pv =  ML−1T −2 (solid like sphere) d
Pressure Area  A CGS -
dyne/cm2
Pressure inside bubble, 8σ
Newton’s Law of Viscosity– p=
(soap bubble) d
For (1 − D ) flow
du dθ Pressure inside liquid jet 2σ
τ=µ =µ  du dθ  p=
dy dt ∵  = σ = Surface tension d

 dy dt  d = diameter of bubble

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 112 YCT

 Capillarity- Non-Newtonian Fluid–
Capillary rise Capillary fall A. Time Independent-
• It takes place in case • It takes place in case (i) Dilatant  du 
n

of wetting fluid of non wetting fluid (Shear τ = µ  n >1

thickening  dy 
• Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion
fluid)  du   dθ 
Ex- H2O and glass Ex- Hg & glass µ↑  ↑  ↑
 
dy  dt 
Capillary is due to both cohesion and adhesion.
eg.– Slurry, Printing ink, dye, starch,
Rise or depression of liquid in capillary tube
molasses, Aqueous suspension.
4σ cos θ Quick sand, Sugar Solution, butter
h=
ρgd (ii) Bingham It behaves like Newtonian fluid but
Plastic after application of certain amount
θ = 00 for pure water and glass tube of shear stress.
θ = 1280 - 138º for mercury and glass tube
 du 
τ = τº + µ   n = 1
1  dy 
h∝
d
τ º = Yield shear stress or threshold
d↑ h↓ shear stress
d ≤ 6 mm = capillary tube e.g.– Water suspension of clay, fly
6 mm < d <15 mm ⇒ Piezometric tube ash, Creams, Toothpaste, Drilling
Muds
d ≥ 15mm ⇒ Pipe
(iii) Pseudo  du 
n
Wetting fluid Non wetting fluid τ = µ  n <1
Plastic
• Adhesion> Cohesion • Cohesion > Adhesion (Shear  dy 
• Contact angle (θ) ⇒ • θ > 90º [abtuse] thinning  du   dθ 
µ↓ ↑  ↑
θ < 90º [Acute] • Mercury and glass fluid)  
dy  dt 
• Water and glass e.g.– Paper pulp, Clay, Polymer
Types of Fluid– solutions, milk, blood, syrup
B. Time Dependent
Ideal Fluid Incompressible
(i) n
Non viscous  du 
Thixotropic τ = τº +µ  + f ( time) [decreasing function]
Perfectly rigid i.e. β =0 , K= ∞  dy 
Surface tension σ ≈ 0
e.g.–Lipstick, Printer inks, Enamels
Real Fluid It possess viscosity and Paint, Jelly
Compressibility (ii) n
 du 
Ideal plastic In this shear stress is more than yield value Rheopectic τ = τº + µ  + f ( time) [ Increasing function]
 dy 
Fluid du dθ
and shear stress (τ) ∝ or e.g.– Gypsum pastes and Bentonite
dy dt slurry
Newtonian In this type of fluid, shear stress is
Fluid directly proportional to rate of shear
strain or
Newtonian fluid does not change with
viscosity or with the rate of deformation
or shear strain.
Ex. Water, Kerosene, Petrol, Benzene,
Ethanol, Alcohol, Mercury.
Non- In this shear stress is not proportional to
Newtonian the rate of shear strain. This fluid does
Fluid not obey Newton's law of viscosity.

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 113 YCT

Unit of Pressure– Hydrostatic Law-

1Pa = 1N/m2 The rate of increase of pressure in vertical

1bar = 105 Pa = 100 KPa = 0.1 MPa direction is equal to weight density of the fluid
1atm = 101325Pa at that point.

kgf dP [vertically downward direction it is

1 = 9.81×104N/m2 =γ
cm 2 dz taken as positive]
1Psi = 6894.76 Pa
dP [vertically upward direction it is taken
1 Torr = 133.3 Pa =1 mm Hg = −γ
dz as negative]

Conversion of one liquid column to another liquid

column -

• ρ1 h1 = ρ2 h2

• S1 h1 = S2 h2

 p p
Pressure Head-  h = or 
 ρg w 

In vertically accelerated vessel

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge 1.  a
Pvaccum = Patm – P'abs = ρgh 1 + 
 g
Pascal's Law–
Pressure at a point in a fluid system is equally
distributed in all direction. It applied to fluid at rest. 2.  a
= ρgh 1 − 
px = py = pz  g

It will be valid in all those cases in which the shear

stress is zero and the only force present is normal
force. 3. < PB < PC

Cases for Pascal's law-

1. Moving fluid- (Ideal fluid) - µ = 0

dµ
τ =µ = 0 ⇒ pascal's law
dy
4.  a
2. Static fluid - (Real fluid) - = ρgh 1 − 
 g
 dµ   dµ 
  = 0 ⇒ τ = µ   = 0 = Pascal's law Pg = 0
 dy   dy 
3. Moving fluid (Real) – Fluid is moving with PA= 0
constant acceleration ⇒ τ = 0 PB = 0
4. Rotating fluid ⇒ Fluid is moving with a constant
PC = 0
velocity
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 114 YCT
 Micro manometer

Pressure measurement devices Curved FH = ρg ∫ h.dA sin θ

Piezometer • It measure only + ve gauge Surface
pressure
Fv = ρg ∫ h.dA cos θ
• It measures moderate gauge
pressure of liquid only
• It can not measure very FR = FH2 + Fv2
high pressure & the = wAx
pressure of gases.
Note- Location of center of pressure does not depend on
Inverted U tube • It is used for very low the density of fluid but the value of hydrostatic force
manometer pressure difference
depends on density of fluid.
measurement
Hydrostatic force of curved surfaces-
• Hg cann't be used as
manometric fluid [ FH = ρgAx ]
• Sm < S A - Projected Area
Micromanometer • For very high pressure x - Vertical distance of center of gravity of body
difference from free surface.
U tube • For very high pressure Resultant Force 'F' = (FH ) 2 + (Fv ) 2
differential difference Sm > S
manometer Fv– Weight of liquid block above curved surface.
Total pressure and center of pressure for Geometric properties of some important shapes-
submerged plane at different surface position- Plane Surface Center of Depth of
Surface Total Pressure Center of Gravity center of
Position Pressure (hcp) (C.G.) pressure
Horizontal F = ρgAX hcp = X (C.P.)
Position
Rectangle d 2d
= wAX x= h=
2 3
Vertical F = ρgAX IG
Position h cp = X +
AX
= wAX
Inclined F = ρgAX IG
Position h cp = X + Sin 2 θ
AX
= wAX

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 115 YCT

 Triangle 2h 3h Metacentric height,
x= h=
3 4 G.M. = B.M. – B.G.
Imin
= − B.G.
Vimmersed
Imin = M.O.I.
Metacentric Height for various ships-
Types of ship Metacentric height
Inverted Triangle h h Merchant ship < 1.0 m
x= h=
3 2 sailing ship < 1.50 m
Battle ship < 2.0 m
River boat < 3.50 m
Passenger ship 0.3 to 1.5 m
G.MCargo ship > G.MPassenger ship,
So cargo ship is less comfortable.
Circle d 5d
x= h= Time period of Oscillation–
2 8
k2
T = 2π
G.M × g
k = Least Radius of gyration
Metacentric height for rolling condition will be less
than Metacentric height for pitching condition.
Trapezium  a + 2b  h  a + 3b  h
x= h= Floating body rotation axis in different condition–
 a + b  3  a + 2b  2

Half circle 4r 2D 3πr 3πD

or or
3π 3π 16 32

• Rolling is the most dangerous.

Archimedes's Principle- Types of Fluid Flow–
When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a Steady Flow Fluid property like density, pressure,
liquid, it is lifted up by a force equal to the weight velocity does not change with time.
of liquid displaced by the body. ∂v ∂p ∂ρ
= 0, = 0, =0
FB = Weight of liquid displaced by the body ∂t ∂t ∂t
FB = ρf × Vfd × g Unsteady Flow Fluid property changes with time
∂v ∂p ∂ρ
Equilibrium condition for Submerged and floating ≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0
body– ∂t ∂t ∂t
Equilibrium Submerged Floating body Uniform Flow At a given time, fluid property does
condition body not change with respect to the space.
Stable B is above G M is above G  ∂v 
  =0
Unstable B is below G M is below G  ∂s  t = Constant
Neutral B and G coincide M and G • Pipe should be uniform cross
coincide section

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 116 YCT

Non-Uniform At a given time, velocity changes with
Flow respect to space- In general viscous flow are rotational
 ∂v  law
  ≠0
 ∂s  t = Constant Irrotational Fluid particle does not rotate about its
own axis in both circular as well as
• Non uniform - converging
straight line motion.
diverging
Local or It is the rate of increase of velocity
Laminar Flow Fluid particles move along well- Temporal with respect to the time at a given
defined path or stream line and all the
stream lines are straight and parallel. Acceleration point in a flow field
Adjacent layer does not cross each ∂u ∂v ∂w
, or Local acceleration
other. ∂t ∂t ∂t
It is also known as stream line Convective It is the rate of change of velocity due
flow or viscous flow.
Acceleration to the change of position of fluid in a
• It generally occurs at low velocity fluid flow.
Turbulent Fluid particle moves in a zig-zag or in Note- Steady flow + Irrotational flow = Potential flow.
Flow random order.
• Flow is compressible or incompressible flow:-
It generally occurs at high velocity
Velocity of fluid
Compressible Density of fluid changes from point to Mach number =
Velocity of Sound
Flow point or density is not constant in
fluid flow i.e. ρ ≠ constant. • Incompressible flow ⇒ MN < 0.3 {Water}
Incompressible Density remains constant i.e. ρ = • Compressible flow ⇒
Flow constant. 0.3 < MN < 1 ⇒ Subsonic flow
Rotational During flow along streamline, fluid
MN = 1 ⇒ Sonic flow
Flow particles rotate about their own axis in
both the circular as well as straight 1 < MN < 6 ⇒ Supersonic flow
line motion.
MN > 6 ⇒ Hypersonic flow
ω ≠ 0 ω = Angular velocity of fluid
particle Reynold number for pipe & open channel flow–
• For rotation tangential force are ρVd
required in a fluid particle RN =
µ
• These tangential force are viscous
force i.e. rotation of fluid is Where,
because of viscosity means viscous ρ = density
force V = Average velocity
µAV µ = Dynamic viscosity
F=
y d = Characteristics length
Nature of flow according to Reynolds number for pipe and open channel flow–

Nature of flow Reynolds No, RN = ρVD/µ b/w parallel plates

Pipe Flow Open channel
flow
Laminar flow RN < 2000 RN < 500 RN < 1000
Transitional flow 2000 < RN < 4000 500 < RN < 1000 1000 < RN < 2000
Turbulent flow RN > 4000 RN > 1000 RN > 2000
Lower critical flow point RN = 2000 RN = 500 RN = 1000
Higher critical flow point RN = 4000 RN = 1000 RN = 2000

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 117 YCT

Type of flow line ⇒ 1
Angular Deformation = [ ∆θ1 + ∆θ2 ]
Stream line • It is an imaginary or curved line in 2
space such that a tangent drawn to it 1  ∂v ∂u 
Shear Strain Rate = +
at any point gives the direction of 2  ∂x ∂y 
velocity
Rotation–
• Two streamline can never intersect
each other.
ˆi ˆj kˆ 1  ∂v ∂u 
ωz =  − 
• For, steady flow = Shape of stream 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2  ∂x ∂y 
( ω) =
line does not change 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 1  ∂w ∂v 
• As there is no flow possible across • ωx =  − 
u v w 2  ∂y ∂z 
the streamline the discharge will
1  ∂u ∂w 
remain constant between any two ωy =  − 
streamline 2  ∂z ∂x 
Path line • Path traced by a single fluid → Vorticity is twice the rotation '2ω'.
particle at different instant of time Circulation (Γ) = vorticity × area
Streak line • The locus of different fluid For a irrotational flow
particles passing through a fixed
ω=Ω=Γ=0
point
• Continuity equation - Acceleration of fluid–
dρ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + ( ρω) = 0
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
For steady & Incompressible flow
∂ρ
steady flow, =0
∂t Type of Local or Convective Total or
Incompressible flow– ρ = const Flow Temporal or Advective Max.
∂u ∂v ∂w Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z Steady +
Uniform 0 0 0
1D flow,
Flow
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2 [Compressible flow]
Unsteady +
A1V1 = A2 V2 [Incompressible flow]
Uniform 0 Local
Note-
Flow
If continuity equation is not satisfied then flow is
Unsteady +
not possible
Non- Local +
Velocity Potential Function–
Uniform Convective
 −∂φ −∂φ −∂φ 
• u = ∂x • v = ∂y • w = ∂z  Flow
  Steady and
Stream Function– Non-Uni- 0 Convective
 +∂ψ +∂ψ  form Flow
• ∂x = v • ∂y = −u 
  Equation of motion–
1. Newton's Equation of Motion
Relation between Stream Function and Velocity Fx = F g + Fp + F v + Ft + Fc
Potential Function– 2. Reynold's Equation of Motion
 ∂φ ∂ψ   ∂φ −∂ψ  Fx = F g + Fp + F v + Ft
 ∂x = ∂y   ∂y = ∂x 
    3. Navier-Stokes Equation
Equipotential line & constant stream function lines Fx = F g + Fp + F v
are orthogonal to each other. 4. Euler's Equation of Motion
m1.m 2 = −1 Fx = F g + Fp

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 118 YCT

 Important Dimensionless Number: p V2
Stagnation Head = +
Number Definition Equation ρg 2g
Reynolds Inertia force Fi ρVL Bernoulli's equation for real fluid
=
Number Viscous force Fv µ p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L hL = Head loss
Mach Inertia force Fi V V ρg 2g ρg 2g
= =
Number Elastic force Fe C K/ρ ⇒ Head loss doesn't depend on direction flow &
orientation of pipe
Froude Inertia force Fi V
= Siphon:-
Number Gravity force Fg Lg Siphon is a pipe which is used to connect two
reservoirs which are at different levels intervened by
Weber Inertia force Fi V
= a mountain etc
Number Surface tension Fs σ / ρL or
Euler's Siphon is that portion of the pipe which lies above
Inertia force Fi V
Number = hydraulic gradient line (HGL)
Pressure force Fp P/ρ Instruments & Their Measuring Parameter-
Cauchy Inertia force V2 Instrument Measuring parameter
Number Elastic force C2 Venturimeter Discharge or flow rate of pipe
Euler's Equation – Orificemeter Discharge or flow rate of pipe
It shows conservation of momentum Flow nozzle Discharge or flow rate of pipe
 dp  Elbow meter/ Discharge in vertical segment or
 ∫ ρ + ∫ gdz + ∫ vdv = Constant  Bend meter flow rate of pipe
 
Nozzle meter Discharge or flow rate
Assumption - steady flow
Non viscous flow Pitot tube Velocity of fluid flow
Fluid takes place along a stream line. Prandtl tube Velocity of fluid flow
(Boundary layer
Bernoulli's Equation– It shows the conservation
theory)
of mechanical energy.
Current meter Velocity in open channel
Assumption ⇒ Steady flow
Weirs Discharge in open channel
• Non viscous fluid
Rotameter Flow rate or discharge in vertical
• Incompressible flow
segment of pipe
• Flow along a stream line
Hot-wire For measuring the gas or air
• irrotational fluid Anemometer velocity
P V2  Energy  Anemometer Velocity with high accuracy
+ + gz = constant  
ρ 2  Mass  Pyrometer High temperature measurement
ρV 2  Energy  Hydrometer Specific gravity
P+ + γz = constant 
2  volume  Hygrometer Humidity
P V2  Energy  Notch discharge in open channel
+ + z = constant  
ρg 2g  Weight  orifice Discharge in tank
Where, Mouthpiece Discharge in tank
p Some viscosity measurement devices
= Pressure head
ρg Capillary tube Based on Haigen poiseulli's law
viscometer
v2
= Velocity head. Falling sphere Based on stroke's law
2g
viscometer
z = Potential head.
Rotating Based on Newton's law of
p
Piezometric Head = +z cylinder viscosity
ρg viscometer

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 119 YCT

Venturimeter– P1/ρg – stagnation head P2/ρg – Static head
 a1a 2  • Vact = Cv × Vthe
Q actual = C d × 2gh 
 a12 − a 22  Cv = 0.98
 
Cd = Co-efficient of venturimeter 0.97 - 0.99 Important point-

S  Liquid heavier then Type of flow meter Cost Accuracy Head loss
h = x  h − 1 flowing liquid in pipe Venturimeter High High Low
 So 
For Liquid lighter than Orifice meter Low Low High
 S 
h = x 1 − l  flowing liquid in pipe) Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium
 S0 
Where, Orifice-
Sh = Specific gravity of heavier liquid. Hydraulic Co-efficient–
So = Specific gravity of liquid flowing in pipe Co-efficient of velocity, Cv
Sl = Specific gravity of lighter liquid. Actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta Vact
Important Points- = =
Theoretical velocity Vth
1 3
• Throat diameter (d) =  to  pipe diameter (D) Cv = 0.98 for sharp edged orifices
3 4 Co-efficient of Contraction, Cc
• Angle of convergence = 15 – 20º Area of jet at vena-contracta (a c )
• Angle of divergence = 5 – 7º and it should be not Cc = =
Area of orifice (a)
greater than 7º to avoid flow separation
Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd
• It is used for measuring rate of flow in both
Actual Discharge Q Qact
compressible and incompressible fluids. Cd = = act =
• It gives same reading at any position. Theoretical Discharge Qth a 2gh
Orificemeter or orifice plate- Cd = Cv × Cc
 C a a 2gh  a0 = Area of orifice
Q = d 0 1 
 a1 − a 0 
2 2 Cd = 0.65 – 0.70 Value of Hydraulic Co-efficient-

Coefficient of velocity 0.95-0.99 ≃ 0.98
• Flow nozzle is essentially an orifice meter in which
jet contraction is eliminated by smooth entrance ( Cv )
boundary and thus result in much smaller losses than Coefficient of 0.61-0.69 ≃ 0.64
orifice meter. contraction, Cc
Cd = 0.93 to 0.98. Coefficient of Discharge 0.61-0.64 ≃ 0.62
Pitot Tube– Cd
Based on principle of conversion of kinetic head into Coefficient of - ≃ 0.063
pressure head. Resistance, Cr
 p − p2 
 Vth = 2gh  , Vth = 2g  1 
 
 ρg 

Laminar flow through pipe- Laminar flow through plate-

1. Shear stress distribution- 1. Shear stress distribution-

 ∂p  r ∂p  t 
τ = −  at, r = 0, τ = 0, r = R, τ = max τ = −  − y  at y = 0, τ = τmax
 ∂x  2 ∂x  2 

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 120 YCT

 2. Velocity distribution- 2. Velocity distribution-
1  ∂p   r2  1  ∂p 
u = −   R 2 1 − 2  u=−   ( ty − y )
2
4µ  ∂x   R  2µ  ∂x 
1  ∂p  2 u max
u max = −  R u avg = 1  ∂p  2 3
4µ  ∂x  2 u max = −  t u max = u avg
8µ  ∂x  2
r' = 0.707R (Average velocity = Local velocity)
3. Discharge- 3. Discharge-
π  ∂p  4 1  ∂p  3
Q= − D D = Diameter of pipe Q= − t
128µ  ∂x  12µ  ∂x 
4. Head Loss- 4. Head Loss-
32µu avg .L 12µu avg .L
hf = (Hagen-Poiseulle formula) hf =
ρgD 2 ρgt 2
2
fLu avg  64 
= f = 
2gD  Re 
• Kinetic Energy correction factor- Note-
64
Actual K.E. f= (For Laminar flow, Re < 2000)
α= Re
K.E. Calculated from average velocity
0.3164
f= (For Turbulent flow 4000 < Re < 105)
1 R e1/ 4
AV 2 ∫
α= u 2 .dA
16
f '= (For Laminar Flow)
Re
• Momentum Correction factor-
0.079
Actual linear momentum/sec. f'= (For Turbulent flow
β= R 1/e 4
Linear momentum/sec. calculated from Vavg.
(b) Chezy's Formula-
Mean Velocity,
1
AV 3 ∫
β= u 3 .dA  8g 
V = C mi C = 
 f 
Flow Condition α β
Where,
Laminar flow in pipe 2 1.33 Area
m=
Wetted Perimeter
Laminar flow b/w 1.543 1.2
h
parallel plates i = tanθ = f = Slope of HGL
L
Turbulent flow in pipe 4/3 or 1.33 1.2 Relation between chezy's constant and friction factor
8g
Flow through Pipe f= 2
C
Loss of Energy in Pipes-
B. Minor Losses–
A. Major Losses (mainly due to friction)–
It is due to-
(a) Darcy - Weisbach Formula–
1. Sudden Enlargement of Pipe-
f LV 2 f LQ 2
hf = =
( V1 − V2 )
2 2 2
2gD 12d 5 V12  A1  V22  A 2 
h EL = = 1 −  =  − 1
2g 2g  A 2  2g  A1 
4f ' LV 2
and h f = (Fanning equation)
2gD 2. Sudden Contraction-
Where, f = Darcy friction factor 2 If CC = 0.62
V2  1 
f ' = Co-efficient of friction hc = 2  − 1 0.375 V22
2g  Cc  hc =
f = 4f ' 2g
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 121 YCT
 3. Inlet Loss- ω2 r 2
(depth of parabola) h =
0.5V 2 2g
hi =
2g π 2 4
Total pressure (P) = ρω r
4
4. Exit Loss- h = height of paraboloid
V2 r = radius of cylinder
h ex =
2g
1 2
5. Due to pipe Bend and pipe Fitting- Volume of paraboloid = πr h
2
V2 1
hb / F = k = of volume of circumscribing cylinder.
2g 2
Free Vortex Flow–
k = Bend coefficient, r = Pipe radius
 v = c  c = constant v∝
1
k = f (r, R, θ), R = Bend radius  r  r
hb/F ↑ r↓ R↓ θ↑, θ = Bend angle
Forced Vortex Flow Free Vortex Flow
k depends upon
For this some external There is no external
1. Angle of bend 2. Pipe dia force/torque required to torque required to
3. Type of pipe fitting rotate fluid mass. rotate fluid mass.
4. Radius of curvature of bend. Total momentum Total momentum is
Water Hammer- equation is not constant, conserved, so
Case of Water hammer Pressure head so Bernoulli's equation is Bernoulli's equation
not applicable. is applicable.
2L p L.V
Gradual closure of valve t > = Ex. Ex.
C w gt 1. Flow of water through the 1. Flow through kitchen
Sudden closure of valve in rigid runner of a turbine. sink.
p VC V k
2L = = 2. Flow of Liquid passing 2. Liquid flow through a
pipe t< w g g ρ through impeller of hole at the bottom of
C
centrifugal pumps. container.
Sudden closure of valve in p V
= 3. Rotation of Water in a 3. A whirlpool in a
elastic pipe w 1 D  washing machine. river.
t = time of closing valve in sec. ρg 2  + 
 K xE  v 2 r 2 ω2 R 2 ω2 4. Flow fields due to
x = thickness of pipe z=
= = tornado.
2g 2g 2g
• Power transmission through pipe 5. Liquid flow around a
z = height of parabolid
Pth = ω Q H circular bend in a
formed)
pipe.
Pact = ω Q (H - hL)
Flow of fluid in casing
η of power transmission of centrifugal pump
H − hL
η=
H
Maximum Efficiency for Transmission of Power-
H − hf
η=
H
(For max. Transmission power) Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.)-
H • For ideal fluid = HGL will be horizontal
H = 3hf or hf =
3 • When pipe is gradually diverging = HGL will slope
∴ η = 2/3 or 66.7% upward.
• HGL always lies below the EGL
Forced Vortex Flow–
r = Radius of fluid particle p
[ v = ω× r ] ω HGL = +z
= Angular velocity ρg
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 122 YCT
 Total Energy Line (T.E.L)/ Energy Gradient If velocity of approach = Va
Line (EGL)  V2 
Then, H = H+Ha or  H + a 
• For an ideal fluid EGL remains horizontal  2g 

• For a real fluid EGL is always sloping 2

∴ Q = Cd .L 2g  (H + H a )3/ 2 − H 3/a 2 
downward 3
2. According to Francis Formula-
• If external energy is EGL suddenly rises
2
added with an agent Q= Cd 2g [ L − 0.1nH ] H 3/ 2
(Pump, compressor) 3
= 1.84 [L–0.1 nH).H3/2
• If energy is extracted EGL will suddenly drop
by some external Contraction value is taken 0.1H for each ends of
agent (turbine) Weir
According to Bazin's –
p V2
TEL = +z+ Q = mL 2g.H 3/ 2
ρg 2g
2 0.003
∴ T.E.L. always > H.G.L. m = Cd = 0.405 +
3 H
T.E.L. always drop in the direction of flow due to
3. Triangular Notch or Weir–
loss of head.
Notch - It is used to measure rate of flow through a small 8
Q= Cd 2g tan θ / 2.H 5/ 2
channel or a tank 15
Generally, made up of metallic plate If θ = 90° then tan θ/2 = 1
Classification ⇒ 8
(1) On the basis of sections Q= Cd 2gH 5 / 2
15
(a) Rectangular notch
or
(b) Triangular notch
(c) Trapezoidal notch Q = 1.417H 5/ 2
(If Cd = 0.62)
(d) Stepped notch • Disadvantage of triangular notch over rectangular
(2) On the basis of effects on the side of nappee notch → More losses Cd = 0.62
(a) Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch
• Advantage of triangular notch over rectangular
(b) Notch with end contraction. notch
Weir - It is used to measure rate of flow water in river or
→ Triangular notch is more accurate in case of low
streams.
discharge
Classification
(1) On the Basis of shape 4. Trapezoidal Notch or Weir-
(a) Rectangular weir Q = Q Rectangular + QTriangular
(b) Triangular weir θ
2  4
(c) Cipolletti or Trapezoidal weir Q = Cd 2g.H 3 / 2  L + .H tan 
3  5 2
(2) On the basis of shape of crest
Effect on Discharge due to error in the
(a) Sharp crested weir
measurement of head for–
(b) Broad crested weir
(c) Narrow crested weir (i) Rectangular Weir or Notch
(d) Ogee weir dQ 3 dH
= = 1.5%. Error
(3) On the basis of effect of sides- Q 2 H
(a) weir with end contraction (ii) Triangular Weir or Notch–
(b) weir without end contraction
dQ 5 dH
Discharge Over a Notch or Weir – = = 2.5%. Error
1. Rectangular Notch or Weir Q 2 H
2 For Cipolletti Weir or notch
Q = Cd .L 2g.H 3/ 2
3 Side slope = 1 : 4 (H:V)
L = Width of weir or θ/2 = 14°2'
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 123 YCT
 Broad Crested Weir- Drag and lift force-
H 1
= 0.1 − 0.4 • Drag force, FD = Cd ρAV 2
L 2
or 2L > H 1
Narrow Crested Weir • Lift force, FL = C L ρAV 2
2
H
> 1.6 Drag force on sphere, FD = 3πµ.V.D
L
or 2L < H Where,

H = Height of Water above crest A = Projected area of body

L = Length of crest V = Relative wind velocity
Discharge Over a Broad Crested Weir/Ogee weir → Cd & CL = Coefficient of drag and lift
Used as spillway of dam Model laws and its application-
Q = 1.705.Cd .L.H 3/ 2
Models Applications
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) for mouthpiece- Reynolds model Submarines completely under
Types of Mouthpiece Cd law water
External Mouthpiece 0.855 Motion of air-planes
Internal mouthpiece Flow through venturimeter,
(i) Running full 0.707 orifice meter
(ii) Running free 0.50 Flow through small sized
Convergent or convergent 1.00 pipes.
divergent mouthpiece Mach model law Aerodynamic testing
Under water testing of
Laminar Sub-layer 11.6 υ torpedoes
δ=
thickness Vx Water-hammer problem.
υ = Kinematic viscosity Froude model law Open channels.
Vx = Friction velocity Free surface flow such as flow
Displacement thickness δ
 u over spillways, weirs, sluices.
δ* = ∫ 1 −  dy
0 U Flow of jet from an orifice or
Momentum thickness δ nozzle.
u u
θ=∫ 1 −  dy Flow of different density
0 U U
fluids one above the other.
Energy thickness δ 2
u u
δ** = ∫ 1 −  dy Weber model law Flow over weir for small
0
U U heads
Shape factor δ* Capillary flows
H=
θ Flow of very thin sheet of
Von-Karman's dθ τ liquid over a surface.
= o
Momentum Integral dx ρU 2 Euler's model law Turbulent flow in pipeline
Equation where viscous force and
τo = shear stress at surface
It is used for- surface tensile forces are
Laminar, Transition and entirely absent.
Turbulent boundary layer Where the phenomenon of
cavitations occurs.
δ > δ* > δ** > θ

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 124 YCT

 Important Relations (Blasius Results) :
Characteristics Laminar Boundary layer Turbulent boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness (δx)
δx =
5x
Re x
( δ x ∝ x1/ 2 ) δx =
0.377x
(Re x )1/ 5
(δ x ∝ x 4 / 5 )

Local skin friction coefficient (Cfx) 0.664 0.059

Cfx = Cfx =
( Rex )
1/ 5
Re x

Average skin friction coefficient or drag 1.328 5 0.073

Cfa = Cfa = Cfx =
coefficient (Cfa or Cd) ( Rex )
1/ 5
Re x 4

Displacement thickness (δ) 1.72x 0.048x

δ= δ=
( Re x )
1/ 5
Re x

Momentum Thickness (θ) 0.669x 0.037x

θ= θ=
( Re x )
1/ 5
Re x
On the basis of Nikuradse's experiment the boundary layer is classified as-
k Smooth boundary layer V* K
< 0.25 <5
δ* υ
k Transition boundary layer V* K
0.25 < * < 6.0 5< < 70
δ υ
K Rough boundary layer V* K
> 6.0 Where, > 70
δ*
υ
V* = average shear velocity
υ = kinematic viscosity
K = Avg. roughness
For most Economical channel section-
Rectangular Channel Width of channel, b = 2d
Depth of flow, d = b/2
Hydraulic radius, (R) or Hydraulic mean depth m = d/2

Trapezoidal Section b + 2nd

Length of sloping side = Half the top width d 1 + n 2 =
2
m = R = d/2
θ = 600
A circle of radius (d) should be inscribed in trapezoidal section.
Semi circle touch the three sides of trapezoidal section (P, Q,R)

Triangular Channel d
m or R =
2 2
Side slop = 1 :1
θ = 45°

Circular Section For Max. discharge-

d
= 0.95
D

Mechanical Engineering Capsule 125 YCT

 For Max. velocity-
d
= 0.81
D
 sin 2θ 
Area of flow, A = R2  θ − 
 2 

Type of flow Depth of flow Velocity of flow Froude Number

Subcritical/Tranquil y > yc v < vc Fr<1
streaming or Tangential flow
Critical flow (At this flow y = yc v = vc Fr = 1
specific energy in min)
Supercritical/Torrential/Rapid y < yc v > vc Fr > 1
or shooting flow yc = Critical, depth vc = Critical, Velocity
Classification of jump based on Froude number–
Froude number (Fr) Types of jump Water Surface
1-1.7 Undular/Unsteady Undulating
1.7-2.5 Weak Small Rollers form
2.5-4.5 Oscillating Water moving in random manner
4.5-9 steady Roller and jump action
>9 strong Very rough and choppy
Some Important formula for open channel-
Hydraulic mean Depth Area A
m= =
Wetted perimeter P
Manning's Formula 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V = m ×i
N
Chezy Formula V = C m×i
Specific Energy V2 Q2
E = y+ =y+ (y = depth of flow)
2g 2g.A 2
A = By + Sy 2 ( Trepezoidal section )
Critical Depth 1/ 3
 q2  Q
yc =   (q = Discharge per unit width of channel = )
 g  b
Critical velocity Vc = ( q.g )
1/ 3
= g × yc
Condition for Critical flow Q2 A3
= (T = top width)
g T
Energy loss due to Hydraulic jump
( y2 − y1 )
3

EL =
4y1 y2
2
2q
= y1.y 2 ( y1 + y 2 )
g
Laplace equation- ∂ 2φ ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2 φ
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Relation Between yc and E Force acting in moving fluid –
2 1. Inertia Force, Fi = ρAV2
(i) For Rectangular channel- yc = E
3 µVA
4 2. Viscous Force, FV =
(ii) For Triangular channel- yc = E L
5
3 3. Gravity Force, Fg = ρALg
(iii) For Parabolic channel- yc = E
4 4. Pressure Force, Fp = pA
Mechanical Engineering Capsule 126 YCT