Faculty of Engineering

Automotive & Tractors Department

Mattaria-Cairo

Under graduated project

Autonomous Electric Delivery Vehicle

Prepared By

Ahmed Mohamed Taher

Bassem Galal Ahmed
Mahmoud Ebrahem Mohamed
Mennatuallah Hisham Mohammad
Mohamed Moatmed Ahmed
Mohammad Mohsen Hassan

Under the supervision of

Dr. Mostafa Mohamed Ahmed

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 Abstract
This book describes our project and the steps we took to achieve the project’s
goals, The purpose of the project is to manufacture an electric powered delivery
vehicle that can identify its track and carry on the delivering process
autonomously without any human interference by detecting a line that represents
its path and moving along that line and through the ultrasonic sensor it would be
able to stop at a suitable distance to avoid collisions.
We first started by deciding the suitable dimensions for the vehicle’s chassis and
exam paper’s compartment, then the design was carried out through SolidWorks.
After, the vehicle’s behavior was simulated on Simulink and Simscape by
creating a half-car model to determine whether the vehicle would be able to
perform accurately or not.
When decided that the vehicle would perform well, the manufacturing process
began and the vehicle was made, then came the part where we began the
experimental work to confirm what was researched and the vehicle was able to
perform its task.
We were inspired to do this project due to the recent outbreak of COVID-19, to
help minimizing the human interactions and decrease the risks of infection that
can happen and affect the students.

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 Acknowledgement
Thanks to Allah first and for most. We would like to express our deepest gratitude

and appreciation to Dr. Mostafa Mohamed, who has given much of his time, effort,

advice, suggestions, and guidance for the fulfillment of this thesis. And without him

the project won’t done.

Thanks to Eng. Ibrahim Ezz for his advice and support in design and simulation.

Our thanks for Eng. Youssef Ashraf Akhnoukh for helping with wiring and control

by his effort and advice.

Our thanks are also extended to all workshop’s technicians and lab supervisory staff

of the faculty.

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 Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................. 2

Acknowledgement ................................................................................................ 3

Contents................................................................................................................. 4

List of Figures ....................................................................................................... 8

List of Tables ...................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................. 12

1.1 Background: .............................................................................................. 13

1.2 Autonomous Delivery Vehicles: ............................................................... 13

1.3 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Objectives: .............................................. 14

1.4 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Optimal Requirements ............................ 15

1.5 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle History .................................................... 15

1.6 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Applications ............................................ 15

1.7 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Types: ..................................................... 20

1.7.1 Sidewalk vehicles: ............................................................................. 21

1.7.2 On-road delivery vans (Autonomous delivery vans):........................ 21

1.7.3 Autonomous trucks: ........................................................................... 22

1.8 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Automation level: ................................... 22

1.9 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Benefits ................................................... 22

1.10 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Disadvantages ....................................... 23

1.11 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Challenges: ........................................... 24

1.12 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Future: ................................................... 25

1.13 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Sensors: ................................................. 26

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 1.14 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Working Strategy .................................. 29

1.15 Advanced Features in Autonomous Delivery Vehicle. .......................... 29

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................ 31

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 32

2.2 Design and Development of Autonomous Delivery Robot ...................... 32

2.2.1 Hardware Overview ........................................................................... 33

2.2.2 Controller and Driver Boards ............................................................ 34

2.3 Autonomous Robot for Delivering the Orders in Restaurants…………..35

2.3.1 Working Methodology ....................................................................... 36

2.4 Line Follower Robot Arduino …………………………………………..38

2.4.1 System Construction .......................................................................... 39

2.5 Autonomous Robotic Cart for Food Delivery on Airplane ...................... 40

2.5.1 Mechanical section............................................................................. 41

2.5.2 Electronics section ............................................................................. 42

2.5.3 Component connections ..................................................................... 44

2.6 Mobile Robot to Deliver Meals inside Health Services ........................... 45

2.6.1 Product Development......................................................................... 47

2.6.2 Orientation System............................................................................. 48

2.7 Companies Made Models: ........................................................................ 49

2.7.1 Renault EZ-PRO ................................................................................ 49

2.7.2 Nuro self-driving delivery ................................................................. 50

2.7.3 NAVYA ARMA ................................................................................ 51

Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................. 53

3.1 Simulation Strategy ................................................................................... 54

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 3.2 Vehicle Model Simulation ........................................................................ 56

3.3 Model Components ................................................................................... 57

3.3.1 Vehicle Body Block ........................................................................... 57

3.3.2 PS Constant blocks for Vehicle body block ...................................... 58

3.3.3 Friction parametrized Tire block ....................................................... 58

3.3.4 DC motor block (brushed type) ......................................................... 58

3.3.5 DC voltage source .............................................................................. 59

3.3.6 Control box (simulating ultrasonic sensor equation) ......................... 59

3.3.7 Ideal translational motion sensor ....................................................... 61

3.3.8 PS-Simulink Converter ...................................................................... 61

3.3.9 Solver configuration........................................................................... 62

3.3.10 Infrared Circuit................................................................................. 62

3.4 Results and tracking the model: ................................................................ 63

3.5 Issues that faced my 2017 Simscape version ............................................ 64

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................... 66

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 67

4.2 Chassis Design and Structure.................................................................... 67

4.2.1 The Main Chassis Platform................................................................ 68

4.2.2 The Storage Box ................................................................................ 71

4.3 Components of the control system............................................................ 72

4.3.1 Brushless DC Electric Motor Speed Controller with Hall sensor ..... 72

4.3.2 Arduino Mega 2560 Board ................................................................ 74

4.3.3 Line Following Infrared Sensor ......................................................... 75

4.3.4 Ultrasonic Sensor ............................................................................... 76

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 4.3.5 Double Ended Crocodile Clips Cable: ............................................... 77

4.3.6 Wires .................................................................................................. 77

4.3.7 Battery ................................................................................................ 78

4.3.8 DC Motor ........................................................................................... 79

4.3.9 Breadboard ......................................................................................... 79

4.4 Schematic diagram of the connections ..................................................... 81

4.5 Theory of Operation of Vehicle ................................................................ 82

4.6 The vehicle’s Arduino program ................................................................ 84

CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................. 91

5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................... 91

5.2 Future work ............................................................................................... 92

References ........................................................................................................... 93

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 List of Figures
Figure 1. 1 Autonomous delivery vehicles application in logistics .................... 16
Figure 1. 2 Mobile manipulators (AVD with robotic arm) ................................ 17
Figure 1. 3 Autonomous delivery vehicle in hospital ......................................... 19
Figure 1. 4 Autonomous delivery robots in warehousing................................... 19
Figure 1. 5 Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries ............... 20
Figure 1. 6 Sidewalk autonomous delivery vehicles .......................................... 21
Figure 1. 7 Autonomous delivery vans ............................................................... 21
Figure 1. 8 Autonomous delivery trucks ............................................................ 22
Figure 1. 9 Autonomous delivery vehicle benefits ............................................. 23
Figure 1. 10 Keys of development in autonomous delivery vehicle .................. 25
Figure 1. 11 Infrared, ultrasonic sensors & Arduino mega ................................ 26
Figure 1. 12 Ultrasonic sensor ............................................................................ 26
Figure 1. 13 Infrared sensor working with different color lines ......................... 27
Figure 1. 14 Vision sensor components .............................................................. 28
Figure 1. 15 Lidar sensor .................................................................................... 28
Figure 2. 1 The hardware of the Autonomous delivery robot………………….33
Figure 2. 2 Hyperphysical Architecture of the Robot......................................... 33
Figure 2. 3 Power diagram of the robot .............................................................. 34
Figure 2. 4 Constructional diagram of waiter Robot .......................................... 36
Figure 2. 5 Block Diagram of Proposed work .................................................... 37
Figure 2. 6 Illustrates robot to control Patient bed ............................................. 38
Figure 2. 7 The progression of a bed-shaped robot ............................................ 39
Figure 2. 8 Wooden frame of the robot cart ....................................................... 40
Figure 2. 9 Wooden slot to lock motors.............................................................. 41
Figure 2. 10 Arduino MEGA microcontroller .................................................... 42
Figure 2. 11 Raspberry Pi3 model B ................................................................... 43
Figure 2. 12 NEMA23 stepper motor ................................................................. 43
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Figure 2. 13 Component’s connection diagram .................................................. 44
Figure 2. 14 Routes and material flow of the robot ............................................ 45
Figure 2. 15 Virtual prototype and concept product of the robot ....................... 46
Figure 2. 16 Renault EZ-PRO ............................................................................. 50
Figure 2. 17 NURO DELIVERY ROBOT ......................................................... 50
Figure 2. 18 NAVYA ARMA ............................................................................. 51
Figure 3. 1 Modeling by Sims-cape……………………………………………54
Figure 3. 2 Equation of motion ........................................................................... 55
Figure 3. 3 Modeling by Simulink ...................................................................... 55
Figure 3. 4 Simulation model of the vehicle’s behavior ..................................... 56
Figure 3. 5 Vehicle body block ........................................................................... 57
Figure 3. 6 PS constant blocks ............................................................................ 58
Figure 3. 7 Tire block .......................................................................................... 58
Figure 3. 8 DC motor block ................................................................................ 59
Figure 3. 9 Voltage source “Battery” block ........................................................ 59
Figure 3. 10 Control box block ........................................................................... 60
Figure 3. 11 Control box details ......................................................................... 60
Figure 3. 12 Parameters of Ultrasonic block ...................................................... 60
Figure 3. 13 Translational motion sensor block ................................................. 61
Figure 3. 14 PS-Simulink converter block.......................................................... 61
Figure 3. 15 Solver configuration block ............................................................. 62
Figure 3. 16 Infrared circuit ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3. 17 Measuring distance from obstacle .................................................. 63
Figure 3. 18 Measuring velocity of the vehicle instantaneously ........................ 64
Figure 3. 19 Scoping ........................................................................................... 64
Figure 3. 20 Full car model for Autonomous driving studies............................. 65
Figure 3. 21 Measuring distance by Ultrasonic using Simulink......................... 65
Figure 4. 1 The final design of vehicle in solid work………………………….67

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Figure 4. 2 The main chassis without acrylic in solid work ............................... 68
Figure 4. 3 The steel angels ................................................................................ 69
Figure 4. 4 Fitting locks ...................................................................................... 69
Figure 4. 5 Motor’s fitting .................................................................................. 70
Figure 4. 6 IR Sensor Holder .............................................................................. 70
Figure 4. 7 Maintenance area .............................................................................. 70
Figure 4. 8 The two-separate area on the storage box in solid work .................. 72
Figure 4. 9 RioRand 400w BLDC motor controller ........................................... 73
Figure 4. 10 Detailed connections of the BLDC motor controller ..................... 73
Figure 4. 11 Arduino Mega 2560 ........................................................................ 74
Figure 4. 12 Line Following Sensor ................................................................... 76
Figure 4. 13 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic sensor ........................................................... 77
Figure 4. 14 Double ended crocodile cable ........................................................ 77
Figure 4. 15 Cables male-female……………………………………………….79
Figure 4. 16 Cables male-male ........................................................................... 78
Figure 4. 17 36V DC-Battery.............................................................................. 78
Figure 4. 18 Brushless DC wheel hub motor ...................................................... 79
Figure 4. 19 Breadboard...................................................................................... 80
Figure 4. 20 Schematic Diagram of Connections ............................................... 81
Figure 4. 21 Flow Chart of the decision-making process ................................... 82

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 List of Tables
Table 4. 1 The whole dimensions of chassis and storage part ............................ 68
Table 4. 2 The chassis platform dimensions ....................................................... 71
Table 4. 3 The dimensions of storage box .......................................................... 72
Table 4. 4 Arduino Mega Chip technical specifications..................................... 75
Table 4. 5 The specifications of the line follower sensor ................................... 76
Table 4. 6 The technical specifications of ultrasonic sensor .............................. 76
Table 4. 7 The specifications of battery .............................................................. 78
Table 4. 8 The specifications of wheel hub motors ............................................ 79
Table 4. 9 Bread Board Technical specification ................................................. 80

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background:
Autonomous delivery vehicles are the next generation technology and indeed
have been brought to our life in many aspects such as education, military and so
on, with the occurrence of robots in varieties of areas, a new revolution is
happening in real life since robots have their own advantages – low labor cost and
stable working performance, in a word, Autonomous delivery vehicles have been
part of the society in a deep level but there is still a lot of improvements needed
to enhance the performance.
Now in our days with businesses booming we see a rapid growth in companies
whether it be a comparison financially or in ground strength, for a company to
work efficiently it has been repeatedly observed that multiple personnel are used
for piteous jobs such as transferring documents to various departments or delivery
of letters or posts. proposing an autonomous delivery vehicle capable to send or
receive things and items, in a number of different scenarios. Autonomous delivery
system, not yet intelligent enough to deliver goods across cities, but able to
deliver small objects from one place to another in small boundaries.
High transportation cost, disruption of traditional transportation methods in the
event of weather, climate problems and covid pandemic witch has increased the
need of touch free interactions and to boost ecommerce and food deliveries
without the spread of infections due to human contact.

1.2 Autonomous Delivery Vehicles:

They are electric powered motorized vehicles that can deliver items or packages
to customers without the intervention of delivery person, it is suitable for
consignments that need to be delivered flexibly, quickly and inexpensively in a
local neighbour hood.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

These ad-hoc logistics over the last mile are not covered at present by mail
carriers, the indoor Autonomous delivery vehicle can transport practically
anything and work around the clock, they move independently through the
hospital and, depending on the attachment used, can even load themselves with
cargo. This means that medical professionals do not have to perform logistics
tasks, leaving more time for patients and due to E-Commerce and package
deliveries growing at a fast pace and several start-ups have already began pilot
studies to deliver packages, groceries Medication, food, lab samples and even
waste to consumers by utilizing Autonomous Delivery vehicles so that we found
that delivery autonomous vehicle is very important application.

1.3 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Objectives:

We here propose an autonomous delivery vehicle, to achieve Lower
transportation cost, save the time, increase in productivity and Reduction in
number of accidents and traffic deaths. There are several objectives like
overcome the problem of manually delivering good from a place to place. It saves
time and makes a workplace more efficient. The objective is to setup an
autonomous robot to stop at certain points.
Briefly, goals are to find a fast, comfortable, and low-cost solution of goods
transportation so that delivery vehicles became our optimum and desired solution.
lidar and radar sensors, other sensors such as ultrasonic and infrared detectors
which used to make up the functionality of detection and increase the accuracy,
in this way using the combination of sensors, these sensors will collect data and
communicate with processor.
After processing the data and calculate the desired actions, the robot will adjust
the motor to avoid the obstacles, after dealing with all the problems it
encountered, the robot will navigate to the destination in the end.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.4 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Optimal Requirements

Autonomous delivery vehicle must be able to detect the standing and moving
obstacles in its path using its sensor and adjust motors correspondingly, it must
be able to navigate through its path and must be lost cost comparing to the existing
solutions. as shown in figure 1.10 there are main five keys of development in
autonomous delivery vehicle which always need to be improved to make it an
efficient solution for all fields.

1.5 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle History

It always evolving rapidly, in March of 2016, Domin unveiled what it claimed to
be the world’s first autonomous pizza delivery vehicle, nicknamed “DRU” or
Domino’s Robotic Unit. Starship Technologies, founded in 2014, launched their
40-pound autonomous delivery vehicle in March of 2016 in London and
partnered with Domino’s to deliver pizzas (Starship, 2017). At the end of April
of 2018, Starship Technologies announced that it will be rolling out its
autonomous delivery vehicle services to corporate and academic campuses in the
us and europe, Starship technologies has already implemented their delivery
services at the Intuit campus in Mountain View, California where average
delivery times to customers are less than 15 minutes (Starship, 2018).

1.6 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Applications

Autonomous delivery vehicles can deliver efficient, cost effective movement of
materials, it can be applied to various industries in standard or customized designs
to be suitable for industry's requirements.

In logistics:

The most basic and widely used application for these machines is for material
transport. as shown in figure 1.1 Autonomous delivery vehicles can transport
orders across a warehouse or through a shipping facility countless times a day, in

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

unbroken cycles. Transport is a labor-intensive job and utilizing ADV for these
tasks is one of the easiest ways to free up human workers for more important jobs.

Figure 1. 1 Autonomous delivery vehicles application in logistics

In e-commerce:

Applications can come in many forms, from moving carts to mobile manipulation
and more, because its platforms can include multiple accessories, their flexibility
makes them ideal for several applications, even within specific applications like
transport and sortation.

Pharmaceutical:

Autonomous delivery vehicles are a preferred method of moving materials in the

pharmaceutical industry. it supports process validation and cGMP (current Good
Manufacturing Practice), for example nuro, the autonomous vehicle startup will
use its small fleet of road-legal delivery robots to transport pharmaceuticals to
CVS customers in Houston, Texas

Manufacturing:

In general manufacturing of products autonomous delivery vehicle always used.

it can typically be found delivering raw materials, transporting work-in process,

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

moving finished goods, and removing scrap materials, it is designed to be easily

set up and used by workers within existing factories, provide capabilities for an
endless variety of tasks. beyond transporting in-process parts and finished goods,
it is integrated with accessories such as conveyors or arms, can assist in the
production process.

Figure 1. 2 Mobile manipulators (AVD with robotic arm)

For example, as shown in figure 1.2, cobots or mobile manipulators – ADV with
arms- can sort, pick, and pack products with the added ability to dynamically
move to multiple locations, it has long been used in line work, as they help speed
up production and sorting. By using of attachments that can lift loads and connect
to carts, allow the vehicle to load and unload payloads and in some cases connect
to carts without human intervention. This combination of the cart transport and
loading/unloading in one ADV is a relatively new capability, but one that will
create more potential applications for autonomous vehicles.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

In Food and Beverage:

Autonomous delivery vehicle can be applied for loading of food or trays into
sterilizers) and at the "end of line," linking the palletizer, stretch wrapper, and the
warehouse, it can load standard, over-the-road trailers with finished goods, and
unload trailers to supply raw materials or packaging materials to the plant. for
example, new system structure consists of colour lines that are drawn on the
restaurant ground and they link all tables to the kitchen serving as a guiding track;
a vehicle that is in sync with the ordering system will serve. When customers
place their order through the ordering system, the system will send the order to
the kitchen, once the dish is prepared, a signal will be sent to the vehicle then it
will deliver it to the specific table and return to the kitchen and send a feedback
signal to the ordering system as a confirmation of delivery, Door Dash company
used autonomous delivery vehicle to deliver food that can carry 22 lbs. of food.
While it makes a delivery, the vehicle’s compartment is locked so that no one can
steal the food or tamper with it.

In Hospital:

As shown in figure 1.3, Autonomous delivery vehicles are increasingly popular

in the healthcare industry for efficient transport and are programmed to be fully
integrated to automatically operate, for example (Relay Hospital Delivery
vehicle) is the first hospital autonomous delivery vehicle designed to work around
people in busy hospitals and health systems, autonomous delivery vehicles are
increasingly popular in the healthcare industry for efficient transport and are
programmed to be fully integrated to automatically operate. for example (Relay
Hospital Delivery vehicle) is the first hospital autonomous delivery vehicle
designed to work around people in busy hospitals and health systems.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

This vehicle navigates hallways and elevators around the clock, carrying
medications, lab samples, and other critical items – boosting efficiency and
throughput without breaking a sweat

Figure 1. 3 Autonomous delivery vehicle in hospital

Warehousing:

As it is clear in figure 1.4, special automated vehicles used in completing essential

warehouse tasks, such as picking, sorting, and transportation. over recent years,
they have incorporated more advanced sensors and processing capabilities.

Figure 1. 4 Autonomous delivery robots in warehousing

In warehouses and Distribution Centers Autonomous Delivery Vehicle logically

move loads around the warehouses and prepare them for shipping/loading or
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

receiving or move them from an induction conveyor to logical storage locations

within the warehouse. Often, this type of use is accompanied by customized
warehouse management software. There are several warehouse vehicles that are
used in warehousing. such as automated guided vehicles, Autonomous mobile
vehicle automated storage and retrieval systems, unmanned aerial vehicles they
serve a variety of purposes, from stock movement and picking to delivery.

1.7 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Types:

There are three types of Autonomous delivery vehicles for urban deliveries which
classified as sidewalk autonomous delivery vehicle. as shown in figure 1.5:

Figure 1. 5 Typology of Autonomous Vehicles for Urban Deliveries

Road autonomous delivery vehicle and drones which used for medication and
blood transportation with differ in speed, size and carrying capacity regulations,
public opinion, and technology costs will determine the speed at which different
countries will implement.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.7.1 Sidewalk vehicles:

Figure 1. 6 Sidewalk autonomous delivery vehicles

These are slow vehicles specifically crafted as shown in figure 1.6 it travels at a
speed of 4-6 km per hour. a low speed offers improved safety and gives a chance
to the operators to control the vehicle in case of an emergency.

1.7.2 On-road delivery vans (Autonomous delivery vans):

Figure 1. 7 Autonomous delivery vans

As shown in figure 1.7 Autonomous delivery vans run-on electric power and are
specifically built for on-road delivery, their software algorithms and sensor
system resemble those of autonomous cars.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.7.3 Autonomous trucks:

Figure 1. 8 Autonomous delivery trucks

In figure1.8 trucking world is facing several challenges such as shortage of

drivers, delayed delivery, and productivity issues, the use of autonomous trucks
can help in overcoming the challenges of the truck industry.

1.8 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Automation level:

By technology development autonomous delivery vehicles can reach their
destination while avoiding obstacles through different levels of automation
currently, Semi-autonomous delivery sidewalk also travels autonomously but are
supervised by operators who take control if the situation warrants, they operate
alongside them, at the same speed, carrying a full load of parcels, both low-speed
and high-speed road robots have reached an automation level of four, implying
that they do not require human assistance in most circumstances.

1.9 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Benefits

Benefits of autonomous delivery vehicles are many as shown in figure 1.7, these
benefits include a reduction in the need for large, potentially emission-heavy
trucks to move in crowded cities and a reduction in the number of delivery drivers
required to get the stuff people order online to them quickly, that last item is one
Important reason. one of the most outstanding benefits of Starship Technology
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Delivery vehicle is that it is faster. Customers are now able to order for food or
items and receive them immediately without wasting too much time waiting or
moving around to receive them.

Figure 1. 9 Autonomous delivery vehicle benefits

In addition, Starship Technology Delivery vehicle is cost-effective, an important

benefit is reduction in number of accidents and traffic death because they are
programmed to avoid accidents and monitor all relevant context conditions
autonomously and continuously to stay clear of obstacles. Removing human
error, which causes about 90% of all vehicle accidents in addition to these benefits
autonomous delivery vehicles also provide better transport interconnectivity, low
labor costs and increase productivity where Autonomous delivery vehicles can
work continuously and around the clock without fatigue finally it can increase
lane capacity and reduce traffic congestion of the roads.

1.10 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Disadvantages

Autonomous delivery vehicles are better for light weight tasks one major
disadvantage of it is their limitation with regards to load capacity, it also moves
slower and have some charging time for safety reasons.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Using of autonomous delivery vehicles also raise some safety issues, for example
they should not be overloaded up to or above their limit, especially if the load is
bulky. In case of an emergency brake, the load could fall off and cause injuries to
an employee. So that it may cause pose some safety risks. Make strong demands
on the area of use: to another needs to be taken into consideration. If the
environment is very dusty or has a lot of steam, the autonomous delivery vehicle
will not be able to navigate properly, as its sensors will be disturbed, too many
narrow paths and turns in tunnels will also make it difficult to employ
autonomous delivery vehicle. It may also cause potential job losses which
considered one of the biggest concerns surrounding the introduction of robotic
automation is the impact of jobs for workers, if it can perform at a faster, more
consistent rate, then the fear is that humans may not be needed at all. finally big
initial investment costs considered as the biggest obstacle that will decide whether
or not a companies will invest in robotic automation or wait until a later stage.

1.11 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Challenges:

As shown in figure 1.10 there are main five keys of development in autonomous
delivery vehicle which always need to be improved to make it an efficient
solution for all fields where, Government regulation, Consumer confidence and
trust, high Costs are big challenges where until now, autonomous vehicle costs,
although largely depending on the vehicle type and developer, remain high. For
urban deliveries, the costs for autonomous delivery vehicles are balanced out by
costs for labor.
As the cost of labor increases, technology becomes relatively more affordable and
accelerates the transition to vehicle automation. also, the size and carrying
capacity are big challenges where autonomous sidewalk ADV generally have a
capacity between 10 and 35 kilograms, up to a maximum of fifty kilograms,
Follower sidewalk type can carry a load of up to 300 kilograms.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Low-speed Road type are smaller and lighter than regular vans but have a higher
carrying capacity because they do not require a driver cabin, the design of high-
speed road vehicle is based on regular vans that are either automated or modified
to accommodate autonomous deliveries, the type of products carried by these
different vehicles ranges widely, from prepared meals and groceries to regular
non-food parcels of varying urgency.

Figure 1. 10 Keys of development in autonomous delivery vehicle

finally transport speed is very important parameter where autonomous ground

delivery vehicles require a well-designed and maintained land infrastructure.
Such environments are of interest because of their layout, depending on the type
of infrastructure.

1.12 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Future:

Autonomous delivery vehicles are expected to see strong growth over the next
five years, particularly within supply chain operations that include lower-value,
potentially dangerous or high-risk tasks. Manufacturing, final assembly, this
demand will continue to rise even further in the next decade, autonomous delivery
vehicles would facilitate contactless delivery which is the present trend due to the
ongoing Covid-19 pandemic and will continue to remain so in the future too

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Autonomous delivery vehicle will become more ubiquitous with advancements

that make them operate with abilities, because of safer use cases and larger profits

1.13 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Sensors:

Figure 1. 11 Infrared, ultrasonic sensors & Arduino mega

As shown in figure 1.11 a set of sensors integrated together to enable autonomous

delivery vehicle to detect, sense the outer environment, localization and follow
its line way such as (infrared sensor, ultrasonic sensors, GPS)

Ultrasonic sensors:

In figure 1.12 we can realize that ultrasonic used for obstacle avoidance, its
modules used to check the surroundings and measure distance of close obstacles.

Figure 1. 12 Ultrasonic sensor

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Ultrasonic sensor can sense the obstacle in its path and by identifying the object
so that the ADV is able to make right decision on turning left or right while
encounter obstacle in front of it.

Infrared sensor

As shown in figure 1.13 Detectors used to make up the functionality of detection

and increase the accuracy.

Figure 1. 13 Infrared sensor working with different color lines

Smart Global Positioning System (S-GPS)

With a Smart Global Positioning System (S-GPS) framework and a novel

algorithm for tracking delivery robots using multi location technique with optimal
number of references, the S-GPS framework enables to compute coordinates of
all static sensors and ADV within the building, The algorithm provides precise
localization and delivery for improved ADV navigation.

Vision Sensors:

As it is clear in figure 1.14 cameras play a very critical role in ADV, Computer
vision and deep learning on the sensor data can aid object detection and
avoidance, obstacle recognition and obstacle tracking.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Figure 1. 14 Vision sensor components

Simultaneous, localization and mapping are becoming more relevant for

autonomous delivery vehicle operating in both indoor and outdoor environments
where lighting conditions are reasonable and can be maintained. in difficult
lighting conditions, such as the dark or fog thermal and infrared cameras are used.

Lidar Sensor:

Figure 1. 15 Lidar sensor

As shown in figure 1.15 lidar used for light detection and ranging, to rapidly
generate 3D point cloud maps in daylight or at night by bouncing laser beams off
its surroundings has made the sensor a core technology for self-driving delivery
vehicles.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.14 Autonomous Delivery Vehicle Working Strategy:

The autonomous delivery vehicle detects and follows a line. The path determined
by two visible lines, one of them is black and the other is wight, by using infrared
sensor, A close loop control system is used in the ADV, it must sense a line and
maneuvers accordingly to stay on course while correcting the wrong moves using
feedback mechanism thus forming a simple but yet effective closed loop System.
the ultrasonic sensor is placed on the container and is used to detect the presence
of a letter in the container, we have achieved the outcome that lets our ADV to
drive on its own based on our driving style and to deliver the object to our desired
locations Then briefly we can notice that autonomous delivery vehicles working
strategy can be expressed according to the next explanatory shape:

sensing perception decision making

Infrared sensor localization obstacles avoidance

Ultrasonic sensor object tracking path planning

1.15 Advanced Features in Autonomous Delivery Vehicle.

The best method in the future is to rely on a mixture of depth cameras and lasers
on the autonomous delivery vehicle; these devices constantly scan and capture
the environment to identify the vehicle’s position and any obstacles, vision
guidance technology relies completely on cameras that perform 360-degree depth
scans of the environment in order to create a 3D map which the vehicle then uses
for navigation, these are the next generation of self-driving vehicles in
warehouses and they have complete, flexible navigational authority, enabling a
much larger range of potential applications and autonomy.

Advanced communication: Vehicles communicate and coordinate tasks among

themselves each using radio interface communication and laser navigation
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

technology, the overall system is able to adapt its capacity to seasonal and daily
fluctuations, and to changing orders, customer

Autonomous loading and unloading: To increase the overall efficiency of an

entire process, in addition to providing efficiency gains, self-driving vehicles can
also significantly increase safety in transport and loading processes.

Flexibility even in crowded areas: It also uses laser navigation technology and
a 360-degree turn range to allow the vehicle to navigate seamlessly through tight
spaces, doors, and crowded hallways, it can even request an elevator which means
it can navigate autonomously between multiple levels of a building.

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The field of autonomous robots is growing rapidly in the world, in terms of both
the diversity of emerging applications and the levels of interest among traditional
players in the automotive, truck, public transportation, industrial, and military
communities. Autonomous robotic systems offer the potential for significant
enhancements in safety and operational efficiency. Due to the meteoric growth of
e-commerce, developing faster, more affordable and sustainable last-mile
deliveries become more important. Many challenges like reduced capacity, driver
shortage, damaged and stolen products, failed delivery attempts, increased traffic
congestion, etc. can be solved using autonomous robots. An autonomous robot is
designed and engineered to deal with its environment on its own, and work for
extended periods of time without human intervention. It must not only carry out
its task of delivery properly but must also consider the various scenarios changing
around it and act accordingly. The robot must make quick decisions even in
adverse conditions. the robot must be able to take information from sensors,
perceive the environment, localize itself precisely, and finally devise an optimal
plan to achieve its goal.

2.2 Design and Development of Autonomous Delivery Robot

The robot is designed to operate as an autonomous mobile robot platform for
different applications like in industrial areas for transportation, in hospitals for
carrying food and medicines, in unmanned missions and also for security
purposes. Our aim is to develop an autonomous delivery mobile robot that can
deliver a package autonomously from A to B. we can see hardware of the
autonomous delivery robot in (figure 2.1).

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

Figure 2. 1 The hardware of the Autonomous delivery robot

2.2.1 Hardware Overview

The hardware structure of the robot was made by considering the design
requirements. Fig. 2.2 shows the anatomy of the robot, green lines symbolize
signal and communication connections, while red and orange lines are main
power connections and blue lines are connections between motors and motor
drivers.

Figure 2. 2 Hyperphysical Architecture of the Robot

The driving structure is made up of the chassis of the robot, geared motor, smart
servo motor, and motor driver. Chassis consists of an aluminum alloy, spring
suspension, gearbox, and Ackerman steering mechanism.

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

The power system was designed according to the requirements of the drive
system. The Power system has three parts. These parts are battery pack, power
board, and charger. It has two Lithium Polymer (LiPo) battery packs to power its
system. The 5V bus is added to the system to power the auxiliaries such as sensors
and motor drivers. The battery management system monitors battery status. The
power board MCU in LiPo charger cuts the power in the event of a dangerous
situation, such as overvoltage or short-circuit, while charging or discharging
batteries. The power panel is provided on the side of the robot to place ON/OFF
switches and shifting between charging/discharging modes. The power system
schematic of the robot is as given in the Fig. 2.3.

Figure 2. 3 Power diagram of the robot

2.2.2 Controller and Driver Boards

The total three controllers and driver boards mounted on the robot are given as
follows. Mainboard (Nvidia Jetson TX1): Mainboard is the brain of the robot. It
is used for higher-level control, Control board (Arduino Mega): Arduino Mega is
used for lower-level control. It controls both the motors (main drive and steering)
and handles all the sensors and communicates with the main processor to get
commands for the motors and to publish sensor data and DC motor driver (L298):
It is designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and stepping
motors.
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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There are many sensors have used in this system as Orbecc Astra Depth Camera:
RGBD camera mounted to get front view image and front 3D depth map for
perception and planning. It has a range of 8 meters for the 3D depth map. Useful
for localization and for identifying obstacles, LIDAR: Laser range finder which
gives a 2D (planar) 360 degrees depth map, used for perception and planning. It
has a 10 meters scanning range. Useful for localization of robot and identifying
obstacles, IMU Breakout MPU9250: An inertial measurement unit. It consists of
a 3-axis accelerometer, 3-axis gyroscope, and a 3-axis magnetometer. Useful for
localization of robot and SHARP IR Sensor: A distance measuring sensor, to be
used as the last line of defense against collisions. It has a range of 4-30 cm.
Finally, Neo-M8N GPS Module: Gives global position useful for global planning.
The used Neo-M8N GPS Module provides 167 dBm navigation sensitivity and
supports satellite systems. The connection schematic circuit diagram of the non-
optical sensors (except depth camera and LiDAR).
The construction of the prototype and the tasks of perception, mapping,
localization and planning for the Autonomous Delivery Robot are demonstrated.
This project aimed to create a completely autonomous robotic system, robust
enough to operate smoothly on roads with proper localization and planning.

2.3 Autonomous Robot for Delivering the Orders in Restaurants

The use of robots as waiter Robot in restaurants is on a currently increasing trend
in the service industry. It is a robot used to help restaurant staffs to deliver order
to particular tables in the restaurant. This robot can get instructions from a
controller and calculate its path to the destination and navigate its way there. The
controller is connected to the display that will show the table that is currently
being served. Robot can get directions from Processor and figure its way to the
goal and explore its defeat. The Processor is associated with the showcase that
will show the table number. Sensor gives a huge part in mechanical technology.

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This robot is controlled by the user as it follows a path by a unique identification

of table. For that we have connected switches to the input of raspberry pi
depending upon number of tables.

Figure 2. 4 Constructional diagram of waiter Robot

Constructional or working model of Robot Advantages:

• Reducing effort, time, and error.
• Increases quality of service and efficiency.
• Robots are much cheaper than humans and their cost is now decreasing.
• Robots are more precise and consistent than human workers.
• Increases productivity.

2.3.1 Working Methodology

As shown in Fig. 2.5, the block diagram of Autonomous Robot for delivering
orders in Restaurants by using Raspberry pi. Robot having two wheels and one
freewheel is mounted along with different sensors and module (ultrasonic sensors
and switches). This robot is controlled by predefined path as it follows a path by
a unique identification of table. For those switches is connected to the input of
raspberry pi depending upon number of tables we assign the directions and path
for every table. The input is given manually to the robot through switch.

The number of switches equals to the number of tables present in the restaurants.

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

Press the switch from which table order comes. An LCD display whether the key
is pressed or not.

Figure 2. 5 Block Diagram of Proposed work

Ultrasonic sensors are used to detect the obstacles in the path. It transmits the
signal continuously if any obstacle come the obstacle is detected in between 20
cm to 5cm robot will stop else it will follow the given path & the distance is
calculated by controller.
Raspberry pi itself is a minicomputer, it is used for learning and experimental
purpose. This project use Raspberry pi as a main processor to control Robot
motion. It takes the input from switches and ultrasonic sensors and after
processing it, it sends the data to the driver module to control the motors, motor
driver module is used for boosting the current of Raspberry pi. The average
current capacity is 50mA but for controlling the motor we require 2A current.
We can interface two DC motors and one stepper motor to the motor driver
module. DC motors are used for controlling the wheels of Robot. It operates on
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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

12V power supply. DC motor has higher starting torque. It is easy and cost
effective to control. In Robot two wheels are used for taking right and left moves
and one free wheel for taking turn smoothly.
In traditional serving system waiter will deliver the orders so that its time
consuming & produces human errors. this project proposed this system to
overcome these drawbacks. This robot is effectively experimented &
implemented for the restaurants to deliver the order to the table and robot follows
the path, So this robot is cost-effective, and it reduces human efforts. Also, this
robot is utilized for various places like malls, cafes, hotels etc. Robot is designed
to deliver the order to the table. It can improve the quality of service. When any
key is pressed, the Robot will follow the predefined path and reach to the desired
path to deliver the order.

2.4 Line Follower Robot Arduino (using robot to control Patient

bed who was infected with Covid-19 Virus)
The work of robot is through a sensor that follows a line drawn on the ground of
the place, line can be straight or oblique. As shown in figure 2.6 robot dimensions
are small, and this robot can perform its tasks in the most difficult and worst
conditions. This is usually two wheeled robots, a sensor, and a left sensor.

Figure 2. 6 Illustrates robot to control Patient bed who was infected with Covid-19 Virus

The sensor (ground sensor) is a device that explores and obeys some types of
orders from the environment around it. These orders can be like (temperature,
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humidity, or other environmental factors) and the output is by means of a signal

that is sent to the screen and the user or the beneficiary of this process can read it
very clearly through the sensor site or it is sent electronically through the network.
Today, all known sensors convert the measurement of environmental and
physical factors into electrical ones. Of course, mechanically, the robot consists
of two rear wheels rotated by a process that runs on a continuous current, but the
front wheel is free movement and depends in its movement and push it on the
strength of the two rear wheels. Also, it contains an Arduino board and a sensor
that senses the line on the floor and many continuous attempts are made on the
robot to achieve the highest ratio on following the line on the ground from the
starting point (A) to the access point(B).

2.4.1 System Construction

Arduino uno board: This piece is the mind that manages this robot by giving it
movement orders forward or backward or pausing and transferring to self-driving
by tracking the path and the robot can be programmed easily.
DK Electronics: This panel is the mechanical plate of the robot, and through this
plate, the special phases are connected to move the wheels of the robot.

Figure 2. 7 The progression of a bed-shaped robot

IR Sensors: The infrared sensor is the receiver sensor, when an order is issued,
by pressing a specific direction button through the mobile control program, it will

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send signals to the encoded infrared sensor and the sensor will receive these
signals and send them to Arduino shown in figure 2.7
When transporting a patient with corona virus (covid-19) from the ambulance to
the patient's quarantine room. the robot will track the path drawn from the hospital
entrance to the stone room and when it encounters any obstacle it does not stop
because it is programmed to track this path and here was the problem and
therefore we have solved this problem by programming the robot in a way that
allows us to stop it from moving itself and convert the movement to manual
movement when any obstacle is seen in front of it, of course, it is possible in the
future to develop from this project by adding a sensor to sensitize things to the
robot bed for transporting patients, adding an oxygen meter scale and linking this
scale to a mobile system, sending a message to the doctor informing him of the
rate of oxygen every 24 hours.

2.5 Autonomous Robotic Cart for Food Delivery on Airplane

The aim of this project is to develop a robot cart to deliver food on airplane. Two
kinds of food will be stored in two sides of the cart, and each contains two
columns as shown in figure 2.8.

Figure 2. 8 Wooden frame of the robot cart

The process can be roughly divided into four sections: Move, Stop, Choose and
deliver. In the first section, if the cart is powered by battery, it can move forward
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or backward sprightly. It can also turn right or left according to the design of
differential wheels. When the camera on the side of that robot cart detects
required QR code, it will stop. In this section, image processing is applied. After
this, passengers on the airplane can choose what kind of food, for example
chicken or vegetable, they like through an interface.
Then the robot can deliver the food to that passenger. In section four, a scissor
screw system will push out ordered food box into the middle of the cart cabin.
Then a manipulator will grip the food box and send it to customers in the same
line one by one. Once finishes this entire loop, the robot cart will move into the
next loop and send food to next customer. After servicing the last line on the
airplane, the robot cart will go back to preparing room automatically.

2.5.1 Mechanical Section

As the wheelbase increasing, stability of the cart is guaranteed whereas the
maneuverability of the cart is decreased. In this project, the stability of the car is
more important than the maneuverability. Also, the weight center of manipulator
should also be considered when mounting wheels. Therefore, the four wheels are
mounted near edges, to make the cart move smoothly and reliable as shown in
figure 2.9. The motor should be mounted stable and the connection between
motor and wheel should be designed.

Figure 2. 9 Wooden slot to lock motors

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A wooden slot is designed to stable lock the motor, four long screws pass through
the holes on motor and holes on wooden slot. Once the robot gets the order from
customer, a scissor screw will push a food box out to the middle platform.
From bottom to the top, the device is combined by a main frame, a screw bar, two
sliders, two arm fixings and eight arm bars.
The screw bar is driven by the stepper motor. When the screw bar is spinning, the
slider will be driven like a screw hat. All the components are printed out using
3D printer. After one food box is pushed into the middle platform, the next food
box should be compensated to the initial position and wait to be pushed into the
middle platform. A lift system is designed to accomplish this process. the
platform to hold boxes is connected to top shell through four springs. Once the
top food box is pushed out and the scissor screw is stretched back to initial state,
a new food box would be driven up by the lift system.
2.5.2 Electronics section
As shown in figure 2.10 Arduino MEGA is used to control manipulator joint
motors others are used to control stepper motor drivers.

Figure 2. 10 Arduino MEGA microcontroller

Raspberry Pi controller which shows in figure 2.11 is normally suitable for image
processing. In this project, QR code detection applies image processing.

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In this project, a robot arm is used to grip box and send it to customer. This is a 6
degree of freedom robot arm. Rotation angle of five joint motors is 180 degrees.
The griper is driven by a motor and the rotation angle of this motor is from 120
to 180 degree. The motors are with same model MG996R.

Figure 2. 11 Raspberry Pi3 model B

There are two types of stepper motors used in this project. Four NEMA23 motors
are used to drive wheels as shown in figure 2.12 and one NEMA17 is used to
drive scissor screw set.

Figure 2. 12 NEMA23 stepper motor

High current is required to drive stepper motor can’t be supplied by Arduino,

Stepper motor driver TB6600 can work under a voltage range of 9V to 42V.
Maximum current can be provided is 4A, which cover the requirement. There is
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camera used to detect QR code on chairs. It can support 1080p30 and 720p60
video modes. An interface for customer to choose food should be designed. It is
an iPad application in this project.

2.5.3 Component connections

Figure 2.13 shows connections between each component. In general, this robot
cart is mainly controlled by Arduino MEGA, which is assisted by a Raspberry Pi.
In detail, the connections can be divided into four sections: control of wheels,
control of scissor screw, control of manipulator and information transformation.
In the wheel section, stepper motor drivers are controlled by Arduino MEGA
directly. A camera is used to detect QR code labelled on chairs. Once a QR code
is detected, Raspberry Pi will send a message to Arduino and Arduino will stop
stepper motors to make the robot stop.

Figure 2. 13 Component’s connection diagram

In scissor screw control part, it is quite similar with that in wheel control part.
The different is that a stepper motor with smaller torque is mounted in this part.
In detail, a stepper motor driver is connected to Arduino MEGA directly and a
stepper motor NEMA17 is controlled to drive the scissor screw. The interface is
also related with this process. Customer should be able to choose what kind of
food they want, and the instruction would be transferred to Arduino then the

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scissor screw can send out right orders. The working principle of the robot arm
in this project is to control the joint angles. Joint motor are the components to
control to accomplish a movement.
The robot cart hardware is developed, and it can move, which means the wheel
system works. Also, the manipulator can be controlled to pick up a food box and
send it to customer. In the near future, the whole system will be tested and some
experiments will be conducted to test the function of that cart. Moreover, gesture
recognition will be researched, and the robot will be able to recognize the
existence of hand in the future.

2.6 Mobile Robot to Deliver Meals inside Health Services

In the present times there is a great concern in endowing the health care centers
with increasingly more qualified services. This concern has motivated the
development of services and products within different application areas which
had the final goal of improving the patients’ quality of life. One of the great
challenges inside hospitals is the creation of a logistic service which would be
responsible for transporting the meals from the kitchen to the patients’ rooms and
for returning the respective soiled dishes safely, preventing all possible
contamination, be it through the meal, or the service personnel.

Figure 2. 14 Routes and material flow of the robot

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To increase the quality of the meal’s services inside hospitals, we propose a more
hygienic and efficient meal transport service, through a dedicated mobile robot.
This robot can deliver personalized diets to patients and return to the washing
room with soiled dishes to be carefully cleaned (the service cycle in Fig. 2.14).
In a normal operation, the robot moves from the park room to the kitchen where
cooking assistants introduce dishes with normal and/or personalized diets inside
the hot compartment and a tray with drinks and desserts inside the cold
compartment. After the loading operation, a kitchen assistant gives indication to
the robot to start moving towards the respective patients’ ward. Inside the ward,
assistants deliver the meals to the patients and later they load the cold
compartment with the returning soiled dishes. Consequently, the robot transports
the dishes to the washing room.

Figure 2. 15 Virtual prototype and concept product of the robot

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To finalize, the robot returns to the park room to be cleaned, checked for eventual
damages and recharge the batteries. The robot integrates a personalized diets
management system where the information of patients' diets can be introduced by
nurses and assistants. This data can be accessed at any moment in the vehicle
itinerary through a touch screen. To guarantee the meals temperature while being
versatile enough to deliver different kinds of meals along the day, the robot
includes an area where different sizes of trays can be placed, by the installation
of additional supports; a compartment with a preheating system for hot meal
transportation and area in the top to carry thermal bottles with milk or anything.

2.6.1 Product Development

The development of this project involved various knowledge areas such as project
management, geometric modelling, ergonomics, mechanical technology and
materials, structural and thermal validation, microelectronic, control systems,
artificial intelligence, and communication networks.
• Chassis Structure
During the product development stage, a preliminary study on the base structure
chassis was carried out, which led to the definition of some aspects of its shape
and chemical and mechanical characteristics. Mainly, the shape of the chassis was
designed to allow the easy opening of the doors and the operator access to perform
the maintenance of the components. The chassis and the other parts of the base
structure were designed for stainless steel construction, since it has good strength
and stiffness and is resistant to corrosion.
• Control Architecture
The control architecture supports the trajectory control of the robot, the
management of the system and the requests and execution of tasks. The robot has
a set of sensors, actuators and a central board (PC104), running a control
application that controls the robot and guarantees a safe movement and reliable
communication with the management system. The PC104 boards have small

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dimensions, great reliability and low price, USB and RS232/485 interfaces that
allow easy connection with hard disk drives and wireless networks and data
acquisition cards. With this board, a touch screen for Man-Machine Interface and
a Wi-Fi connection, the robot will be able to communicate with other mobile
robots, management system, elevators, automatic doors and other devices which
have a wireless network device. The robot will be powered by ion lithium
batteries The sensors, which will be used to perform orientation and obstacle
avoidance.
Obstacle avoidance was left for further developments; in the current stage, we
propose ultrasonic and/or optical sensors to detect obstacles in the robot’s path.
The robot will reduce its speed and go round the object or person. If it cannot
avoid the object or person, it stops. Further developments will include algorithms
for negotiating the obstacle changing the robot’s trajectory. The robot must have
an emergency button with easy accessibility to be used in case of failure of the
obstacle avoidance system; the frontals bumpers also send an emergency action
to stop motors. To prevent accidents, the robot has LEDs which flash and a buzzer
that sounds smoothly when it moves.

2.6.2 Orientation System

The proposed orientation system has a combination of relative and absolute
localization measurement systems to achieve good localization precision. Thus,
the relative localization measure is provided by two encoders and an inertial unit.
the use of encoders leads to systematic errors due to misalignment, different
dimensions of wheels, or uncertainty about the contact point with the ground. and
the use of an inertial measuring unit which analyzes with high sensibility the robot
movements and provides information about rotation on X, Y and Z axis as well
as the acceleration in each axis. When an optical sensor detects a reflector, the
control system will search through the known positions of the existing reflectors
to identify it and readjust the current position value of the robot. The real position

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of the mobile robot is inferred from the comparison between the measures
obtained from these devices and a model of the place where the robot circulates.
To detect objects and people that cross the path of the robot, it is equipped with
optical sensors in both frontal sides of the base. These sensors have different
orientations, to detect objects in different positions and during the rotation.
The work developed in this project allows defining a new and innovative product
and service concept, greatly improving the meals logistic service. A set of
problems in different knowledge areas, that must be carefully resolved, were
addressed in this work. In some areas, some preliminary studies were carried out,
to define the materials that must be applied, as well as the orientation system and
control architecture. The physical prototype was used to simulate this new
concept service and to present the product.

2.7 Companies Made Models:

2.7.1 Renault EZ-PRO

Between rapid urbanization and the explosion of online shopping, the

transportation of goods needs to be faster, more reliable, and more flexible. It
must also adapt to traffic regulations in towns and cities. The EZ-PRO, just like
the EZ-GO and the EZ-ULTIMO, is an autonomous, electric, and connected
robot concept vehicle as shown in figure 2.16.
It was designed for last mile delivery in the sustainable, smart cities of the future.
The EZ-PRO consists of a “leader” pod with a cabin for a human concierge who
is in charge of the convoy, followed by autonomous, driverless pods that can be
used for delivery or parked in specific places near clients’ locations. The
autonomous pods are modular, customizable, and can thus be adapted for a wide
range of uses. The EZ-PRO is a shared solution based on a system of delivery
hubs, large centers where goods are supplied by trucks and trains then sorted and
redirected for delivery within a city.

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Figure 2. 16 Renault EZ-PRO

Various pods in a single convoy can belong to different professionals and each
have their own destination. Another possibility is for multiple people to share a
single pod.

2.7.2 Nuro self-driving delivery

Nuro is a startup building autonomous self-driving delivery vehicles as shown in

figure 2.17. Founded by two ex-Google engineers. Nuro is designing vehicles for
last-mile delivery of groceries, food, consumer products, and packages.

Figure 2. 17 NURO DELIVERY ROBOT

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Their custom-designed R2 vehicles don’t have space for passengers, instead, they
are optimized for deliveries and safety: they’re small, narrow, use electric motors,
and have pedestrian-protecting features.

2.7.3 NAVYA ARMA

Autonomous shuttles are already being implemented in the airports of the world,
being the first one the Frankfurt’s airport, with its Navya ARMA bus. This vehicle
is 100% electric and is programmed to follow a predetermined route, with some
sensors to ensure it doesn’t collide against obstacles during its path, nor static nor
dynamic ones. The sensors it carries consist on a GPS, a LIDAR, a stereovision
camera and an odometer. A remote-control center monitors the vehicle’s
movements and it has an emergency braking system to be activated if needed.

Figure 2. 18 NAVYA ARMA

The company explains that this product can be used in many different places, like
industrial zones, airports, theme parks, urban zones and even hospitals and hotel
complexes to help clients, visitors and workers to move more easily. The Navya
ARMA’s sensors consist on LIDAR, GPS, odometry sensors and stereovision
cameras and its batteries gives it an autonomy between 5 and 13h, depending on
the circulation conditions.

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They have a 45km/h top speed and are equipped with a LIDAR, a stereovision
camera, odometry sensors and a GPS. They will be integrated in the public
transport network of Lyon, since they passed the public safety requirements test
and were approved for the use in Design and construction of an electric
autonomous driving vehicle public roads. The French Agency for Environment
and Energy Management and the Ministry of ecology, sustainable development
and energy are supporting the project. Figure 2.18, show design of vehicle.

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CHAPTER THREE System Modeling and Simulation

CHAPTER THREE
SYSTEM MODELING And
SIMULATION

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CHAPTER THREE System Modeling and Simulation

CHAPTER THREE
SYSTEM MODELING And SIMULATION
3.1 Simulation Strategy
Sims-cape is used to enable the user to rapidly creates physical model system
within Simulink environment by assembling fundamental components into a
schematic like mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, thermal, magnetic, or pneumatic
component. For example, to make quarter car model by sims-cape we need to
get mass spring damper blocks and their supplements like ideal translation motion
sensor (to know the displacement of the system) mechanical translation reference
(which represents ground) and ideal force source (to let a force act on the system
like bump as shown in figure (3.1). Instead of deriving equations of motion in
figure (3.2) and translating them to complex Simulink blocks in figure (3.3),
Sims-cape is easier and needs less effort than Simulink.

Figure 3. 1 Modeling by Sims-cape

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Figure 3. 2 Equation of motion

Figure 3. 3 Modeling by Simulink

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CHAPTER THREE System Modeling and Simulation

The aim from modeling is to simulate the real vehicle through a model that is
close to the ideal, comparing the results that appeared in the model by the actual
results coming from the vehicle and to figure out the behavior of the vehicle when
there are external factors affecting it like road inclination. wind, facing obstacles
or getting through a curvature.

3.2 Vehicle Model Simulation

Figure 3. 4 Simulation model of the vehicle’s behavior

Firstly, the terminals connections of the vehicle body with the tires: H port in
Vehicle body block is connected to the H port in tire blocks. NR and NF are
connected to N port in tire blocks. Both beta and W ports are connected to PS
constants. A port in tire block is connected to R port of DC motor block. S port
in tire block is connected to PS terminal.
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Secondly, the working principle: DC voltage source feeds the DC motor by a

required voltage then it translates this electric signal to output mechanical
rotational action for the tire blocks (through R and A ports). This mechanical
rotational action gets into the vehicle by a thrust force (this force in real makes
the vehicle move forward) through H ports.
Thirdly, dealing with obstacles control: We assumed that there is an obstacle
Infront of the vehicle while the vehicle is moving downward on inclination, by
choosing a time in the variable input in the control box, a distance with its
corresponding signal acting on the ideal torque source to help the DC motor to
rotate faster (means that the obstacle is far away) or slowing down it until the
vehicle stops (means that the obstacle is near).
Fourthly, maneuvering control: The output signal from the infrared circuit will
goes to the torque source to break the DC motor and hence the tire because in
skid steer concept is braking the right wheel for example and let the left one rotate
(like making a moment around a fixed point).

3.3 Model Components

3.3.1 Vehicle Body Block

Figure 3. 5 Vehicle body block

The H port represents the thrust force from the engine to make the vehicle move
in the forward horizontally direction. The W port for wind velocity which will
affect on vehicle motion.

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The beta port for road inclination as road resistance to detect the effect of this
resistance on vehicle motion. The NR port for the vehicle rear wheel vertical load
and the NF port for the front wheel vertical load. The V forward velocity which
is the main output of the system.

3.3.2 PS Constant Blocks for Vehicle Body Block

Wind constant is taken in our model by 1 m/s. Inclination constant is 0.6*(pi/180).

These values are assumed for worst cases.

Figure 3.6 PS constant blocks

3.3.3 Friction Parametrized Tire Block

The A port is mechanical rotational conversing for wheel axle. The H port is
translational thrust force. N port is Normal force. S is slip and it can be terminated
by PS-terminator. Any type of other tire blocks can be used like magic formula
tire block.

Figure 3.6 Tire block

3.3.4 DC Motor Block (brushed type)

The positive and negative ports are connected electrically with voltage source and
electrical reference, respectively.
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Figure 3. 7 DC motor block

The C port is rotational port can be connected to mechanical rotational reference.

The R port is rotational port can be connected to transmission or directly to The
A port in tire block (our model).

3.3.5 DC Voltage Source

The positive sign is Positive electrical voltage. The negative sign is negative
electrical voltage. The actual tire in our project is wheel hub motor (three phase
brushless gearless) but in the modeling, we used brushed DC motor to make it an
easy mission. There is no block in Sim-scape called wheel hub motor so, we
divided this part into DC motor with the tires.

Figure 3. 8 Voltage source “Battery” block

3.3.6 Control Box (simulating ultrasonic sensor equation)

The principal equation of ultrasonic sensor is distance of travelling =time between
transmitting and receiving the waves in air in microseconds * the velocity of the
wave propagation in air “0.034 cm/µs” /2.

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Figure 3. 9 Control box block

Figure 3. 10 Control box details

Figure 3. 11 Parameters of Ultrasonic block

Air speed is constant block with value 0.017. Variable input block contains the
range of the time which the actual ultrasonic work at in microseconds. Display
block for showing the distance between the vehicle and an obstacle. Lookup table
has values of signals at corresponding distances. breakpoints representing the
distance range between 4 and 400 cm.

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Table data representing the assumed values to get signals operating the ideal
torque source. By choosing Explicit values in breakpoint specifications,
interpolation takes place.
The S-PS converter converts from Simulink values to physical signal. Ideal
torque source has 3 terminals, S for the input physical signal, C is mechanical
rotating port connected to mechanical rotational reference and R is mechanical
port connected to the A Port of tire block.

3.3.7 Ideal Translational Motion Sensor

The R is connected to H port in tire block. C is connected to mechanical

translational reference. V port to show the velocity of the vehicle. P port is to
show the displacement.

Figure 3. 12 Translational motion sensor block

3.3.8 PS-Simulink Converter

This to change from physical signal to Simulink value can by displayed or
scoped.

Figure 3. 13 PS-Simulink converter block

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3.3.9 Solver Configuration

This block is used to run the simulation. Without it nothing happens. It can be
connected wherever the user wants.

Figure 3. 14 Solver configuration block

3.3.10 Infrared Circuit

There is voltage source supply of 5v for the circuit which is needed for the
operational amplifier, photodiode and infrared led (IR led).

Figure 3. 16 Infrared circuit

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All the used resistances have value of 10k Ω. Led emits light in infrared spectrum
and when it falls on the photodiode, the resistance of photodiode drops and also
its voltage “Volt 1”. The output voltage is given to the non-inverting terminal of
operational amplifier. The 10kΩ potentiometer output voltage is given to the
inverting terminal of operational amplifier “Volt 2”. When volt 1 is below volt 2
the output signal of the circuit is zero (low). Otherwise, it is one (high). LED 2 is
used to illuminate in the case of high.
One of those physical signals is an input for the ideal torque source to make the
tire stop or complete rotating.
All display blocks are used to show the required results.

3.4 Results and Tracking the Model:

For example, we choose time of 934.1036 µs then the distance is showed in
display of value 15.88 cm and velocity of 0.242 m/s.

Figure 3. 15 Measuring distance from obstacle

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Figure 3. 16 Measuring velocity of the vehicle instantaneously

Figure 3. 17 Scoping

3.5 Issues that Faced 2017 Simscape Version

In this version we cannot represent full car model to make the vehicle steers as it
follows skid steer behavior and hence, we cannot activate the infrared sensor.

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In version of 2018+, there is a specialized block for autonomous vehicle and

enables the user to make steering.

Figure 3. 18 Full car model for Autonomous driving studies

If you want to activate the ultrasonic icon in Simscape without the control box
and the principal equation, you should connect your lab with Arduino and actual
ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04.The distance will automatically be in display icon

Figure 3. 19 Measuring distance by connecting the Arduino and Ultrasonic to Simulink

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CHAPTER FOUR EXPERIMENTAL TEST RIG

CHAPTER FOUR

EXPERIMENTAL TEST RIG

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CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENTAL TEST RIG

4.1 Introduction
Our project is important autonomous delivery vehicle, it has a very important role
which is to analyze and make the decisions regarding the driving process with
minimal errors so as to ensure the safety of moving from one point to another. It
designed with two structures: The chassis frame structure and control system
structure. The chassis structure is simple design of steel sections and has a storage
box attached with it. We depend on skid steering instead of complex our design
with full steering system so the total weight of vehicle is minimized.
The control system structure consists of multiple components which we will
discuss in detail in this chapter, but in general the system must have sensors which
is one of the main and most important components of an autonomous vehicle,
also actuators and finally a processor that gets the input from sensors and then
makes the decision based on the input data and signals.

4.2 Chassis Design and Structure

By using solid work program, we produced a chassis structure as shown in figure
4.1, this structure consists of two sections, firstly the chassis platform that has all
components of control, wiring, and the motors fitted with it.

Figure 4. 1 The final design of vehicle in solid work

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This section is the main body of vehicle. Secondly the storage part that can be
replaced with any storage design suitable to other applications. We can see the
whole dimensions of chassis and storage part in table (4.1).
Table 4. 1 The whole dimensions of chassis and storage part

Delivery vehicle main dimensions Measured size

Length 120 cm
Width with door handles 90 cm
Height from ground to box top 92.2 cm
Wheelbase 64 cm
@ The center of the vehicle
Center of gravity
@ 36.2 cm from the ground
4.2.1 The Main Chassis Platform
We used steel box sections and make welding, finishing and coating processes on
it and the empty space areas is covered with acrylic as shown in figure (4.2).

Figure 4. 2 The main chassis without acrylic in solid work

The chassis has five main points to discuss:

• Steel angels to prevent the box from sliding or overturning while moving in
ramps as shown the final chassis structure in figure (4.3).

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Figure 4. 3 The steel angels

• Fitting locks to keep the storage part completely fitted safely. We used four
locks, one on each corner as shown in figure (4.4).

Figure 4. 4 Fitting locks

• Motors’s fittings we used four fittings’ parts as shown in figure (4.5) each part
consist of two pieces, one welded with frame and the other enclose the motor
axle by screws and bolts.

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Figure 4. 5 Motor’s fitting

• IR Sensors Holder and Ultrasonic Fixation to hold and protect the IR sensors
and keep them in their distance range away from ground as shown in figure
(4.6).

Figure 4. 6 IR Sensor Holder

• Maintenance Area it is the area enclose batteries, control, wiring and

ultrasonic sensor and keep them secured as shown in figure (4.7).

Figure 4. 7 Maintenance area

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Chassis platform dimensions described in table (4.2)

Table 4. 2 The chassis platform dimensions

Chassis Dimensions Values

Length 120 cm
Width 80 cm
Height without wheels 30 cm
Height with wheels 42.2 cm
Wheelbase 64 cm
Wheel 24.5 cm
Fixation pieces of wheel 5 cm * 5 cm
Back and front chassis covers 80 cm * 20 cm
Right and left chassis covers 120 cm * 20 cm
IR sensors fixation piece height 12 cm under chassis
IR sensors fixation piece length 22 cm
IR sensors fixation piece width 16 cm
Ground clearance with IR fixation piece 2 cm
Ground clearance without IR fixation piece 15 cm

4.2.2 The Storage Box

This part is made from aluminum box sections and covered with acrylic plates. It
consists of two separate areas; each area has two sections as shown in figure (4.8).
The box has two doors with lock for each door and hydraulic dampers are added.
The dimensions of storage box described in table (4.3).

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Figure 4. 8 The two-separate area on the storage box in solid work

Table 4. 3 The dimensions of storage box

Box Dimensions Values

Length 120 m
Width without doors 80 cm
Width with doors 84 cm
Box height 60 cm
Door length 116 cm
Door width 56 cm
Box one rack L: 114 cm / W: 38 cm
Damper length 26 cm
Wood separator between two racks L: 114 cm / W: 54 cm / T: 2 cm

4.3 Components of the control system

4.3.1 Brushless DC Electric Motor Speed Controller with Hall sensor

To control the BLDC wheel hub motor, we used RioRand BLDC motor controller
which is shown in figure (4.9). This controller like others allows us to control the
BLDC motor’s direction and apply braking force if required all through a 5V
signal while the speed control is achieved by an onboard potentiometer for
manual control but if we are to control the speed electronically as is the case in

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our project. We can remove the jumper shown in the photo below and connect
the controller to Arduino and the speed is controlled through Pulse Width
Modulation ‘PWM’ with a signal of 5 volts and we can see detailed connections
of the BLDC motor controller in figure (4.10).

Figure 4. 9 RioRand 400w BLDC motor controller

Figure 4. 10 Detailed connections of the BLDC motor controller

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Interface Description:

1. MA MB MC phase line output connected to the motor.

2. 5V GND the motherboard comes with 5V power supply (available external
power supply current does not exceed 50MA).
3. VCC GND main power supply (external DC power supply).
4. SC speed pulse signal output (only leave the interface, no technical
support).
5. Direction control Forward and reverse control interface (high level
effective, external switch can be connected).
6. Speed control speed control signal input (integrated potentiometer for
speed control on the board can also be connected to 0-5V analog quantity
to support PWM to 0-5 signal input speed control).
7. Ha Hb Hc 5V GND Hall signal Power input interface, generally motors
with Hall have corresponding 5 wires.

4.3.2 Arduino Mega 2560 Board

The Arduino MEGA 2560 as shown in figure (4.11) is designed for projects that
require more I/O lines, more sketch memory, and more RAM. With 54 digital I/O
pins, 16 analog inputs and a larger space for your sketch it is the recommended
board for 3D printers and robotics projects.

Figure 4. 11 Arduino Mega 2560

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This gives your projects plenty of room and opportunities maintaining the
simplicity and effectiveness of the Arduino platform.
The Arduino Mega 2560 is programmed using the Arduino Software (IDE), our
Integrated Development Environment common to all Arduino boards and running
both online and offline.
In the following table some of the technical specifications of Arduino Mega 2560
are shown in table (4.4).

Table 4. 4 Arduino Mega Chip technical specifications

Operating Voltage 5V

Recommended Input Voltage 7-12V

Input Voltage Limits 6-20V

Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)

Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)

DC Current on I/O Pins 40 mA

DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Bootloader)

SRAM 2 KB

EEPROM 1 KB

Frequency (Clock Speed) 16 MHz

4.3.3 Line Following Infrared Sensor

As shown in figure (4.12) an infrared (IR) sensor is any sensor that uses a light
detector, tuned for the IR spectrum, to detect an IR signal. Generally, the IR
sensor is paired with IR-emitting LED to provide the IR signal. The emissions
from the LED are measured for intensity or presence.

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In our application we will use Line and Edge detection infrared sensor which is
used to build devices able to detect edges on a line or a ledge. The technical
specifications of the line following sensor as shown in figure (4.5).

Figure 4. 12 Line Following Sensor

Table 4. 5 The specifications of the line follower sensor

Type sensor Infrared reflective sensor TCRT5000

Detecting the reflected distance 1mm ~ 25mm applicable
Working voltage 3.3V-5V
Size 3.2 cm x 1.4 cm.

4.3.4 Ultrasonic Sensor

For the vehicle to be able to avoid obstacles it first needs to be able to sense them,
therefore we use the ultrasonic sensor as it helps the vehicle to sense its
surrounding environment and visualize its path.

Table 4. 6 The technical specifications of ultrasonic sensor

Supply voltage +5V DC

Supply Current 10mA.
Measurement distance Range 2cm - 400cm
Size 44.5mm W x 20mm H x 15mm D.
Operating temperature range 0° - 70° C.

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The HCSR04 ultrasonic sensor (seen in Figure No 4.13) uses ultrasonic sound to
determine the distance between the sensor and an object. The technical
specifications of the sensor used in our application desired in the table (4.6)

Figure 4. 13 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic sensor

4.3.5 Double Ended Crocodile Clips Cable:

Figure 4. 14 Double ended crocodile cable

This cable will connect the 3 phase cables of the wheel hub motor to the BLDC
motor controller as they have the thickness suitable to provide the current and
voltage needed by the motor.
4.3.6 Wires
It is a thick wire, or a group of wires inside a rubber or plastic covering, which is
used to carry electricity or electronic signals and there are two types of cables
male-female and male-male as shown in figures (4.15) and (4.16).

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Figure 4. 15 Cables male-female Figure 4. 16 Cables male-male

4.3.7 Battery
The battery (seen in figure 4.17) is used to provide the voltage needed to run the
wheel hub motor and it is connected to the BLDC motor controller.
The battery’s technical specifications are listed in table (4.7) and are as follows:

Table 4. 7 The specifications of battery

Type Lithium-ion battery

Capacity 4.4 AH
Voltage 36 Volts
Size 135*90*60 mm
Weight 975 grams

Figure 4. 17 36V DC-Battery

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4.3.8 DC Motor
We used four brushless DC wheel hub motors in figure (4.18) but two of them
drive the car only and control on it by using motor driver and they located on
front axle. The other wheels are free rolling and located on rear axle. The motors
specifications shown in table (4.8)

Table 4. 8 The specifications of wheel hub motors

Over Diameter with Tire 8.5 inch

Rated Voltage 24V – 48V
Rated Power 350 W
Rated Torque 8 N.m
Rated Speed 500 RPM
Tire Types Solid rubber tire
Net Weight 4.7 kg
Design Brushless Gearless

Figure 4. 18 Brushless DC wheel hub motor

4.3.9 Breadboard
Bread board is a flat board that is used as a base for connecting electronic
components to build electronic circuits and prototyping of electronic devices as
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shown in figure (4.19). It does not require welding and is reusable and this makes
it easy to use to create temporary patterns and circuit design experiments. The
technical specifications of the bread board were summarized in the table (4.9).

Table 4. 9 Bread Board Technical specification

Dimensions 97 mm * 52 mm* 12 mm
Power input USB, Vin, Battery
Power output 3.3,5 V
GPIO Pins 14 digital & 6 analogs

Figure 4. 19 Breadboard

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4.4 Schematic diagram of the connections

2
No. Name of Component
1 Arduino Mega Chip
2 Breadboard
3 DC Motor 3
4 Line Following Sensor 4
5 Ultrasonic Sensor
6 Battery
7 Motor Shield
1

7 6

Figure 4. 20 Schematic
Diagram of Connections

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4.5 Theory of Operation of Vehicle

First, we will demonstrate the decision-making process through a flow chart

Figure 4. 21 Flow Chart of the decision-making process

At first the vehicle will detect if there is an obstacle in its path through the
ultrasonic sensor and it is coded to detect any obstacle within 40 cm, if there is
an obstacle that will hinder the vehicle’s movement then the vehicle will stop. In

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case of absence of obstacles, the vehicle then starts to detect the lane through the
infrared sensors also known as the line following sensors.
There are 3 line following sensors present on the vehicle, when the middle one
detects the black line while the other sensors detect the ground the vehicle will
move in a straight direction according to the track represented by the black line.
As for the vehicle’s motion when the line is curved or if there is a hard turn, the
line following sensors input will then change and the vehicle will change its
direction so as to keep itself moving along the black line.
The middle sensor is responsible for maintaining the motion along the line, when
there is a turn or the line is no longer straight the reading of the middle sensor
will change to a different value as it will not be able to detect the track and will
deviate from the path, and one of the outer sensors right or left will detect the
black line instead, for example if the curve of the line is turning right, the vehicle
will move until the left and middle sensors are detecting white color while the
right sensor will detect the black line, the vehicle then will stop the motor on the
right and only move the left motor to skid steer into the right direction until the
outer sensors detect white and the middle sensor detects black, and vice versa in
case the curve is turning left.
To clarify the end of the track for the vehicle it is designed to stop completely
when the readings of all the line following sensors are the same, so this means
that whenever it reaches the end of the track or go out of it the vehicle will stop.

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4.6 The vehicle’s Arduino program

// Motor Shield Pins

int speed_r= 13; //Speed pin of right motor is connected to pin 13 PWM in
Arduino

int brake_r= 22; //Brake pin of right motor is connected to pin 22 in Arduino

int speed_l= 4; //Speed pin of left motor is connected to pin 4 PWM in Arduino

int brake_l = 23; //Brake pin of left motor is connected to pin 22 in Arduino

int dir_r = 24; //Reverse direction pin of right motor is connected to pin 24 in
Arduino

int dir_l = 25; //Reverse direction pin of left motor is connected to pin 25 in
Arduino

//Ultrasonic sensor pins

#define trig 7

#define echo 8

int distance;

long duration;

int setdist= 40;

//Line Following sensor pins

#define ir_r 2 //Right sensor connected to pin no. 2

#define ir_m 3 //Middle sensor connected to pin no. 3

#define ir_l 5 //Left sensor connected to pin no. 5

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void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(trig,OUTPUT);

pinMode(echo,INPUT);

pinMode(speed_r,OUTPUT);

pinMode(brake_r,OUTPUT);

pinMode(dir_r,OUTPUT);

pinMode(speed_l,OUTPUT);

pinMode(brake_l,OUTPUT);

pinMode(dir_l,OUTPUT);

pinMode(ir_r,INPUT);

pinMode(ir_m,INPUT);

pinMode(ir_l,INPUT);

delay(200);

analogWrite(speed_r, 0);

analogWrite(speed_l, 0);

digitalWrite(brake_r, HIGH);

digitalWrite(brake_l, HIGH);

digitalWrite(dir_l,HIGH);

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void loop() {

// Clears the trigPin condition

digitalWrite(trig, LOW);

delayMicroseconds(2);

// Sets the trigger HIGH (ACTIVE) for 10 microseconds

digitalWrite(trig, HIGH);

delayMicroseconds(10);

digitalWrite(trig, LOW);

// Reads the echoPin, returns the sound wave travel time in microseconds

duration = pulseIn(echo, HIGH);

// Calculating the distance

distance = duration * 0.034 / 2;

// Speed of sound wave divided by 2 (go and back)

Serial.print("Right IR sensor =");

Serial.println((digitalRead(ir_r)));

delay(200);

Serial.print("Mid IR sensor =");

Serial.println((digitalRead(ir_m)));

delay(200);

Serial.print("Left IR sensor =");

Serial.println((digitalRead(ir_l)));

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delay(500);

if(distance>setdist){

//Move Forward

if (((digitalRead(ir_l) == 0)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 1)&&(digitalRead(ir_r) ==

0))){

digitalWrite(brake_r, LOW);

digitalWrite(brake_l, LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_l,HIGH);

digitalWrite(dir_r,LOW);

analogWrite(speed_r, 28);

analogWrite(speed_l, 28);}

//Turn Right

elseif (((digitalRead(ir_l)==0)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 1)&&(digitalRead(ir_r)

== 1))){

digitalWrite(brake_r, HIGH);

digitalWrite(brake_l, LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_r, LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_l, HIGH);

analogWrite(speed_r, 0);

analogWrite(speed_l, 80);}

elseif (((digitalRead(ir_l)==0)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 0)&&(digitalRead(ir_r)

== 1))){

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digitalWrite(brake_r, HIGH);

digitalWrite(brake_l, LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_r, LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_l, HIGH);

analogWrite(speed_r, 0);

analogWrite(speed_l, 80);}

//Turn Left

elseif (((digitalRead(ir_l)==1)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 1)&&(digitalRead(ir_r)

== 0))){

digitalWrite(brake_r, LOW);

digitalWrite(brake_l, HIGH);

digitalWrite(dir_r,LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_l,HIGH);

analogWrite(speed_r, 80);

analogWrite(speed_l, 0);}

elseif (((digitalRead(ir_l)==1)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 0)&&(digitalRead(ir_r)

== 0))){

digitalWrite(brake_r, LOW);

digitalWrite(brake_l, HIGH);

digitalWrite(dir_r,LOW);

digitalWrite(dir_l,HIGH);

analogWrite(speed_r, 80);
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analogWrite(speed_l, 0);}

//Stop when out of track

elseif (((digitalRead(ir_l)==1)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 1)&&(digitalRead(ir_r)

== 1))){

analogWrite(speed_r, 0);

analogWrite(speed_l, 0);

digitalWrite(brake_r, HIGH);

digitalWrite(brake_l, HIGH);}

elseif (((digitalRead(ir_l)==0)&&(digitalRead(ir_m) == 0)&&(digitalRead(ir_r)

== 0))){

analogWrite(speed_r, 0);

analogWrite(speed_l, 0);

digitalWrite(brake_r, HIGH);

digitalWrite(brake_l, HIGH);}

//In case there is an obstacle

else {

analogWrite(speed_r, 0);

analogWrite(speed_l, 0);

digitalWrite(brake_r, HIGH);

digitalWrite(brake_l, HIGH);

}}
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CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

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 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK
5.1 Conclusions
The purpose of the project is to manufacture an electric powered delivery vehicle
that can identify its track and carry on the delivering process autonomously
without any human interference by detecting a line that represents its path and
moving along that line and through the ultrasonic sensor it would be able to stop
at a suitable distance to avoid collisions. To achieve this task, we first create
complete design for vehicle chassis and frame to determine their suitable
dimensions then we did some theoretical studies by simulating the behavior of
the vehicle by creating half car model using Sims-cape and MATLAB Simulink
software to get a better understanding about how the vehicle would perform and
to test controller performance during different situations after we made sure we
were on the right track we started the experimental work by build complete car
model equipped with 4 driving hub motors.
The system of the vehicle consists of (four BLDC drive motors, Controller, two
Batteries, and a group of sensors), The decision-making process here is carried
out by the control unit, which is Arduino Mega, depending on the input from the
3 infrared line following sensors and the ultrasonic sensor the Arduino decides
the actions of the vehicle.
The vehicle can navigate its way but only through a track thus it is not completely
independent as it stops when it can no longer sense the track, and this can be
avoided by using different sensors to eliminate the need for the track. We have
created this vehicle to help with transporting exam papers within the premises of
the college without any human interference in to minimize the risks of damaging
the papers and prevent it from falling into wrong hands.

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The vehicle can be integrated to move supplies in warehouses, medicine and

medical supplies in hospitals or even delivering food to houses, thus increasing
the efficiency and accuracy of the delivery process.

5.2 Future work

There are few areas in which this project can be further improved upon in future
as the following points:
• Using a different controller such as Raspberry Pi and compare the results
to achieve optimal behavior of the system during the different operating
conditions.
• Using another technique to make the vehicle autonomous, i.e using GPS
sensor, compass sensor, and Bluetooth module to make the vehicle a
human following one, so one would be able to connect to the vehicle via
Bluetooth and the GPS would be responsible for detecting both the location
of the vehicle and the person’s location while the compass adjusts the
direction of the vehicle to help it follow more accurately, while the
Bluetooth would transmit the GPS coordinates and data from one’s mobile
phone and the controller of the vehicle, this will help eliminate the
dependency of the vehicle on a track and it would be able to deliver the
exam papers with more freedom in movement.
• Delving more into the depths of machine learning and Artificial
Intelligence and implementing this in the vehicle’s system.
• Using a camera to identify the path and detect obstacles which will increase
the reliability of the vehicle.
• Using a Lidar to be able to get a 3-dimensional view of the road which
would help increasing the stability of the vehicle and help it detect any
disturbance

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[2] Jue Ni, Ningyuan Du and Wuwen Wang, ‘Autonomous Delivery Robot’
[3] Endrowednes Kuantama, Albert Brian Lewis Lukas and Pono Budi Mardjoko,
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[4] Devang Dave, Parth Parsana, Aarjav Ajmera, ‘Autonomous Delivery Robot’
B.Tech. Student, Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering,
SVKM’s NMIMS MPSTME, India
[5] Tolga Karakurt, ‘Design of DeLRo Autonomous Delivery Robot and AI Based
Localization’, University of South Florida.
[6] Aakif Hussaini, Ceyu Xu, Kevin Lum, Jingpeng Yu, Prannay Kapur, ‘AutoFood -
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[7] Aniket Gujarathi, Akshay Kulkarni, Unmesh Patil, Yogesh Phalak, Rajeshree
Deotalu, Aman Jain, Navid Panchi, Ashwin Dhabale, Shital Chiddarwar, (2021).
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[8] YongChai Tan, BentFei Lew, KhimLeng Tan, KaeVin Goh, KienLoong Lee and
ZhiChao Khor, "A new Automated Food Delivery System using autonomous track
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[9] M. Kocsis, J. Buyer, N. Sußmann, R. Zöllner and G. Mogan, "Autonomous Grocery
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[10] A. Buchegger, K. Lassnig, S. Loigge, C. Mühlbacher and G. Steinbauer, "An
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