DAR-ES-SALAAM MARITIME INSTITUTE

SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT

Bachelor Degree in shipping and logistics management
SLU 07322
DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
BSLM2/BMME2/BMET2/BMTNS2.

PREPARED BY SASTEMO

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01 The current food shortage in sub-saharan africa countries can be explained in
terms of inadequate agriculture polices. With reference to any country of your
choice discuss this allegation.

02 discuss the contribution from agriculture to the development process and show
why many African countries are persistently faced with food security problems.

03 What do you consider to be the indicators and causes of food crisis in sub-
saharan African since the mid 1970? What policy measure would you recommend
to solve the crisis?

04 What do you consider as a main causes of persistent of food insecurity in sub-

saharan Africa? what policy measures would you recommend to deal with the
situation?

05 What is the impact of SAP on the peasant and rural sector in general?

06 "Rural urban migration in third world countries is still a chronide problem"

Discuss and suggest the ways of cubing the problem.

07 What is urbanization? discuss the models of the growth of the cities and suggest
which models(s) may fit in the third world urbanization.

08. "Nguvu Kazi" was one of the strategies adopted by Tanzanian government in
order to control rural-urban migration in the early of 1980's. Discuss in details of
why the government failed the to control it and say what can be done to solve the
problem.
09. What is a relevance of irrelevance of Louis Wirth's argument of urbanism is a
way of life and Tonnie's arguments on gameinschaft and gasselschaft to the study
of social change.

10. Louis Wirth argument that size of a place is leading that place to urban growth.
The Mere fact size alone is insufficient to give place in urban character means a
variety of other factor are much more important. Discuss this factors to be
considered for a place to grow into urban.

11. Urbanization process of most third world countries is a replica of that which
occurred in the most. Discuss the statement in the view of urbanization in
Tanzania.

12. What is urbanization? Discuss the impact of urbanization to a country like

Tanzania.

13. Which examples from any African country of your choice. Discuss the extent
to which rural-urban linkage development policy has been implemented.

14. Efficient management of technology transfer is critical for reducing povert in

many developing countries. Discuss this statement.

15. Science and technology are critical for development but can also be as cause
for underdevelopment. Discuss.

16. Science, technology and Innovations are neglected dimensions of millennium

development Goals (MDG's) in Africa. Discuss.

17. Critically discuss the contention that rural development, in particular

agriculture development, will depend on the extent to which Africa invests in
development of Agriculture technologies.
18. Identify major problems hindering effective transfer of technology in the third
world countries such as Tanzania. Provide suggestions and housing can be
addressed?

19. Critically examine the impact of globalization on the development of science

and technology in the third world countries.

20. With examples from Africa Discuss the challenge and opportunities of the
international technology transfer.

21. It is more than one and half decades today that almost all the countries of
Africa have been implementing the world bank and international manentary fund
(IMF) sponsored structure adjustment programs. What in your opinion have been
the pros and cons of this programs? Use concrete example from one or more
countries of Africa to illustrate your choice.

22. Industrialization in many third world countries has so failed to become the
engine for economic growth. What are the main reasons for this and what the
prospects for sustainable industrialization in Africa during this era of globalization
and privatization?

23. Compare and contrast import substitution industry from export substitution
industry, and which strategy do you think is more profitable to the another.

24. Give reason why did import substitution failed in Tanzania?

25. Regional integration schemes have different milestone depending on the desire
and consencous by the participating states/ countries. Using the east Africa
community (EAC) discuss the milestones and the development opportunity they
present to the citizens of the member states.
26. "The efforts in the building regional economic integrations in Africa has not
yet succeeded enough due to uncertainty conditions prevailing in the member
states" what do you consider a source of this?

27. Compare and the contrast import substation industry (ISI) strategies and export
substitution industry strategies.

28. Using concrete examples define and discuss the prons and cons of inward
looking industrial strategy and outward looking industrial strategy and which
industrial policy do you think is better than another and why?

29. The social economic developments in Tanzania after they Arusha declaration
had a significant impact on social service provision. With examples from education
or healthy sector substantiate this statement.

30. "Privatization of social service in Africa has led to an unequal system of

service provision which rainforce economic and social inequalities. Using example
from either the education sector discuss this statement and they recommend policy
measures that made might be useful in redressing negative impact of privatization
of social delivery systems.

31. "Liberalization and privatization policies in education and health care delivery
systems have led to growing gap along gender rural-urban and the class line"
Discuss with example

32. "Critically discuss the contention that "The quality of public education in
Tanzania has been declining over the past two decades."
33. What steps in the Tanzania government taking to improve the provision of
primary and secondary education in Tanzania? What problems do you foresee in
the implementation of such policies?

34. "The persistent health problem in developing countries are partly due to
predominance of the medical perspectives in the definition of health and provision
of healthcare. Critically examine the contetion.

35. "Globalization through structure adjustment program (SAP's) has affected both
education and health sectors delivery system." Provide a through account of this
effects.
ANSWER

01 The current food shortage in sub-saharan africa countries can be

explained in terms of inadequate agriculture polices. With reference
to any country of your choice discuss this allegation.

Agriculture policy refers to a government's framework of laws, regulations, and

measures that are designed to support and regulate the agricultural sector. These
policies can encompass various aspects such as subsidies, trade regulations, land
use planning, research and development funding, environmental protections, and
market regulations. The goal of agriculture policy is to ensure food security,
support rural development, enhance agricultural productivity, promote sustainable
farming practices, and manage economic aspects of the agricultural industry.
Shortage of food in sub-saharan Africa countries is due to inadequate agriculture
policies according to the following reason.

•Lack of Investment: In Nigeria, inadequate agriculture policies have led to a lack

of investment in the agricultural sector, resulting in limited modernization, low
productivity, and inefficiencies in food production.

•Poor Infrastructure: The absence of proper infrastructure such as roads, storage

facilities, and irrigation systems hinders the distribution of food products across the
country, leading to wastage and food shortages in certain regions.

•Inadequate Research and Development: Insufficient funding for agricultural

research and development in Nigeria has limited advancements in seed technology,
crop yield improvement, and pest control, contributing to lower agricultural
productivity.
•Policy Inconsistencies: Fluctuations in government policies related to agriculture
in Nigeria create uncertainty for farmers and investors, hampering long-term
planning and sustainable development in the sector.

•Lack of Access to Credit: Small-scale farmers in Nigeria struggle to access

credit facilities and financial support, limiting their ability to invest in improved
farming practices, technologies, and inputs.

•Climate Change Impacts: Nigeria's vulnerability to climate change exacerbates

food insecurity issues, with unpredictable weather patterns, droughts, and flooding
affecting crop production and food availability.

•Land Fragmentation: Inefficient land use practices and land fragmentation in

Nigeria reduce the scale of farming operations, limiting economies of scale and
overall agricultural productivity.

•Limited Extension Services: The lack of effective extension services in Nigeria

constrains farmers' access to information, training, and resources needed to adopt
best agricultural practices, leading to suboptimal yields and food shortages.

Hence, the food shortage in Nigeria can be partially attributed to inadequate

agriculture policies that hinder investment, infrastructure development, research,
and support for small-scale farmers, exacerbating food insecurity challenges in the
country.

02 discuss the contribution from agriculture to the development process and

show why many African countries are persistently faced with food security
problems.
Agriculture is the practice of cultivating soil, crops, and livestock for food, fiber,
and other products essential for human life. It involves various activities such as
planting, harvesting, and animal husbandry to produce food crops, herbs, fruits,
vegetables, and meat. Agriculture plays a key role in supporting economies,
providing food security, and influencing environmental sustainability. The
following are the contribution from agriculture to the development process.

•Economic Growth: Agriculture fuels economies by providing employment,

income, and raw materials for industry

•Food Security: It ensures a stable food supply, reducing dependency on imports

and mitigating hunger.

•Technology Adoption: Agricultural innovations lead to improved productivity

and efficiency.

•Rural Development: Agricultural development often uplifts entire rural

communities, reducing poverty.

•Environmental Sustainability: Sustainable agricultural practices promote soil

health, biodiversity, and water conservation.

•Export Earnings: Agricultural exports boost foreign exchange reserves,

contributing to overall economic stability and growth.

Despite this contribution of agriculture, many African countries continue to face persistent
food security problems due to various reasons:

•Underinvestment: Many African countries have historically underinvested in

agriculture, leading to poor infrastructure, limited access to modern technologies,
and inadequate support for farmers.
•Climate Change: African countries are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change, such as unpredictable weather patterns, droughts, floods, and other
natural disasters, which can significantly affect agricultural productivity.

•Limited Access to Markets: Poor infrastructure, inadequate transport systems,

and limited market access hinder farmers' ability to sell their produce, leading to
food losses and reduced incomes.

•Land Degradation: Continuous land degradation due to unsustainable

agricultural practices, deforestation, and soil erosion reduces the fertility of the
land, limiting agricultural productivity.

•Political Instability and Conflicts: Political instability and conflicts in many

African countries disrupt agricultural activities, lead to displacement of people, and
hinder long-term development efforts.

•Lack of Education and Training: Limited access to education and training in

modern agricultural techniques hinders farmers' ability to improve productivity and
adapt to changing conditions.

Therefore, addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach involving

investment in agricultural infrastructure, sustainable practices, climate-resilient
technologies, education and training, market access improvements, and political
stability. By addressing these issues, African countries can enhance their
agricultural productivity, ensure food security, and contribute to their overall
development process.
03 What do you consider to be the indicators and causes of food crisis in sub-
saharan African since the mid 1970? What policy measure would you
recommend to solve the crisis?

A food crisis in Sub-Saharan African countries refers to a situation where there

is a significant shortage of food, leading to widespread hunger, malnutrition, and
even starvation among the population. Factors contributing to this crisis include
droughts, conflicts, poor infrastructure, and economic instability. The food crisis
exacerbates poverty, affects health and well-being, and hinders development
efforts in the region, making it a pressing humanitarian issue that requires urgent
attention and coordinated efforts to ensure food security for the people.

Food crisis in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a complex issue with many indicators,
including:

Prevalence of undernourishment (PoU): The FAO's PoU indicator estimates the

percentage of the population that doesn't consume enough food to maintain a
healthy life. In 2022, 22.5% of the population in SSA was undernourished, which
is a 9 million increase from 2021.

Food availability: Average food availability is calculated by adding domestic

production, imports, and food aid, and subtracting exports. Insufficient domestic
production and imports can lead to inadequate food availability.

Economic challenges: Economic challenges like currency devaluations, inflation,

and trade barriers can worsen food insecurity.

Conflict: Conflict is a major driver of food crises in SSA.

Rapid population growth: The urban population in SSA is growing rapidly.

Small farm sizes: Small farms may not be able to produce enough food.

Lack of resilience: A lack of resilience to climate change can make populations

more vulnerable to food insecurity.

Food crises in Sub-Saharan African countries can be attributed to a

combination of various factors, including:

•Climate Change: Erratic weather patterns, prolonged droughts, and flooding due
to climate change can lead to crop failures and reduced agricultural productivity,
resulting in food shortages.

•Conflict and Instability: Persistent conflicts, civil wars, and political instability
in some regions can disrupt food production and distribution, leading to food
insecurity.

•Poverty: Widespread poverty in many Sub-Saharan African countries limits

access to food for a significant portion of the population, especially in rural areas.

•Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate transportation networks, storage facilities, and

market access can hinder the efficient distribution of food, leading to food scarcity
and price volatility.

•Crop Diseases and Pests: Outbreaks of crop diseases and infestations of pests
can devastate agricultural production and reduce food supplies.

•Lack of Investment in Agriculture: Insufficient investment in agriculture, both

in terms of infrastructure and technology, can limit productivity and exacerbate
food insecurity.
•Rapid Population Growth: Rapid population growth in many Sub-Saharan
African countries can outpace food production capacity, leading to food shortages
and hunger.

•Land Degradation: Soil degradation, deforestation, and overexploitation of

natural resources can diminish agricultural productivity and threaten food security.

•Inadequate Access to Inputs: Limited access to seeds, fertilizers, machinery, and

other agricultural inputs can impede farmers' ability to increase crop yields and
ensure food security.

Addressing these interconnected issues requires a multifaceted approach that

involves sustainable agricultural practices, climate adaptation strategies, improved
infrastructure, poverty alleviation efforts, and effective governance to ensure food
security for the population of Sub-Saharan Africa.

04 What do you consider as a main causes of persistent of food insecurity in

sub-saharan Africa? what policy measures would you recommend to deal with
the situation?

Food insecurity in a sub-Saharan African country refers to the lack of reliable

access to an affordable and nutritious diet for individuals and households in that
region. This can result from factors such as poverty, conflict, climate change, and
poor infrastructure, leading to inadequate food availability, accessibility, and
utilization for the population. The following are the main causes of persistently
food insecurity in sub-saharan Africa

•Climate change and weather variability: Sub-Saharan Africa is highly

vulnerable to climate change, leading to erratic rainfall patterns, droughts, floods,
and other extreme weather events. These factors can significantly impact
agricultural productivity and food availability.

•Poverty and inequality: Widespread poverty and income inequality in sub-

Saharan Africa hinder access to nutritious food. Many people in the region cannot
afford an adequate diet due to low incomes and lack of economic opportunities.

•Conflicts and instability: Persistent conflicts and political instability in various

parts of sub-Saharan Africa disrupt agricultural activities, displace populations, and
impede the distribution of food aid. These conditions exacerbate food insecurity by
creating food shortages and limiting access to essential resources.

•Poor infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure, such as transportation

networks, storage facilities, and irrigation systems, hinders the efficient movement
of food from production areas to markets. This results in food losses, price
fluctuations, and limited access to food for vulnerable populations.

•Limited access to inputs and technology: Smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan

Africa often lack access to quality seeds, fertilizers, and modern agricultural
technologies. This limits their productivity and resilience to environmental
challenges, perpetuating food insecurity in the region.
•Health challenges: Diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and malnutrition
contribute to food insecurity by affecting productivity, increasing healthcare costs,
and reducing the ability of individuals to work and support themselves. These
health challenges further strain already vulnerable populations and hinder efforts to
overcome food insecurity in the region.

What policy measures would you recommend to deal with the situation?

Apart to this causes the following are policy measures would you recommend
to deal with food insecurity.

•Agricultural investments: Governments promote investment in agriculture

through subsidies, improved infrastructure, and research to increase food
production.

•Food reserves: Establishing strategic food reserves to stabilize food prices and
ensure availability during times of scarcity.

•Social protection programs: Implementing safety net programs such as cash

transfers, school feeding programs, and nutrition assistance to support vulnerable
populations.

•Market interventions: Implementing policies to regulate food prices, promote

fair trade practices, and reduce market volatility.

•Climate change adaptation: Developing strategies to address the impact of

climate change on agricultural productivity, such as promoting drought-resistant
crops and sustainable agricultural practices.
•Nutrition programs: Implementing nutrition education programs, fortification of
food, and promoting dietary diversity to improve the nutritional status of
populations.

These policy measures are crucial in addressing the complex challenges of food
security in sub-Saharan Africa and ensuring that populations have access to
sufficient, safe, and nutritious food.

05 What is the impact of SAP on the peasant and rural sector in general?

Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) are economic reforms that countries

must implement to receive loans from the World Bank or the International
Monetary Fund (IMF). SAPs are intended to make countries more competitive and
reduce their economic dependence on others. SAPs often include policies such as:
Devaluing the currency, Cutting public spending, Privatizing industry, and
Opening up to free trade.

The stated purpose of SAPs is to improve a country's international

competitiveness, adjust its economic structure, and restore its balance of payments.
However, SAPs have been criticized for: Imposing austerity on poor nations,
Undermining national sovereignty, Deepening social inequality, and Marginalizing
poorer countries in the global economy.

The results of SAPs have been mixed, with most programs having negligible or
negative impacts. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, participation in SAPs
seems to have led to a worsening of poverty levels.
Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) can have a negative impact on the
rural and peasant sector:

Declining income: SAPs can lead to a decline in real income, especially for wage
earners.

Declining agricultural share of GDP: SAPs can lead to a decline in the share of
agriculture in a country's GDP.

•Declining product prices: SAPs can lead to a decline in product prices, which
can make it difficult for farmers to renew their farm tools and inputs.

•Increased cash crop cultivation: Farmers may need to increase their cash crop
cultivation to make ends meet, which can lead to a reduction in the area used for
food crops.

•Decapitalization: Farmers may need to sell their livestock or poorly maintain

their farm implements to make ends meet.

•Undernutrition: Farmers may become undernourished due to low income and

inability to purchase vital consumer goods.

•Outmigration: Farmers may be forced to leave their farms due to low income and
other factors.

•Worsening poverty: In Sub-Saharan Africa, participation in SAPs seems to have

led to a worsening of poverty levels.

SAPs are a set of economic reforms that countries must adhere to in order to
secure a loan from the World Bank or the International Monetary Fund. SAPs
often include economic policies such as reducing government spending and
opening up to free trade.

06 "Rural urban migration in third world countries is still a chronide

problem" Discuss and suggest the ways of cubing the problem.

Rural-urban migration refers to the movement of people from rural areas to

urban areas in search of better employment opportunities, living conditions,
education, healthcare, and other amenities. This process is driven by various
factors such as industrialization, urbanization, modernization, and economic
development.

As people migrate from rural to urban areas, they leave behind their traditional
way of life and adapt to the urban environment. This migration can have a
significant impact on both the areas of origin (rural areas) and destination (urban
areas), as it can lead to changes in population demographics, economic dynamics,
social structures, and infrastructure development.

Rural-urban migration in third world countries continues to be a chronic

problem due to various push and pull factors. Here are points discussing this
issue and suggesting ways to address it:

•Push Factors: Economic disparities, lack of job opportunities, limited access to

education and healthcare, poor infrastructure in rural areas all contribute to people
moving to cities in search of better opportunities.
•Pull Factors: Cities offer the promise of better employment options, improved
social amenities, education, and healthcare facilities, making them attractive to
rural migrants.

•Overcrowding and Strain on Urban Resources: The rapid influx of rural

migrants to urban areas puts pressure on existing infrastructures and services,
leading to overcrowding, strain on resources, and increased competition for jobs.

•Suggested Strategies:

-Investment in Rural Development: Enhancing infrastructure, providing better

healthcare and education facilities, and promoting sustainable livelihood
opportunities in rural areas can help reduce the push factors.

-Creating Job Opportunities: Encouraging industries and businesses to set up in

rural areas through incentives can help distribute economic activities more evenly.

•Improving Agricultural Sector: Investing in modern farming techniques,

irrigation systems, and providing access to credit can boost agricultural
productivity, reducing rural poverty.

•Enhancing Connectivity: Developing transport networks, communication

systems, and promoting access to markets can foster rural development and reduce
isolation.

•Skill Development and Training: Providing vocational training and skill

development programs tailored to the needs of rural populations can empower
people to find gainful employment within their own communities.
•Promoting Entrepreneurship: Creating opportunities for entrepreneurship and
supporting small businesses in rural areas can stimulate local economies and
provide alternative sources of income.

•Community-Based Solutions: Encouraging community participation in decision-

making, promoting local governance, and fostering a sense of ownership can help
retain population in rural areas and build sustainable communities.

In conclusion, addressing rural-urban migration in third world countries requires a

multifaceted approach that combines investment in rural development, job
creation, skill enhancement, and community empowerment. By tackling the root
causes that drive people to migrate to cities, sustainable solutions can be
implemented to curb this persistent issue.

07 What is urbanization? discuss the models of the growth of the cities and
suggest which models(s) may fit in the third world urbanization.

Urbanization refers to the process of population shifting from rural areas to urban
areas, leading to the growth of cities and towns. It involves demographic, social,
and economic changes as people seek better opportunities and amenities in urban
settings. Urbanization often coincides with industrialization and modernization,
shaping the physical and cultural landscape of regions.The following as a models
of growth of cities

•Concentric Zone Model by Burgess: The concentric zone model, developed by

sociologist Ernest Burgess, describes urban land use patterns with a city center
surrounded by concentric rings of varying land use. The model proposes that the
city grows outward from a central business district in a series of zones, including
the transition zone, working-class residential zone, middle-class residential zone,
and commuter zone. Over time, the model suggests that inner-city areas deteriorate
as wealthier residents move to the suburbs. This model emphasizes the impact of
socio-economic factors on urban spatial structure.

•Sector Model by Hoyt: The sector model is a way to visualize urban structures
based on socioeconomic factors. It divides the city into sectors radiating out from a
central business district. Each sector houses specific types of activities and social
groups, such as high-income residential areas in one sector and industrial zones in
another. The model, proposed by Homer Hoyt in the 1930s as an alternative to the
concentric zone model, helps explain urban development patterns and the
distribution of different land uses within a city.

•Multiple Nuclei Model by Harris and Ullman: The multiple nuclei model is a
theory proposed in urban geography that suggests that cities are composed of
numerous centers of activity or nuclei, each with a specific function or economic
focus. These nuclei develop and grow independently of each other, leading to a
city with multiple specialized districts rather than a single centralized downtown.
This model helps explain the complex and decentralized structure of many modern
cities.

•Urban Realms Model by Vance: The Urban Realms Model is a theory of urban
structure developed by James Vance in 2001. This model provides a different
perspective on urban organization compared to traditional models like the
Concentric Zone Model or Sector Model. The Urban Realms Model proposes that
cities are made up of multiple nodes or realms, each with its own distinct
characteristics and functions.
•Latin American Model: Concentric zones surrounded by upper-class sectors and
disorganized peripheries. Third world urbanization may fit Multiple Nuclei Model
due to rapid growth, multiple economic centers, and varied land uses emerging in
an uncoordinated manner, reflecting the complexity and diversity of these cities.

In the context of third world urbanization, the multiple nuclei model may be more
applicable. This model suggests that cities can grow with multiple centers of
development, which could be seen in developing countries where there is rapid and
unplanned urbanization leading to the emergence of various economic and
industrial hubs across the city.

Conclusion,In the context of third-world urbanization, a combination of the

Concentric Zone Model and the Multiple Nuclei Model may be applicable. These
models consider factors such as rapid population growth, informal settlements,
lack of urban planning, and the coexistence of traditional and modern elements
within cities commonly found in third-world countries. The mix of different land
uses, varying socio-economic groups, and multiple centers of activity can be
observed in many third-world urban areas experiencing rapid urbanization.

08. "Nguvu Kazi" was one of the strategies adopted by Tanzanian

government in order to control rural-urban migration in the early of 1980's.
Discuss in details of why the government failed the to control it and say what
can be done to solve the problem.

The "Nguvu Kazi" (meaning "workforce" in Swahili) strategy implemented by the

Tanzanian government in the early 1980s aimed to control rural-urban migration
by providing employment opportunities in rural areas. However, the strategy failed
to effectively control the migration for several reasons:

•Limited Job Opportunities: The rural areas did not have sufficient job
opportunities to absorb the large workforce, leading to a mismatch between the
available workforce and the available jobs. This lack of job opportunities rendered
the strategy ineffective in retaining people in the rural areas.

•Economic Disparities: Economic disparities between rural and urban areas

persisted, with urban areas offering better wages, living conditions, and access to
services. This economic gap acted as a significant pull factor for people to migrate
to urban areas in search of better opportunities despite the government's efforts.

•Infrastructure and Services: Basic infrastructure and essential services such as

healthcare, education, and transportation were often more developed in urban areas
than in rural regions. This disparity made urban areas more attractive for those
seeking better living conditions and access to services.

•Limited Support and Implementation: The government's implementation of the

"Nguvu Kazi" strategy may have been hindered by limited resources, inefficient
planning, or ineffective execution of policies, resulting in its failure to address the
root causes of rural-urban migration.

To solve the problem of rural-urban migration in Tanzania, several measures

can be considered:

•Diversification of Rural Economy: Promoting the diversification of the rural

economy by supporting agricultural modernization, agribusiness development, and
rural industries can create more job opportunities in rural areas, reducing the push
factors driving migration.
•Investment in Infrastructure: Improving infrastructure such as roads, electricity,
water supply, and telecommunications in rural areas can enhance living standards
and economic opportunities, making rural areas more attractive for residents.

•Skills Development and Education: Investing in vocational training, skill

development programs, and educational opportunities in rural areas can equip the
workforce with the necessary skills for local employment, reducing the dependence
on urban job markets.

•Support for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs): Encouraging the growth
of SMEs in rural areas through access to credit, market linkages, and business
support services can stimulate local economic development and create job
opportunities closer to people's homes.

•Policy Coordination and Monitoring: Ensuring effective coordination among

government agencies, local authorities, and stakeholders in implementing rural
development policies is essential for addressing the multifaceted challenges of
rural-urban migration. Regular monitoring and evaluation of strategies can help
identify gaps and improve interventions over time.

By addressing the root causes of rural-urban migration and implementing targeted

interventions that create sustainable economic opportunities and improve living
conditions in rural areas, Tanzania can work towards controlling migration and
promoting balanced regional development.

09. What is a relevance or irrelevance of Louis Wirth's argument of urbanism

is a way of life and Tonnie's arguments on gameinschaft and gasselschaft to
the study of social change.
Louis Wirth's argument that urbanism is a way of life emphasizes the unique social
characteristics of urban environments, such as diversity, anonymity, and
individualism. This perspective is relevant to the study of social change as cities
often serve as hubs of innovation and cultural evolution, leading to shifts in
societal norms and behaviors.

On the other hand, Ferdinand Tönnies' concepts of Gemeinschaft (community) and

Gesellschaft (society) highlight the contrasting social structures of traditional
close-knit communities and modern, large-scale societies. Tönnies' arguments are
also valuable for understanding social change, as they provide insights into how
shifts from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft can impact social cohesion, norms, and
relationships.

Both Wirth's and Tönnies' perspectives contribute to the study of social change by
offering valuable insights into how urbanization, social structures, and community
dynamics influence societal transformations over time.

10. Louis Wirth argument that size of a place is leading that place to urban
growth. The Mere fact size alone is insufficient to give place in urban
character means a variety of other factor are much more important. Discuss
this factors to be considered for a place to grow into urban.

Louis Wirth argued that urbanization leads to a shift in social interactions and
relationships, resulting in anonymity and a decreased sense of community. He
believed that in large cities, individuals experience a sense of detachment and
superficiality in their connections compared to smaller communities. Wirth
highlighted that urban areas foster a fragmented society with weaker social ties,
leading to social disorganization and challenges in maintaining traditional values
and solidarity. Several other factors play a crucial role in determining whether a
place grows into an urban setting. Some of the factors to consider include:

•Population Density: Higher population density is a key characteristic of urban

areas. As the population grows, the need for services, infrastructure, and amenities
increases, leading to urbanization.

•Economic Activity: Urban areas are often hubs of economic activity, with diverse
industries, businesses, and job opportunities. Economic growth and development
are essential for a place to evolve into an urban center.

•Infrastructure: Adequate infrastructure like transportation networks, utilities,

healthcare facilities, and educational institutions are crucial for urban growth.
These amenities attract people and businesses to the area.

•Cultural and Social Factors: Urban areas tend to be culturally diverse and offer
a wide range of social activities and services. Cultural institutions, entertainment
options, and social opportunities contribute to the urban character of a place

•Governance and Planning: Effective governance, urban planning, and

regulations are essential for managing growth sustainably. Planning for housing,
transportation, green spaces, and public services is crucial for shaping the urban
environment.

•Technological Advancements: Technology plays a significant role in urban

growth by enabling connectivity, innovation, and efficiency. Smart infrastructure
and digital services are increasingly shaping urban development.
In conclusion, while size is a factor in urban growth, it is the interplay of various
factors like population density, economic activity, infrastructure, culture,
governance, and technology that collectively determine whether a place evolves
into an urban setting. These factors work together to create the dynamic and
complex urban environments we see today.

11. Urbanization process of most third world countries is a replica of that

which occurred in the most. Discuss the statement in the view of urbanization
in Tanzania.

Urbanization refers to the process by which an increasing proportion of a

population lives in cities and urban areas as opposed to rural areas. It involves the
growth of cities and towns, the expansion of urban infrastructure, and the
migration of people from rural to urban areas in search of better opportunities such
as jobs, education, healthcare, and improved quality of life. Urbanization is often
accompanied by various social, economic, and environmental changes, including
increased population density, greater demand for resources, and the development
of urban amenities and services.

The statement suggests that the urbanization process in most third world countries
mirrors what transpired in more developed nations. In the case of Tanzania, this is
a relevant perspective when examining its urbanization trends.

Similar to many other developing countries, Tanzania has experienced rapid

urbanization in recent decades. This urbanization process shares common
characteristics with that of developed nations, albeit with some unique challenges
and opportunities.
•Rural-Urban Migration: As seen in other countries, Tanzania has witnessed
significant rural-urban migration as people move from rural areas to cities in
search of better economic opportunities. This influx of people into urban areas
often strains infrastructure and services, leading to challenges such as
overcrowding and inadequate housing.

•Industrialization: Urbanization in Tanzania, like in many developing nations, has

been closely linked to industrialization and economic growth. Major cities like Dar
es Salaam have become economic hubs, attracting businesses and industries that
contribute to urban development.

•Infrastructure Development: The urbanization process in Tanzania has

necessitated the development of infrastructure such as transportation networks,
water supply systems, and energy facilities. However, the pace of infrastructure
development has often lagged behind the rapid urban growth, leading to challenges
in service delivery.

•Social Dynamics: Urbanization in Tanzania has led to changes in social structures

and cultural practices as people from diverse backgrounds come together in urban
areas. This mixing of cultures can create both opportunities for social integration
and challenges related to social cohesion.

•Urban Planning Challenges: Like in many developing countries, Tanzania faces

urban planning challenges such as informal settlements, inadequate land use
planning, and environmental degradation. These issues require coordinated efforts
to address and manage sustainable urban development.

•Economic Disparities: The urbanization process in Tanzania has also highlighted

disparities in income and access to services between different groups of the
population. Economic inequalities often manifest more prominently in urban areas,
posing challenges for inclusive growth and development.

In conclusion, the urbanization process in Tanzania reflects broader patterns

observed in other developing nations, albeit with its own unique context and
challenges. By understanding these dynamics and implementing sustainable urban
development strategies, Tanzania can harness the potential of urbanization to drive
economic growth, social development, and environmental sustainability.

12. What is urbanization? Discuss the impact of urbanization to a country like

Tanzania.

Urbanization refers to the process by which an increasing proportion of a

population lives in cities and urban areas as opposed to rural areas. It involves the
growth of cities and towns, the expansion of urban infrastructure, and the
migration of people from rural to urban areas in search of better opportunities such
as jobs, education, healthcare, and improved quality of life. Urbanization is often
accompanied by various social, economic, and environmental changes, including
increased population density, greater demand for resources, and the development
of urban amenities and services. The following are the positive impact of
urbanization in Tanzania

•Economic Growth: Urbanization often leads to increased economic activities, job

opportunities, and innovation as businesses and industries thrive in urban areas.
This can result in higher income levels for individuals and overall economic
growth for the region.
•Infrastructure Development: Urbanization drives the development of
infrastructure such as transportation networks, utilities, healthcare facilities, and
educational institutions to support the growing population. This leads to improved
living standards and enhanced quality of life for residents.

•Social Mobility: Urban areas offer diverse social environments and opportunities
for social interactions, cultural exchanges, and upward social mobility. People in
urban areas often have better access to education, healthcare, and social services,
contributing to overall societal well-being.

•Technological Advancements: Urbanization encourages technological

advancements and innovations as companies, research institutions, and startups
concentrate in urban centers. This can lead to the adoption of new technologies,
smart city solutions, and sustainable practices that benefit both the residents and
the environment.

•Cultural Exchange: Urban areas are melting pots of different cultures, traditions,
and perspectives, fostering cultural diversity, creativity, and tolerance. This
exchange of ideas and experiences can lead to cultural enrichment, artistic
expression, and a more inclusive society.

Apart to this positive impact of urbanization in Tanzania the following are the
negative impact of urbanization

•Overcrowding and Housing Issues: As cities grow rapidly due to urbanization,

they often face issues with overcrowding and inadequate housing. This leads to
slums, high rent prices, and homelessness.
•Environmental Degradation: Urbanization can result in deforestation, pollution,
loss of natural habitats, and increased carbon emissions due to higher energy
consumption and transportation needs.

•Strain on Infrastructure: Rapid urbanization puts a strain on existing

infrastructure such as roads, public transportation, water supply, and sanitation
systems. This can lead to congestion, inadequate services, and health hazards.

•Social Disparities: Urbanization can widen the gap between the rich and the poor,
leading to social inequalities, marginalized communities, and increased crime rates
in urban areas.

•Health Issues: Urbanization is often linked to health problems such as increased

air pollution, exposure to toxins, lack of access to healthcare, and higher stress
levels due to the fast-paced urban lifestyle.

Overall, managing urbanization effectively in Tanzania is crucial to maximize its

benefits while mitigating its negative impacts. This requires sustainable urban
planning, investment in infrastructure, provision of basic services, and policies to
address issues such as housing affordability, social inclusion, and environmental
sustainability.

13. With examples from any African country of your choice. Discuss the
extent to which rural-urban linkage development policy has been
implemented.

Rural-urban linkage development policy aims to foster balanced growth and

cooperation between rural and urban areas. It focuses on integrating these regions
through infrastructural development, resource sharing, and promoting economic
interdependence. This policy seeks to reduce disparities, improve living standards,
and enhance sustainable development by leveraging the strengths of both rural and
urban areas. By emphasizing connectivity, accessibility, and mutual support, it
aims to create a harmonious relationship that benefits communities in both settings.
Here are the extent to which rural-urban linkage development policy has been
implemented in my choice country from Africa, Tanzania:

•Infrastructure Development: The government has invested in infrastructure

projects such as roads and bridges connecting rural areas to urban centers. For
example, the construction of the Dodoma-Morogoro highway has improved
transportation and connectivity between rural and urban areas.

•Agricultural Value Chains: Initiatives have been introduced to strengthen

agricultural value chains from rural to urban markets. For instance, the Kilimo
Markets Program promotes the linkages between small-scale rural farmers and
urban markets through improved access to market information and transportation
infrastructure.

•Employment Opportunities: Efforts have been made to create employment

opportunities in rural areas through the development of agro-industries and
processing plants. For example, initiatives like the SAGCOT (Southern
Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania) aim to link smallholder farmers with
agribusinesses and markets in urban areas, creating job opportunities along the
agricultural value chain.

•Technology Adoption: The government has promoted the adoption of technology

to enhance rural-urban linkages. For example, the use of digital platforms like
Kilimo Mart connects rural farmers with urban consumers, improving market
access and efficiency.

•Sustainable Urbanization: Policies have been implemented to promote

sustainable urbanization by addressing issues such as urban sprawl and informal
settlements. Initiatives like the National Spatial Development Plan aim to guide
urban growth in a way that supports rural-urban linkages while ensuring
environmental sustainability.

•Skills Development: Programs focusing on skills development and capacity

building in rural areas have been introduced to enhance the capabilities of rural
populations to engage in urban economic activities. For instance, vocational
training centers have been established to equip rural youth with skills relevant to
urban job markets.

•Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between the public and private

sectors has been fostered to drive rural-urban linkages. For example, infrastructure
projects like the Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) are being implemented through
public-private partnerships to improve connectivity between rural production areas
and urban markets, facilitating trade and economic development.

These points demonstrate the efforts made in Tanzania to implement rural-urban

linkage development policies, aiming to promote inclusive growth and enhance
connectivity between rural and urban areas.

14. Efficient management of technology transfer is critical for reducing povert

in many developing countries. Discuss this statement.
Technology transfer refers to the process of sharing and disseminating
knowledge, technology, and innovations from one individual, organization, or
country to another. It involves the transmission of skills, know-how, tools,
methods, and intellectual property to facilitate the adoption and implementation of
technological advancements in a new context or by a different entity. Technology
transfer can occur through various means such as licensing agreements, joint
ventures, collaborations, and partnerships. It plays a crucial role in accelerating
innovation, economic development, and industrial progress by enabling the spread
of advancements across different industries and regions.

•Access to Technology: Effective technology transfer provides developing

countries with access to advanced tools and knowledge that can enhance
productivity and economic growth.

•Innovation: It encourages innovation and the creation of new solutions tailored to

local needs, which can help address specific challenges related to poverty.

•Capacity Building: Technology transfer can contribute to capacity building by

providing training and skills development opportunities, leading to sustainable
development.

•Market Competitiveness: By adopting and adapting technologies from other

countries, developing nations can improve their market competitiveness and attract
investment.

•Knowledge Sharing: It facilitates the sharing of knowledge and best practices,

enabling developing countries to leapfrog stages of development and accelerate
progress.
•Sustainability: Effective technology transfer can promote sustainable practices
that benefit both the environment and local communities, reducing poverty in the
long term.

•Policy Support: Governments play a crucial role in facilitating technology

transfer through supportive policies, incentives, and partnerships to ensure its
successful implementation and impact on poverty reduction.

Hence, Efficient technology transfer can empower developing countries by

fostering innovation, creating job opportunities, and enhancing productivity. It
enables access to advanced solutions in healthcare, agriculture, and education, thus
alleviating poverty. Effective management ensures the dissemination of knowledge
and resources to local communities, promoting sustainable development and
economic growth. By facilitating the adoption of relevant technologies, developing
countries can address pressing challenges and bridge the digital divide, ultimately
improving quality of life and promoting inclusive prosperity.

15. Science and technology are critical for development but can also be as
cause for underdevelopment. Discuss.

Science is the systematic study of the physical and natural world through
observation and experimentation to understand how things work. Technology
refers to the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, often
leading to the development of new tools, processes, or products. Science seeks to
discover new knowledge while technology focuses on applying that knowledge to
solve problems and improve our daily lives. Together, they play a crucial role in
driving innovation and advancements in various fields. Science and technology a
critical for development due to the following reasons;

•Advancements in Innovation: Science and technology are the driving forces

behind innovation. They enable the creation of new ideas, products, and services
that enhance the quality of life, increase efficiency in various sectors, and drive
economic growth.

•Improved Healthcare: Through advancements in medical science and

technology, we have seen remarkable improvements in healthcare in terms of
diagnosis, treatments, and overall patient care. This has led to longer life
expectancies, better disease management, and improved well-being for individuals
worldwide.

•Enhanced Communication and Connectivity: Technology has revolutionized

how we communicate and connect with each other globally. The internet,
smartphones, and social media platforms have made it easier for people to share
information, collaborate on projects, and access educational resources, thereby
bridging the gap between communities and fostering cross-cultural understanding.

•Sustainable Development: Science and technology play a crucial role in

promoting sustainable development practices. From renewable energy sources to
environmentally friendly manufacturing processes, technological innovations are
helping us address pressing issues such as climate change, resource depletion, and
pollution, leading to a more sustainable future for all.

•Economic Growth:Science and technology are major drivers of economic growth

in both developed and developing countries. They fuel productivity gains, create
new job opportunities, attract investments, and stimulate entrepreneurship, thereby
contributing to overall prosperity and human development.

Apart to this contribution of development in science and technology the

following are the causes of underdevelopment contributed by science and
technology

•Inadequate Infrastructure: Many African countries lack the necessary

infrastructure to support the advancement of science and technology. For example,
the lack of reliable electricity hampers research and development efforts. Countries
like Nigeria and Ghana struggle with frequent power outages, which disrupt
scientific progress.

•Limited Access to Education: A significant portion of the African population

does not have access to quality education in science and technology fields. This
results in a shortage of skilled professionals in these sectors. For instance, in rural
areas of countries like Ethiopia and Tanzania, access to quality STEM education is
limited.

•Lack of Investment: African governments often allocate insufficient funds

towards scientific research and technology development. This lack of investment
hinders progress in various industries. For example, in Zimbabwe, limited funding
for research institutions has hindered their ability to innovate and develop new
technologies.

•Brain Drain: Many highly skilled professionals in science and technology fields
leave Africa in search of better opportunities abroad. This brain drain further
exacerbates the underdevelopment of these sectors. Countries like South Africa
and Kenya experience significant brain drain of talented individuals in STEM
fields.

•Limited Collaboration and Networking: The lack of collaboration between

African countries and with international partners also hinders scientific
advancements. For example, inadequate networks for knowledge sharing between
researchers in different African countries impede innovation and progress in the
region.

In conclusion, while science and technology are powerful tools for development,
ensuring their responsible and equitable use is essential to prevent them from
becoming causes of underdevelopment. Effective policies and initiatives are
needed to address these challenges and harness the full potential of science and
technology for sustainable development.

16. Science, technology and Innovations are neglected dimensions of

millennium development Goals (MDG's) in Africa. Discuss.

Science involves the systematic study of the natural world to understand how it
works. Technology encompasses tools, devices, and systems developed through
scientific knowledge to solve problems or achieve specific goals. Innovation, on
the other hand, involves the process of applying creative thinking to develop new
ideas, methods, or solutions that lead to improvements or advancements in various
aspects of life. Together, science, technology, and innovation play crucial roles in
driving progress, fostering development, and shaping the future of society. In the
context of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Africa, science, technology,
and innovation have often been neglected dimensions. Despite their crucial role in
driving sustainable development, these areas have not received adequate attention
within the MDG framework in many African countries. Here are a few reasons
why they are often neglected:

•Limited funding: Science, technology, and innovations often require significant

investment, but MDGs in Africa have primarily focused on more immediate
priorities like healthcare and education, leaving limited resources for advancement
in these areas.

•Lack of infrastructure: Many African countries face challenges in establishing

the necessary infrastructure to support scientific research and technological
development, hindering progress towards achieving MDGs related to these
dimensions.

•Brain drain: Talented researchers and innovators tend to migrate to other regions
with better opportunities, leading to a loss of expertise and hindering the growth of
science and technology sectors in Africa.

•Weak collaboration: Effective partnerships between governments, academia, and

industries are essential for driving innovations, but the lack of collaboration and
coordination often hampers progress in this regard in Africa.

•Limited access to technology: The digital divide and inadequate access to new
technologies in many parts of Africa impede the effective adoption and
implementation of advancements in science and technology that could support the
achievement of MDGs.

•Policy gaps: Inadequate policies and regulations related to science, technology,

and innovations create barriers to progress and limit the integration of these
dimensions into the broader development agenda in Africa.
•Limited research and development (R&D) capacity: Insufficient R&D
capabilities and weak research institutions in many African countries constrain the
generation of innovative solutions to address development challenges and
contribute to the neglect of science, technology, and innovations within MDGs.

Addressing these challenges and placing a stronger emphasis on science,

technology, and innovation within the development agenda is crucial for
accelerating progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in
Africa. It requires increased investments, building research capabilities, fostering
innovation ecosystems, and creating conducive policies to support the integration
of science and technology in development strategies.

17. Critically discuss the contention that rural development, in particular

agriculture development, will depend on the extent to which Africa invests in
development of Agriculture technologies.

Rural development refers to initiatives and efforts aimed at improving the quality
of life and economic wellbeing of people living in rural areas. It involves activities
such as infrastructure development, access to basic services, agricultural
improvements, and community empowerment. Agriculture development, a key
component of rural development, focuses specifically on enhancing agricultural
productivity, increasing farmers' income, promoting sustainable farming practices,
and ensuring food security. Both rural and agriculture development aim to create
sustainable economic growth, reduce poverty, and enhance the overall socio-
economic conditions in rural communities.
The contention that rural development, especially in agriculture, hinges on Africa's
investment in agricultural technologies is a crucial and valid point that merits
critical discussion. Agriculture remains the backbone of many African economies,
providing employment and sustenance for a large portion of the population.
However, several factors contribute to the need for technological advancement in
African agriculture for sustainable rural development.

•Increasing Productivity: Investment in agricultural technologies such as high-

yield seeds, efficient irrigation systems, and mechanization can significantly boost
productivity. With a growing population, Africa needs to produce more food to
meet the demand. Technological advancements can help achieve higher yields on
limited arable land.

•Climate Resilience: Climate change poses a significant challenge to African

agriculture with unpredictable weather patterns, droughts, and floods affecting crop
production. Agricultural technologies like drought-resistant crops, weather
forecasting tools, and precision agriculture can help farmers adapt to changing
climatic conditions.

•Value Addition and Market Access: Technology can enable value addition in
agriculture, transforming raw produce into processed goods for higher market
value. Additionally, digital platforms and e-commerce technologies can improve
market access for rural farmers, connecting them to larger markets and fair prices
for their products.

•Youth Engagement: The youth population in Africa is rapidly growing, and

many are migrating to urban areas in search of better opportunities. Investing in
agricultural technologies can make farming more attractive to the younger
generation by incorporating data analytics, drones, and mobile applications,
making farming more efficient and engaging for tech-savvy youth.

•Sustainability and Conservation: Modern agricultural technologies promote

sustainable farming practices such as precision agriculture, which optimizes
resource use, minimizes environmental impact, and conserves soil health. This is
vital for the long-term viability of agriculture in Africa.

However, there are challenges that need to be addressed for the successful
adoption of agricultural technologies in Africa:

•Access and Affordability: Many small-scale farmers in rural areas lack access to
modern agricultural technologies due to high costs and limited infrastructure.
Investments are needed to make these technologies more accessible and affordable
to smallholder farmers.

•Capacity Building: Adequate training and support are essential to ensure that
farmers can effectively utilize agricultural technologies. Capacity building
programs are crucial to equip farmers with the necessary skills to implement and
maintain these technologies.

•Policy and Infrastructure: Supportive policies and infrastructure are essential

for the widespread adoption of agricultural technologies. Governments need to
create an enabling environment that encourages innovation, investment, and
technology transfer in the agricultural sector.

In conclusion, the contention that rural development in Africa, particularly in

agriculture, is dependent on investment in agricultural technologies is well-
founded. The adoption of modern agricultural technologies has the potential to
transform African agriculture, improve productivity, enhance resilience to climate
change, and ensure sustainable rural development. However, concerted efforts are
needed to address challenges related to access, capacity building, policy, and
infrastructure to realize the full potential of agricultural technologies in Africa.

18. Identify major problems hindering effective transfer of technology in the

third world countries such as Tanzania. Provide suggestions and housing can
be addressed?

Technology transfer refers to the process of sharing, disseminating, or

exchanging knowledge, skills, methods, or technologies from one individual,
organization, or country to another for the purpose of practical application or
commercialization. Some major problems hindering effective transfer of
technology in third world countries like Tanzania include:

•Lack of infrastructure: Inadequate roads, electricity, and internet connectivity

can hinder the adoption and use of technology.

•Limited access to knowledge and skills: Many individuals in third world

countries may not have the necessary education or training to effectively utilize
new technologies.

•Poor funding and investment: Insufficient financial resources can limit the
ability of organizations and individuals to acquire and implement new
technologies.
Suggestions to address these challenges:

•Improve infrastructure: Investing in infrastructure projects to improve

transportation, energy supply, and communication networks can facilitate
technology transfer.

•Enhance education and training programs: Promoting technical education and

training initiatives can help develop the skills needed to effectively utilize new
technologies.

•Increase funding and support: Governments, international organizations, and

private sectors can provide funding and support for technology transfer initiatives
through grants, subsidies, and partnerships.

In addition to these strategies, providing affordable housing with built-in

technology solutions, such as energy-efficient appliances and renewable energy
systems, can further encourage the adoption of technology in third world countries
like Tanzania. This approach can help address both housing needs and promote the
integration of technology in everyday living, improving the overall quality of life
for residents.

19. Critically examine the impact of globalization on the development of

science and technology in the third world countries.

Globalization is the process by which businesses, cultures, and societies around

the world become more interconnected and interdependent. It involves the
exchange of goods, services, ideas, and information on a global scale, leading to
increased interconnectedness and integration among countries and peoples.
Positive impacts of globalization on the development of science and
technology in third world countries:

•Access to Knowledge and Information: Globalization allows easier

access to scientific research, technological advancements, and
educational resources from around the world. This can help third world
countries to stay updated on the latest developments in science and
technology.

•International Collaboration: Globalization fosters collaboration

between scientists, researchers, and technological experts across borders,
enabling third world countries to work with more advanced nations on
joint projects, research initiatives, and technology transfer.

•Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Globalization can attract foreign

investments in the form of technology transfer, infrastructure
development, and research funding. This can catalyze the science and
technology sectors in third world countries and facilitate local
innovation.

•Skill and Knowledge Transfer: Globalization facilitates the

movement of skilled professionals and experts across countries, leading
to knowledge exchange, skill development, and training opportunities
for individuals in third world countries.
Negative impacts of globalization on the development of science and
technology in third world countries:

•Technological Dependency: Overreliance on imported technologies

due to globalization can create a dependency on developed countries,
hindering the ability of third world nations to develop indigenous
scientific and technological capabilities.

•Brain Drain: Globalization may lead to a brain drain phenomenon

where skilled scientists and tech professionals from third world countries
migrate to developed nations in search of better opportunities, resulting
in a loss of talent for domestic development.

•Growing Disparities: Globalization can widen the technology gap

between advanced and developing nations, as the former have more
resources and infrastructure to benefit from globalization while the latter
struggle to keep up and may be left behind.

•Ethical Concerns: Globalization can bring ethical dilemmas in the

development of science and technology in third world countries, such as
issues related to exploitation of natural resources, unequal partnerships,
and disregard for environmental and social impact.

While globalization offers opportunities for the development of science

and technology in third world countries, it is essential to address these
challenges to ensure a more balanced and sustainable approach to
technological advancement.

20. With examples from Africa Discuss the challenge and

opportunities of the international technology transfer.

Opportunity of technology transfer refers to the chance to share or

license technological advancements, knowledge, or innovations from
one party to another. This process allows for the dissemination of
valuable expertise, research, or products between different entities,
fostering collaboration and driving progress in various industries.
Through technology transfer, organizations can leverage external
knowledge for their own benefit, accelerate development, reduce costs,
and enter new markets. It enables the optimization of available
resources, promotes innovation, and encourages growth through the
integration of external advancements into existing capabilities.

International technology transfer in Africa presents both challenges and

opportunities for the continent. Here are some key points highlighting
both aspects:

Challenges:

•Lack of infrastructure: Many parts of Africa lack the necessary

infrastructure to support advanced technology transfer. This includes
issues like inadequate power supply, poor internet connectivity, and
limited access to technology hubs.

•Limited resources: African countries often struggle with limited

resources for research and development, making it difficult to adopt and
adapt new technologies from overseas.

•Intellectual property concerns: Protecting intellectual property rights

can be a challenge in Africa, which can make businesses and
governments hesitant to engage in technology transfer agreements for
fear of losing valuable innovations.

•Skills gap: There is a significant skills gap in many African countries

when it comes to implementing and maintaining advanced technologies.
This can hinder the successful adoption of transferred technologies.

Opportunities:

•Innovation: Technology transfer provides an opportunity for African

countries to leapfrog traditional development stages and adopt cutting-
edge technologies in various sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, and
finance.

•Partnerships: Collaborations with international tech companies and

organizations can help African countries access technology solutions
tailored to their needs, as well as provide opportunities for knowledge
exchange and training.
•Job creation: Technology transfer can stimulate economic growth and
create job opportunities in Africa, particularly in the tech sector. This
can help address issues of unemployment and drive innovation.

•Sustainable development: By transferring environmentally friendly

and sustainable technologies, African countries can work towards
achieving their development goals while mitigating the negative impacts
on the environment.

Examples:

•Mobile money revolution: Africa has led the world in mobile money
innovation, with services like M-Pesa in Kenya. This has revolutionized
financial inclusion and brought banking services to underserved
populations.

•Renewable energy: Investments in renewable energy technologies like

solar power are gaining traction in Africa, providing clean energy
solutions that can address the continent's energy challenges.

•E-health solutions: Technologies such as telemedicine and mobile

health apps are being transferred to Africa, improving healthcare access
and delivery in remote areas.
In conclusion, while international technology transfer in Africa comes
with challenges, the opportunities it presents can significantly impact the
continent's development and drive sustainable growth in various sectors.
Collaboration, innovation, and investment are key to maximizing the
benefits of technology transfer in Africa.

21. It is more than one and half decades today that almost all the
countries of Africa have been implementing the world bank and
international manentary fund (IMF) sponsored structure
adjustment programs. What in your opinion have been the pros and
cons of this programs? Use concrete example from one or more
countries of Africa to illustrate your choice.

A Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) refers to the set of policies

prescribed by international financial institutions to address economic
imbalances in developing countries. It typically includes fiscal austerity,
liberalization, and privatization measures designed to stabilize and
promote growth. While intended to improve economic performance,
SAPs have faced criticism for exacerbating inequalities and social
hardships. The Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) implemented by
the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have had both pros
and cons in African countries over the past decades. Pros;
•Economic Stability: SAPs aimed to stabilize the economy by
addressing issues like inflation, budget deficits, and currency
devaluation, thereby laying a foundation for sustainable economic
growth.

•Fiscal Discipline: SAPs encouraged African countries to adopt

responsible fiscal policies, including reducing government spending,
implementing tax reforms, and improving public financial management.

•Market-oriented Reforms: SAPs promoted market liberalization and

deregulation, fostering a more competitive business environment and
attracting foreign investments that could contribute to economic growth.

•Infrastructure Development: Some SAPs included provisions for

infrastructure projects like roads, schools, and hospitals, which could
benefit the population by improving access to essential services and
enhancing overall development.

Cons

•Social Impact: SAPs often led to austerity measures, including cuts in

public spending, which could result in reduced access to essential
services such as healthcare and education, disproportionately affecting
the most vulnerable populations.

•Increased Inequality: In some cases, SAPs exacerbated income

inequality by favoring market-oriented policies that primarily benefited
wealthier segments of society, while marginalized groups faced greater
hardship and exclusion.

•Dependency on Foreign Aid: SAPs sometimes created a cycle of

dependency on external aid and loans, as countries struggled to meet the
conditionalities imposed by international financial institutions, leading
to long-term debt burdens and limited policy autonomy.

•Undermining Local Industries: The emphasis on trade liberalization

under SAPs could negatively impact local industries by exposing them
to competition from foreign companies with greater resources and
technology, potentially leading to the decline of domestic businesses and
job losses.

Overall, while SAPs have had some positive impacts on economic

stability and market reforms in African countries, they have also faced
criticism for their social implications, inequality issues, dependency on
foreign aid, and potential harm to local industries.

22. Industrialization in many third world countries has so failed to

become the engine for economic growth. What are the main reasons
for this and what the prospects for sustainable industrialization in
Africa during this era of globalization and privatization?
Industrialization refers to the process of transforming an economy from
one based primarily on agriculture and handcrafts to one based on large-
scale industry, manufacturing, and technology. It typically involves the
mechanization of production processes, the use of advanced machines
and technologies, and the establishment of factories and industrial
infrastructure.

Industrialization is often associated with urbanization, as it leads to a

significant migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of
employment opportunities in factories and industrial centers. This
transformation can have profound social, economic, and environmental
impacts on a society, including changes in labor practices, living
conditions, class dynamics, and resource consumption. Industrialization
failed to become economic growth to the third world they countries due
to the following reason

•Lack of infrastructure: Insufficient roads, ports, and utilities impede

industrial development.

•Limited access to capital: High interest rates and strict lending criteria
deter investment.

•Weak institutional framework: Corruption, bureaucracy, and weak

property rights hamper business growth.
•Inadequate skilled workforce: Poor education and training hinder
productivity and innovation.

•Unstable political environments: Policy uncertainty and conflict deter

long-term investment and planning.

The following are the prospect for sustainable industrialization in

third world countries

•Resource Utilization: Leveraging abundant natural resources for

value-added industrial activities.

•Infrastructure Development: Investing in modern infrastructure to

support industrial growth.

•Skills Development: Fostering a skilled workforce to meet industry

demands.

•Technology Adoption: Embracing technological advancements to

enhance efficiency and productivity.

•Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborating with private sector for

investment and knowledge transfer in industries.

Hence the prospects for sustainable industrialization in Africa during

this era of globalization and privatization are influenced by factors such
as improving infrastructure, fostering innovation and technology
transfer, promoting good governance, enhancing skills development, and
creating an enabling environment for businesses to thrive. Efforts to
address these challenges can support the development of a more robust
industrial sector in Africa.

23. Compare and contrast import substitution industry from export

substitution industry, and which strategy do you think is more
profitable to the another.

Import substitution industrialization (ISI) and export substitution

industrialization (ESI) are two economic strategies aimed at fostering
industrial growth and development, particularly in developing countries.
Here are six points comparing and contrasting the two strategies:

•Focus and Goals:

- Import substitution industrialization (ISI) focuses on the development

of domestic industries to produce goods that were previously imported.

- Export substitution industrialization (ESI) aims to boost economic

growth by exporting goods that were previously imported or substituting
imports with domestically-produced goods.

•Market Orientation:
 - ISI policies are inward-looking and protective, often involving high
tariffs and trade barriers to shield domestic industries from external
competition.

- ESI policies are outward-looking, aiming to integrate domestic

industries into global markets by promoting export-oriented industries
and creating incentives for export-led growth.

•Technological Innovation:

- ISI tends to prioritize the development and transfer of technology to

enable the production of a wider range of goods domestically, including
those previously imported.

- ESI focuses on improving production efficiency, quality, and

competitiveness to meet international standards and penetrate global
markets with exportable goods.

•Trade Dynamics:

- ISI can lead to trade deficits due to the focus on substituting imports
with domestic production, leading to a reliance on imported raw
materials and intermediate goods.

- ESI aims to reduce trade deficits by promoting export-led growth,

generating foreign exchange, and diversifying the economy's export base
to reduce vulnerability to external shocks.
•Long-Term Sustainability:

- ISI can create inefficiencies and protect uncompetitive industries,

leading to lower productivity and hindering long-term economic growth
and competitiveness.

- ESI seeks to enhance the competitiveness of domestic industries by

focusing on quality, innovation, and productivity improvements that can
lead to sustained growth and increased global market share.

•Profitability and Economic Performance:

- The profitability of ISI can be limited by the constrained domestic

market, lack of competition, and inefficiencies associated with
protectionist policies.

- ESI has the potential for higher profitability through increased export
earnings, technology transfer, economies of scale, and access to larger
global markets that can drive economic growth and development in the
long run.

In conclusion, while both import substitution industrialization (ISI) and

export substitution industrialization (ESI) have their advantages and
drawbacks, ESI is generally considered more profitable in the long term
due to its focus on efficiency, competitiveness, and integration into
global markets. ESI can lead to sustainable economic growth, increased
export earnings, technology transfer, and enhanced productivity, making
it a more viable strategy for many developing countries looking to
achieve long-term prosperity and economic development.

24. Give reason why did import substitution failed in Tanzania?

Import substitution industrialization is a strategy used by countries to

promote economic development by replacing imported goods with
domestically produced goods. This approach aims to boost domestic
industries, create jobs, reduce dependency on foreign imports, and
improve trade balances.

•Lack of competitiveness: Domestic industries in Tanzania were unable

to compete with foreign goods in terms of quality and price, leading to a
preference for imported products.

•Limited technological advancements: Domestic industries lacked the

necessary technology and expertise to produce goods that could match
the quality and efficiency of imported products.

•Inadequate infrastructure: Insufficient infrastructure and logistical

challenges hampered the production and distribution of goods
domestically, making reliance on imports more convenient.

•Dependence on foreign markets: Tanzania's economy remained

heavily reliant on foreign markets for both raw materials and market
access, undermining efforts to substitute imports with domestically
produced goods.

•Poor government policies: Inconsistent or ineffective government

policies, including trade regulations and industrial strategies, failed to
provide the necessary support for import substitution industries to thrive.

•Lack of skilled labor: Tanzania faced a shortage of skilled labor in key

sectors, limiting the growth and efficiency of domestic industries
attempting to replace imports.

•External pressures: Global economic trends, international trade

agreements, and pressures from international financial institutions
discouraged import substitution policies and favored more open trade
policies, making it difficult for Tanzania to succeed in import
substitution.

Hence, Import substitution failed in Tanzania due to lack of economic

diversification, limited domestic capacity, inefficiencies in domestic
productions, and reliance on volatile global markets. Additionally,
inadequate infrastructure, lack of skilled labor, and corruption hindered
the success of import substitution policies.
25. Regional integration schemes have different milestone depending
on the desire and consencous by the participating states/countries.
Using the east Africa community (EAC) discuss the milestones and
the development opportunity they present to the citizens of the
member states.

The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organization

composed of six countries in the Eastern Africa region: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda,
South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Established in 2000, the EAC aims to
promote economic, political, and social integration among its member states. It has
a common market protocol allowing for the free movement of goods, people, and
services across borders, as well as a customs union and plans for a monetary union.
The EAC also focuses on infrastructure development, trade facilitation, and
cooperation in various sectors such as agriculture, health, and security. Here are
milestones and the development opportunities they bring:

•Customs Union: The establishment of a Customs Union within the EAC has
facilitated the free movement of goods among member states, leading to increased
trade volumes. This has created opportunities for businesses to expand market
reach and enjoy economies of scale, ultimately benefiting consumers through
lower prices and a wider variety of goods.

•Common Market Protocol: Implementation of the Common Market Protocol has

allowed for the free movement of people, labor, services, and capital within the
EAC region. This has led to increased opportunities for employment, skills
transfer, and business expansion across borders, promoting economic growth and
integration.

•Infrastructure Development: The EAC has made significant strides in

infrastructure development, including road networks, railways, ports, and air
transport. Improved infrastructure enhances connectivity, trade facilitation, and
mobility, creating opportunities for tourism growth, investment attraction, and
regional economic development.

•Regional Industrialization: Initiatives to promote regional industrialization and

value addition have been key milestones for the EAC. By fostering industrial
growth and diversification, member states can harness their comparative
advantages, create employment opportunities, and enhance productivity to meet
domestic and regional demand.

•Financial Integration: Steps taken towards financial integration, such as

harmonizing financial regulations and promoting cross-border financial services,
have enhanced financial inclusion and access to capital for businesses and
individuals. This fosters investment, entrepreneurship, and economic stability
within the region.

•Economic Partnership Agreements: By negotiating Economic Partnership

Agreements with external partners, the EAC member states have improved access
to international markets, boosting export opportunities for local industries and
agricultural products. This supports economic diversification and enhances
competitiveness on a global scale.

•Education and Skills Development: The EAC has prioritized cooperation in

education and skills development, facilitating knowledge exchange, joint research
initiatives, and harmonization of academic qualifications. This promotes a skilled
workforce, innovation, and technology transfer, enhancing human capital
development and productivity.

•Regional Peace and Security: Promoting regional peace and security has been a
fundamental milestone for the EAC. By fostering political stability, conflict
resolution mechanisms, and mutual cooperation in security matters, member states
create a conducive environment for sustainable development, investment, and
overall wellbeing of their citizens.

In conclusion, the East African Community has made significant progress in

advancing regional integration through various milestones, offering development
opportunities that benefit the citizens of member states in terms of economic
growth, job creation, infrastructure enhancement, education, and peace and
security.

26. "The efforts in the building regional economic integrations in Africa has
not yet succeeded enough due to uncertainty conditions prevailing in the
member states" what do you consider a source of this?

Regional economic integration refers to the process where countries within a

geographic region cooperate and integrate their economies through agreements to
reduce trade barriers and enhance economic cooperation.

An example from Africa is the East African Community (EAC), which consists of
Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. The EAC aims to
promote economic integration and cooperation by facilitating trade, investment,
and free movement of goods and people within the member countries. This
integration allows for shared resources, increased market access, and economic
growth across the region. Regional economic integration in Africa is not yet
success due to the following reason

•Political Instability: Many African countries face political instability, which

hampers the smooth functioning of regional economic integrations. Uncertainties
related to changes in leadership, governance issues, and conflicts can disrupt the
integration process.

•Economic Disparities: Economic disparities among member states can create

challenges for building a cohesive economic integration framework.
Disagreements over trade policies, tariffs, and market access can hinder progress.

•Infrastructure Deficiencies: Inadequate infrastructure, such as poor

transportation networks and unreliable power supply, can impede the movement of
goods and services across borders, hindering the success of economic integrations.

•Legal and Regulatory Barriers: Divergent legal frameworks and regulatory

barriers across member states can create uncertainty for businesses operating
within the region. Harmonizing laws and regulations is necessary but often
challenging.

•Lack of Coordination: Insufficient coordination and cooperation among member

states in implementing integration agreements can lead to delays and inefficiencies.
Disagreements over objectives and priorities can slow down progress.

•Corruption and Governance Issues: Widespread corruption and governance

challenges in some member states undermine the credibility of integration efforts.
Lack of transparency and accountability can deter investors and hinder economic
growth.
•External Interference: External interference from global powers or other regions
can also play a role in complicating regional economic integrations in Africa.
Geopolitical interests and foreign agendas may influence decision-making and
create uncertainties within the integration process.

Therefore, One source of the challenge in building regional economic integrations

in Africa is the lack of consistent political will and commitment from member
states. Inconsistent policies, governance issues, and political instability within
some member states create uncertainty, which hampers progress in regional
integration efforts.

27. Compare and the contrast import substation industry (ISI) strategies and
export substitution industry strategies.

Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is an economic strategy that aims to

promote industrialization by substituting imported goods with domestically
produced products. This strategy involves implementing policies such as trade
barriers, tariffs, and subsidies to protect and promote domestic industries. The goal
of ISI is to reduce a country's reliance on foreign imports and develop a self-
sufficient industrial base to support economic growth and development. WHILE
Export substitution industry refers to a strategy adopted by a country whereby it
focuses on producing goods and services domestically that were previously
imported. This strategy aims to reduce reliance on imported goods by promoting
the growth of domestic industries to meet local demand and potentially boost
exports. Here are six key points outlining the differences between these two
strategies:
•Focus on Domestic Market vs. External Market:

- ISI emphasizes the development of industries that produce goods for the
domestic market by substituting imported products, leading to reduced reliance on
foreign imports.

- In contrast, Export Substitution Industrialization focuses on producing goods

for export markets that can compete internationally to earn foreign exchange.

•Protectionist Policies vs. International Competitiveness:

- ISI typically involves protectionist trade policies such as tariffs and restrictions
on imports to nurture domestic industries in the early stages.

- On the other hand, Export Substitution Industrialization emphasizes enhancing

the competitiveness of domestic industries to enter global markets by improving
quality and reducing costs.

•Development of Diverse Industries vs. Specialization:

- ISI strategies encourage the development of a wide range of industries within

the domestic economy to reduce dependency on imports across various sectors.

- Export Substitution Industrialization often leads to the specialization of

industries that have a comparative advantage and can compete effectively in
international markets.

•Supply-Side Development vs. Market-Driven Growth:

- ISI strategies focus on developing domestic supply chains and infrastructure to

meet the demands of the local market.
 - Export Substitution Industrialization is driven by market forces and
international demand, leading to a focus on meeting the quality and price
requirements of global consumers.

•Impact on Foreign Exchange Reserves:

- ISI strategies may strain foreign exchange reserves initially due to the
restrictions on imports and the need to build domestic industries.

- Export Substitution Industrialization aims to earn foreign exchange through

exports, which can help stabilize foreign exchange reserves over time.

•Long-Term Sustainability vs. Global Integration:

- ISI strategies may struggle to remain sustainable in the long run if domestic
industries become inefficient or lack competitiveness.

- Export Substitution Industrialization aims to integrate domestic industries into

the global economy, fostering long-term growth by ensuring industries adapt to
international standards and market conditions.

In summary, while ISI and Export Substitution Industrialization both aim to

promote industrialization, they differ in their focus, policies, market orientation,
and long-term sustainability goals.

28. Using concrete examples define and discuss the prons and cons of inward
looking industrial strategy and outward looking industrial strategy and which
industrial policy do you think is better than another and why?

Inward Looking Industrial Strategy:

•Definition: An inward looking industrial strategy focuses on promoting growth
and development of domestic industries through protectionist measures such as
tariffs, subsidies, and import restrictions.

Pros:

•Protecting Domestic Industries: Helps in safeguarding domestic industries

from foreign competition, allowing them to grow and become competitive.

•Job Creation: This strategy can create more job opportunities within the country
by supporting local industries.

-Cons:

•Higher Prices: Protectionist measures can lead to higher prices for consumers as
domestic goods become more expensive due to limited competition.

•Inefficiency: Domestic industries may become inefficient and less innovative if

they are not exposed to international competition and standards.

Outward Looking Industrial Strategy:

Definition: An outward looking industrial strategy focuses on promoting

international trade, liberalization, and global economic integration to drive
economic growth.

-Pros:

•Access to Global Markets: Opens up opportunities for domestic industries to

access larger markets globally, increasing their potential for growth.
 •Efficiency and Innovation: Exposure to international competition can drive
domestic industries to become more efficient and innovative.

Cons:

•Foreign Competition: Domestic industries may face tough competition from

more established industries in other countries, leading to potential job losses.

•Dependency on Global Markets: Over-reliance on international markets can

make domestic industries vulnerable to global economic fluctuations.

Which Industrial Policy is Better:

In general, an outward looking industrial strategy tends to be more beneficial in

the long run due to the following reasons:

•Global Competitiveness: Exposure to international competition drives domestic

industries to improve efficiency and innovate.

•Diversification: Access to global markets allows for diversification of export

markets, reducing dependency on a single market.

•Long-Term Growth: Integration into global value chains can foster sustained
economic growth.

While inward looking policies may provide short-term protection and support, they
can hinder long-term growth and competitiveness. Therefore, an outward looking
industrial strategy is generally considered better for fostering sustainable economic
development and achieving long-term competitiveness in today's globalized world.
29. The social economic developments in Tanzania after they Arusha
declaration had a significant impact on social service provision. With
examples from education or healthy sector substantiate this statement.

The Arusha Declaration in Tanzania marked a turning point in social and

economic development, emphasizing self-reliance, socialism, and equality. This
had a profound impact on social service provision, particularly in education and
health sectors. By prioritizing accessible and quality services for all citizens,
Tanzania saw improvements in areas such as free primary education and expanded
healthcare services, aiming to uplift the well-being of its people. The following are
the significant impact on social service provision after Arusha declaration

•Education Sector:

-Nationalization of Education: The Arusha Declaration aimed to make education

more accessible to all Tanzanians. This led to the nationalization of schools,
removing fees and making education free for all.

•Health Sector:

- Expansion of Healthcare Facilities: The government invested in building more

health facilities across the country to improve the accessibility of healthcare
services to the population.

•Education Sector:

-Focus on Quality Education: The declaration emphasized the importance of

quality education to produce skilled professionals. This led to a focus on improving
educational standards and curriculum.
•Health Sector:

-Promotion of Preventive Healthcare: The government implemented programs

focusing on preventive healthcare measures to improve public health outcomes and
reduce the burden on the healthcare system.

•Education Sector:

- Teacher Training: Emphasis was placed on training and deploying more

teachers to rural areas to address the shortage of educators and improve
educational opportunities for all communities.

•Health Sector:

- Community Health Initiatives: The Arusha Declaration encouraged community

involvement in healthcare initiatives, leading to the implementation of community
health programs that addressed local health needs.

•Education Sector:

- Expansion of Higher Education: The government initiated the establishment of

universities and colleges to broaden access to higher education and produce a
skilled workforce to drive national development.

After the Arusha Declaration, Tanzania experienced notable social and economic
changes that influenced service provision. In education, the government
implemented policies to promote free and accessible education for all, leading to
increased enrollment and literacy rates. Similarly, in the health sector, focus on
public health services expanded access to medical care and improved health
outcomes. These developments demonstrate the impact of the Arusha Declaration
on transforming social service provision to benefit the population at large,
reflecting a commitment to inclusive development.

30. "Privatization of social service in Africa has led to an unequal system of

service provision which rainforce economic and social inequalities. Using
example from either the education sector discuss this statement and they
recommend policy measures that made might be useful in redressing negative
impact of privatization of social delivery systems.

The privatization of social services in Africa has indeed created an unequal

system of service provision, further entrenching economic and social disparities.
Taking the education sector, for instance, the emergence of private schools catering
to the wealthier segments of society has exacerbated inequalities in access to
quality education. In order to mitigate the negative impacts of privatization in
social service delivery systems, policy measures such as improved regulation of
private providers, increased investment in public services, and targeted subsidies
for marginalized communities could help in redressing the imbalance and ensuring
equitable access to essential services.

•Example of Education Sector: In Africa, the privatization of education services

has often resulted in better-resourced private schools attracting students from
wealthier families, creating a divide between those who can afford quality
education and those who cannot. This perpetuates economic and social inequalities
as access to quality education becomes tied to financial means.

•Undermining Public Education: The proliferation of private schools can divert

attention and resources away from public schools, leading to a deterioration in the
quality of education offered in the public sector. This further deepens the divide
between privileged and underprivileged students.
•Increased Stratification: Privatization in education can result in a stratified
system where high-performing students from wealthier backgrounds opt for private
institutions, while lower-income families are left with underfunded public schools.
This disparity reinforces social and economic inequalities.

•Limited Access for Marginalized Groups: Privatization can lead to limited

access to education for marginalized groups such as rural communities and
children from low-income families, exacerbating existing inequalities and
perpetuating cycles of poverty.

•Recommendations:

•Regulation and Oversight: Implementing rigorous regulations and oversight

mechanisms to ensure that private education providers operate in the best interest
of all students and do not exacerbate inequalities.

•Equity-Oriented Funding Models: Developing funding models that prioritize

public education institutions serving marginalized communities to ensure they have
the resources necessary to provide quality education.

•Scholarship Programs: Introducing scholarship programs to enable students

from low-income backgrounds to access quality education in private institutions,
thus reducing disparities.

•Investing in Public Infrastructure: Increasing investments in public education

infrastructure and resources to improve the quality of education in underprivileged
areas and reduce the attractiveness of private schools.
 •Teacher Training and Development: Providing continuous training and
support for teachers in public schools to enhance the quality of education and
attract students regardless of their background.

•Inclusive Policies: Implementing inclusive policies that address the specific

needs of marginalized groups, ensuring they have equal access to education
opportunities.

•Community Engagement: Encouraging community participation and

engagement in education decision-making processes to foster a more equitable and
inclusive education system.

By implementing these policy measures, African countries can work towards

mitigating the negative impacts of privatization in social service delivery systems
like education and promoting a more equitable and inclusive society.

31. "Liberalization and privatization policies in education and health care

delivery systems have led to growing gap along gender rural-urban and the
class line" Discuss with example

Liberation in Education Policy:

Liberation in education policy refers to the idea of empowering individuals through

education by providing equal access to educational opportunities, eliminating
discrimination, and promoting freedom of thought and expression. It focuses on
breaking down barriers to education and ensuring that all individuals have the
resources and support needed to fully develop their potential.
Privatization in Education Policy:

Privatization in education policy involves the transfer of control and ownership of

educational institutions and services from the public sector to private entities. This
can lead to increased competition, innovation, and efficiency in education delivery
but can also raise concerns about inequality, access, and quality of education for all
students.

Liberalization and privatization policies in education and health care delivery

systems have indeed created a growing gap along gender, rural-urban, and class
lines. Here are points with clear explanations and examples to further discuss this
issue:

•Access Disparities: Privatization in education and health care often leads to

increased costs, making quality services inaccessible to economically
disadvantaged individuals. For example, private medical facilities can be too
expensive for rural populations to afford, exacerbating health disparities.

•Quality Discrepancies: Privatization may prioritize profit over quality, leading to

a two-tiered system where wealthier individuals can access better services while
others are left with substandard options. In education, private schools may offer
superior resources and academic programs, widening the gap in educational
outcomes.

•Gender Disparities: Women and girls often face greater challenges accessing
quality education and healthcare services due to cultural norms and financial
constraints. Privatization without proper regulation can deepen these existing
gender disparities.
•Rural-Urban Divide: Liberalization and privatization tend to favor urban areas
where there is more demand and capacity to pay for services. This leaves rural
populations with limited options and lower-quality services. For instance, private
hospitals in cities offer advanced treatments that may not be available in rural
areas.

•Class Divide: Privatization can lead to the commercialization of essential

services, making them unaffordable for lower-income individuals. This results in a
widening gap between the rich and the poor in terms of access to quality education
and healthcare. Private schools catering to the wealthy offer top-notch facilities
and educational opportunities that public schools struggle to provide.

•Regulatory Challenges: Lack of effective regulation in privatized education and

healthcare systems can further widen disparities. Without proper oversight, private
providers may engage in practices that discriminate against certain groups or
neglect marginalized communities.

•Social Fragmentation: Privatization in education and healthcare can fragment

society along economic lines, creating a cycle of poverty and limited opportunities
for those who are already disadvantaged. This social fragmentation can have long-
term negative impacts on social cohesion and economic development.

In conclusion, while liberalization and privatization can bring some benefits, such
policies need to be implemented cautiously and with proper regulatory frameworks
to prevent exacerbating existing inequalities along gender, rural-urban, and class
lines in education and health care delivery systems.
32. "Critically discuss the contention that "The quality of public education in
Tanzania has been declining over the past two decades."

Over the past two decades, Tanzania has faced challenges in maintaining the
quality of its public education system. Various factors such as inadequate funding,
teacher shortages, outdated curriculum, and infrastructural deficiencies have
contributed to this decline. The declining quality of education in Tanzania is
evident in decreasing student performance levels, high dropout rates, and poor
learning outcomes. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach
involving increased investment in education, teacher training, curriculum reform,
and infrastructure development. It is crucial for Tanzania to prioritize education to
ensure a brighter future for its youth and overall development.There is evidence to
support the claim that the quality of public education in Tanzania has been
declining over the past two decades. Factors such as

•Lack of Adequate Resources: The declining quality of public education in

Tanzania can be attributed to the chronic underfunding of the education sector.
This results in a lack of resources such as textbooks, learning materials, and
qualified teachers, ultimately impacting the quality of education provided.

•Infrastructure Challenges: Many public schools in Tanzania face infrastructure

challenges, including overcrowded classrooms, inadequate facilities, and poor
sanitation. These issues can hinder the learning environment and contribute to a
decline in educational quality.

•Teacher Shortages and Quality: There is a shortage of qualified teachers in

Tanzania, especially in remote areas. Additionally, teacher training and
professional development opportunities are limited, affecting the quality of
instruction and student learning outcomes.
•Curriculum Relevance: The curriculum in Tanzanian public schools may not
always be up to date or relevant to the needs of students in a rapidly changing
world. A lack of alignment between the curriculum and real-world skills can
impact the quality of education being delivered.

•Examination Pressure: The emphasis on high-stakes examinations in Tanzania,

such as the Form Four and Form Six national exams, can lead to a "teaching to the
test" approach. This may prioritize rote memorization over critical thinking skills
and holistic learning.

•Equity and Access: Disparities in access to quality education persist in Tanzania,

with rural and marginalized communities facing greater challenges. Addressing
these equity issues is crucial to improving the overall quality of public education in
the country.

•Lack of Accountability and Monitoring: Weak accountability mechanisms and

limited monitoring and evaluation systems within the education sector can
contribute to inefficiencies and a lack of transparency. Without proper oversight, it
becomes difficult to address the factors leading to the decline in the quality of
public education in Tanzania.

In conclusion, addressing the decline in the quality of public education in Tanzania

requires a multifaceted approach, including increased investment in education,
better teacher training, curriculum reforms, and improved governance structures.
By prioritizing these areas, Tanzania can work towards revitalizing its public
education system and ensuring that every child has access to a quality education
that empowers them for the future.
33. What steps in the Tanzania government taking to improve the provision of
primary and secondary education in Tanzania? What problems do you
foresee in the implementation of such policies?

Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs

through formal or informal methods. It equips individuals with the tools to
understand the world, make informed decisions, and contribute effectively to
society. Education encompasses more than traditional classroom learning; it fosters
personal development, critical thinking, and the ability to adapt to new challenges.
Ultimately, education empowers individuals to broaden their perspectives, pursue
their goals, and lead fulfilling lives. The Tanzania government is taking several
steps to improve the provision of primary and secondary education in the country.
Some of these steps include:

•Increasing Budget Allocation: The Tanzanian government has been increasing

its budget allocation towards education, aimed at improving infrastructure, teacher
training, and the overall quality of education in primary and secondary schools.
This additional funding can help address resource constraints and improve the
learning environment.

•Teacher Training Programs: The government is investing in teacher training

programs to enhance the quality of teaching in schools. By providing teachers with
the necessary skills and knowledge, the government aims to improve the quality of
education and student outcomes.

•Curriculum Reforms: The government is implementing curriculum reforms to

make education more relevant and effective. By updating the curriculum to meet
current needs and standards, students can acquire skills that are essential for their
future success.
•Expanding Access to Education: Initiatives are being implemented to increase
access to education, especially in rural areas. This includes building more schools,
providing scholarships, and addressing barriers that prevent children, particularly
girls, from attending school.

Foreseen Problems in the Implementation of Policies:

•Resource Constraints: Despite increased budget allocation, resource constraints

may persist, leading to difficulties in implementing education improvement
policies effectively. Insufficient funding can limit the government's ability to
enhance infrastructure, provide necessary materials, and improve teacher quality.

•Quality of Teacher Training: While teacher training programs are in place,

ensuring the quality and consistency of training for all teachers can be challenging.
Variances in training quality can affect the overall effectiveness of the education
system.

•Resistance to Change: Implementing curriculum reforms may face resistance

from various stakeholders, including teachers, parents, and communities. Adapting
to new curricula and teaching methods can be met with skepticism and challenges,
potentially hindering successful implementation.

•Geographical Disparities: Despite efforts to expand access to education,

geographical disparities may persist, particularly in remote or marginalized areas.
Ensuring equitable access to quality education across all regions of Tanzania
remains a significant challenge.

In addressing these foreseen problems, the Tanzanian government needs to adopt

comprehensive strategies, engage stakeholders effectively, and continuously
monitor and evaluate the implementation of education improvement policies to
ensure their success.

34. "The persistent health problem in developing countries are partly due to
predominance of the medical perspectives in the definition of health and
provision of healthcare. Critically examine the contetion.

Health problems in developing countries refer to a wide range of medical

conditions, diseases, and issues that are prevalent in regions with limited access to
healthcare, sanitation, clean water, and education. These problems are often more
severe and widespread in developing countries due to factors such as poverty,
inadequate infrastructure, lack of healthcare services and resources, and poor
hygiene practices. Common health problems in developing countries include
infectious diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and diarrheal diseases, as
well as maternal and child health issues, malnutrition, and lack of access to
essential healthcare services and medications. These health problems can have
significant impacts on the overall well-being and development of individuals and
communities in developing countries, leading to high morbidity and mortality
rates, reduced productivity, and increased healthcare costs. Efforts to address these
health challenges often require a multi-faceted approach involving improved
healthcare infrastructure, increased access to healthcare services, better nutrition
and sanitation, education on health practices, and investment in public health
programs.

•Limited Focus on Social Determinants of Health: Medical perspectives tend to

focus primarily on individual biological factors, often neglecting the wider social
determinants of health such as poverty, education, housing, and access to clean
water. These social determinants play a crucial role in shaping health outcomes in
developing countries.

•Biomedical Model Dominance: The biomedical model, which emphasizes

diagnosis and treatment of diseases, tends to overshadow holistic and preventative
healthcare approaches. This narrow focus may lead to neglect of community health
needs and sustainable health interventions.

•Inadequate Attention to Preventive Measures: Medical perspectives often

prioritize curative interventions over preventive measures. In developing countries,
preventive healthcare strategies are crucial for addressing underlying health issues
and reducing disease burden in the long run.

•Neglect of Traditional Healing Practices: The dominance of medical

perspectives may undermine traditional healing practices that are deeply rooted in
many developing country cultures. By devaluing or ignoring these practices,
important avenues for promoting community health and well-being can be lost.

•Lack of Cultural Sensitivity: Medical perspectives may not always account for
cultural beliefs, practices, and preferences prevalent in developing countries. This
lack of cultural sensitivity can lead to mistrust of healthcare providers and deter
individuals from seeking necessary medical care.

•Resource Allocation Challenges: A singular focus on medical perspectives may

result in disproportionate allocation of resources towards high-tech medical
interventions, leaving basic healthcare infrastructure underdeveloped. This
imbalance can hinder effective healthcare delivery and accessibility for
marginalized populations.
•Undermining Community Participation: Medical perspectives often centralize
decision-making in the hands of healthcare professionals, potentially marginalizing
the crucial role that communities can play in promoting their own health.
Empowering communities and involving them in healthcare planning and
implementation is vital for sustainable health outcomes in developing countries.

In conclusion, the predominance of medical perspectives in defining health and

healthcare provision in developing countries can lead to various shortcomings that
hamper efforts to address persistent health problems. Embracing a more holistic
approach that considers social determinants of health, incorporates preventive
strategies, respects traditional healing practices, and involves community
participation is essential for effective and sustainable healthcare solutions in these
diverse contexts.

35. "Globalization through structure adjustment program (SAP's) has

affected both education and health sectors delivery system." Provide a
through account of this effects.

Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people,

companies, and governments of different nations. It involves the movement of
goods, services, ideas, and people across national borders, resulting in increased
interconnectedness and interdependence on a global scale. Globalization is driven
by advancements in technology, communication, transportation, and trade, leading
to the creation of a more interconnected and interdependent world
economy.Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) are economic policies imposed
by international financial institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) and the World Bank, on countries seeking financial assistance. These
programs often require countries to implement specific reforms aimed at
stabilizing their economies, which can have profound implications for various
sectors, including education and health. Below is a detailed account of how
globalization through SAPs has affected these sectors.

•Privatization: Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) often require countries to

privatize essential services like education and healthcare. This can lead to
decreased access for the poor and marginalized groups who cannot afford private
services, resulting in increased inequality in service delivery.

•Underfunding: SAPs typically emphasize reducing government spending, which

can result in underfunding of education and healthcare sectors. This leads to a lack
of resources, inadequate infrastructure, and ultimately compromises the quality of
services provided to the population.

•Commercialization: Under SAPs, there is an increased focus on cost recovery in

the education and health sectors. This can lead to the commercialization of
services, where the poor are forced to pay for what were previously subsidized or
free services, further excluding vulnerable populations.

•Brain Drain: As SAPs drive austerity measures and reduce public sector salaries,
professionals in the education and health sectors may seek better opportunities
abroad, resulting in a "brain drain." This can further weaken the capacity of the
domestic education and healthcare delivery systems.

•Decreased Quality of Education and Healthcare: The emphasis on cost-cutting

measures under SAPs can result in a decrease in the quality of education and
healthcare services. This can manifest in overcrowded classrooms, lack of medical
supplies, and declining standards of care, negatively impacting the overall well-
being of the population.

•Reduced Government Capacity: SAPs often require governments to reduce their

role in providing education and healthcare services, shifting responsibilities to the
private sector or NGOs. This can lead to a reduction in the government's capacity
to regulate and monitor these services, potentially compromising accountability
and quality control.

•Health and Education Inequities: The effects of SAPs can widen the gap
between urban and rural areas in terms of access to quality education and
healthcare services. Urban areas, where private services are more prevalent, may
see improvements, while rural areas with limited resources suffer from neglect and
underdevelopment, exacerbating health and education inequities within the
country.

In conclusion, while globalization through Structural Adjustment Programs aims at

stabilizing economies within developing nations by promoting fiscal discipline and
market liberalization, it has often resulted in detrimental impacts on critical sectors
like education and health care delivery systems.

PREPARED BY SASTEMO

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