B.Ed (1.

5 Year)

CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT

Units: 1-9 Code: 8603

Credit Hours: 3

Department of Early Childhood Education & Elementary Teac.1er

Education
Facutly of
Education lqbat
· Allam Open University
Islamabad
 Code# 8603
(All Right Received with the Publisher)

Year of printing 2018

Quantity 50,000·
Price 150/-

Compazing, Layout Syed Zulqamain

Shah Printing Coordinator- - .Printing Press Operations

Committee Printer M.Abbass Enterprises

Publisher Allama Iqbal Open University

Islamabad.

\-L li
\
 COURSE TEAM

Chainnan Course Team: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mehmood

Course Development Coordinato:r Ms. Tahira Bibi Naushahi

Contributor and Reviewer: Dr. M.A Bhatti

Dr. Ahmed Ali Arain

Dr. Khawaja Nazir Ahmad

Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad Goraha·

Dr. Mustaq-ur Rehman

Siddiqui Dr. Sheikh Muizzudin

S.M. Shahid

Ms. Shaheen Ashraf Tahir Kheli

Dr. Feroza Yasmin

Mr. Abdullah Khadim Hussain

Dr. Aisha Akbar

•
iii
 CONTENTS
Sr.No Topics Page No

Course Team...........................................................................................iii
Foreword
....................................................................................................v
Preface
................................................................................................ viii
Unit -1: Introduction to Curriculum..................................................................1
Unit -2: History of Curriculum Development in Pakistan.............................21
Unit -3: Foundations of Curriculum................................................................27
Unit -4: Conceptual Framework of Curriculum Development......................77
Unit-5: Aims Goals and Objectives of Education....................................105
Unit -6: Content Selection and Organization Principles and Procedures....147
Unit-7: Evaluation of Curriculum..................................................................165
Unit -8: Curriculum and Development...........................................................181
Unit-9: Comparative Perspectives of Curriculum Development.................213

iv

' --
 FORWA
RD
Education is one of the institutions the human race has created to
serve certain needs. Like all human institutions, it responds or should be
respond to changes in the environment. The institution of education is
activated by a curriculum that it will change in response to forces affecting it.

A major characteristic of any theoretical principle is its for being

generalized and applied in more than one situation. It would be difficult to
capacity
the concept of curriculum as a discipline. However, the principles of curriculum
defend
theory are often successful efforts to establish rules that can be repeated in similar
situations and under similar conditions.
What has led so many people to be dissatisfied with so much of
what education is all about? Why is the status quo rarely a satisfactory place to
be? In addition, why does it tum out, as will be illustrated, that yesterday's
status quo is sometimes tomorrow's innovation? For answers to these
questions teachers and specialists who participate in efforts to improve, the
curriculum must consider some general principles of curriculum development.
As a discipline, curriculum possesses (1) an organized set of principles
(2) a body of knowledge and skills for which training is needed and (3) its
theoreticians and practitioners.
If the curriculum is perceived as a plan for the learning experiences that
young people encounter under the direction of the school, its purpose is to
provide a vehicle for ordering and directing those experiences. This process of
providing the vehicle and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum
development.
Curriculum specialists make a number of distinctive contributions to
their field. Specialists know what types of curricula have worked in the
past, under what conditions, and with what success. Since the name of the
game is improvement, specialists must be well grounded in the historical
development of the curriculum and must possess the capacity to use that
knowledge to help the schools avoid historical pitfalls. Curriculum specialists
generate or help to generate new curriculum concepts.

V
 This book is intended for students in fields such as Curriculum
Development, Curriculum Planning, an·d Curriculum Improvement. It is
meant to be especially helpful to Education students of open distance.leamin
system of AIOU.
. I congratulate Course Team development for their professionalism and
. ..
dedicated efforts to procedure this textbook.

Prof. Dr. Shahid Siddiqui

Vice-Chancellor

vi
 PREFACE
.As newer development occur in education, as research adds new insights
on teaching and learning, as new ideas are developed, and as times change,
beliefs
. about curriculum and· instruction also undergo transformation. The rightness or
wrongness of concepts like.curriculum and instruction cannot be established by
an individual educationist or even by a group of educators. One index of
correctness might be the prevailing opinion of most educators at a particular
stage in history.

Gainus Julus Caesar and. his cohorts of the first century BC had no idea
that the oval track upon which the Roman chariots raced would bequeath a word
used almost daily by educators twenty-one centuries later. The track the
curriculum has become one of the key concerns of today's schools, and its
meaning has expandedfrom a tangible racecourse to an abstract concept.

No education teacher, curriculum coordinator, administrator, or tutor in

distance learning system of AIOU would dream of arguing that techniques of
coping with the woolly mammoth should be part of the curriculum of schools at
the dawn of the 21st century.

The curriculum of the cave dweller, whether informal or non-formal, is

quite different from increasingly formal types of schooling that the human race
invented over subsequent periods of history. Techniques for coping with the
woolly may well have been paramount concern to prehistoric man.

Planning should begin with the programmatic viewpoint that is, with
curriculum decisions, rather than with instructional decisions. Appropriate
planning begins with the board aims of education and proceeds through a
continuum that leads to the most detailed objectives of instruction. A discipline
has its theoreticians and its practitioners.

Consequently, we can conclude that the field of curriculum requires the

use of an amalgamation of knowledge and skills from many disciplines. That
curriculum theory and practice are devised from other disciplines does not in any
way diminish the importance of the field. Curriculum's synthesis of elements
from many fields in some ways makes it both a demanding and an exciting arena
in which to work.

vii
 Though it may be vehemently denied, no one has ever seen a
curriculum, not a real, total, tangible, visible, entity called a curriculum. The
interested observer may have seen a written plan that may have been called a
curriculum. Somehow, the observer knows, probably by word of mouth, that in
every school in which teachers are instructing students a curriculum exists. A
written plan provides the observer with an additional clue to the existence of
something called a curriculum. But if by some bit of magic and observer could
lift the roof of a school in session and examine the cross section thereof, the
curriculum would not be apparent. What the observer would immediately
perceive would be many instances of teacher-pupil interaction we call
instruction.

viii
UNIT-I

INTRODUCING CURRICULUM

Written By:
S. M. Shahid

Reviewed By:
Shaheen Ashraf Tahir Khali
 CONTENTS
Introduction...............................................................................................................3

Objectives................................................................................................................. 3

1. The Nature of Curriculum.............................................................................4

Important Definitions of Curriculum Compared ................................ 4·

1.2. Characteristics Curriculum

Broad Components of Curriculum ...................,......................................6

Need of Curriculum..........................................................................7.

Scope of Curriculum.........................................................................8

2. Curriculum Planning and Development ........................................................ l 0

2.1. Characteristics of Curriculum Planning..........................................10

2.2. Process of Curriculum Development ...............................'...............10

Effective Curriculum Planning .............,................................................10

Basic Principles of Curriculum Development.............................................11

Elements of Curriculum..................................................................................1.4

3. Summary.....................................................................................................28

4. Self-Assessment Questions ............................._ ...........................................19

5. Bibliography...............................................................................................20

2
 INTRODUCTIO
N

Curriculum is an area of vital importance to the professional

teacher:. Over the past two decades, the study of curriculum has become
an established part of teacher education programmes and all serving
teachers have become familiar with the concepts of curriculwn in
some way. Similarly, teachers undertaking postgraduate studies and
professional development activities have been exposed to the concepts
associated with curriculum, and in recent years, the term is being used
quite frequently in the media and the community in general.

Such a development is highly appropriate for professional teachers.

Curriculum is. after all, the very substance of schooling for teachers in
scho.ol. Therefore, teachers need to be knowledgeable about curriculum
and understand the processes by which curricula may be developed.
When teachers consitier curriculum issues, for example, they tackle the
substantive matter of schooling, which may be expressed in temis of the
fundamental questions of curriculum.

In this Unit, different concepts associated with curriculum, its

nature, important definitions and characterises, its need and scope, it's
planning and development including characteristics involved and
effectiveness, its major tasks, and so forth, have been discussed.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
1. Define various concepts ofcurriculum.
2. Describe the desirable characteristics of the curriculum.
3. Describe the broad components of the curriculum.
4. State the need and scope ofcurriculum.
5. List the steps and characteristics in curriculum planning.
6. State and analyses the principles of curriculum
development.
3
 1. THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum plays a vital role in attaining the aims and objectives of education
tend to. It reflects the curricular and co-cun-icular trends in our institutions i.e. the courses
of study, the objectives of education, the methodology of teaching including teaching
aids, and evaluation methods.
Curriculum comes from the Latin root, Currere which means "to run". Which later
come to stand as the "course of Study".
Curriculwn i.e the sum total of all learning content, experience, and resources that
one purposely selected, organized and implemented by the school in pursuit of his
peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development.
1.1. Important Definitions of Curriculum Compared.
The tenn 'Curriculum' is defined in many ways by educators. Some use the term in
very limited and specific contexts while others attach very broad and general meanings.
Some define it in descriptive tenns, i.e., what curriculum is and others in prescribed
terms, i.e. What curriculum ought to be., Again curriculwn is defined in tenns of subjects,
activities and experiences.
Following are some of the important definitions of the curriculum:
Alberty A, and Alberty E. (1959) define curriculum' as the sum total of student
activities which the school sponsors for the purpose of achieving its objectives".
In the words of H. Robert Beck, and W. Walter Cook, "Curriculum is this sum of the
educational experiences that children have in school".
Blond's Encyclopedia ( l969) of Education defines "CmTiculum as all the
experiences a pupil has under the guidance of the school".
F. Bobbit in '"The Curriculum" ( l 918) has observed that "Curriculum is that series
of things which children and youth must do an experience by way of developing abilities
to do things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects what
adults should do".
Derek Rowntree in A Dictionary of Education (1981) has defined 'curriculum in
these words. "Curriculwn can refer to the total structure of ideas and activities,
developed, by an educational institution to meet the needs of students and to achieve
desired educational aims".
R. Doll, in Curriculum Improvement: Decision · Making (1982) has stated:
"Curriculum embodies all the experiences which are offered to learners under the
auspices or direction of the school".
The first definition lays emphas:is on the world "sponsors' and the second definition
tends to give importance to spontaneous as well as 'sponsored'. The third definition
stresses the word "guidance' in providing experiences. The fourth, definition gives
importance to 'adult activities'. The fifth definition denotes that is something, "fixed'. The
sixth definition like the fourth one highlights the significance of guidance in prov:iding
activities.

4
1.2 Characteristics of Curriculum
1. Totality of activities: By Curriculum it is meant all the school activities, which
are used to promote the development of the pupils. It refers to the totality of
subject matter, activities and experiences, which constitute a pupil's school life.
Pragmatists have also included the entire range of learner's activities in the
curriculum because according to them the child learns by doing.
2. A means to an end: It is known that Curriculum is not an end in itself, but a
means to an end. Therefore, it is created so as to achieve the aims of education.
That is the reason why different educationists have suggested different kinds of
curricula to confonn to the aims and objectives ascribed to education. It follows
that the curriculum will change with every change in the aims of education,
3. Total school environment: The total environment of the school influences
Curriculum. It is made up of everything that surrounds the learner in all his
working ,hours. It is "the environment in motion". It refers to the total educational
programme of the school (school environment) including all experiences,
activities and learning, in which the learner is expected to progress and attain the
goals of education.
4. Totality of experiences: Curriculum refers to the totality of experiences that a
pupil gets in the school (i.e. the clasMoom, library, laboratory; workshop, play
ground and in the numerous informal contacts between the teacher and the
pupils) as well as outside the school. These experiences help him in the
development of personality: Curriculum includes not merely syllabus and books
but all those experiences and relationships. \Vhich get indulged in by the student
both inside and outside the school. Thus, the syllabus specified by the authority
should not be taken to mean cu1Ticulum.
5. Mirror of curricular and co-curricular trends: Curriculum forms the mirror
of curricular and co-curricular trends and is able to reflect the curricular and
co curricular trends in our educational institutions i.e. the courses of study, the
aims and objectives of education, the methodology of teaching including
teaching aids and evaluation techniques.
6. Mirror of Educational Trends: Curriculum is the mirror of educational trends.
It depicts the total picture about the prevailing educational system. The objectives
behind the educational system highlighted through the series of experiences,
which are provided by the curriculum.
7. Development of balanced personality: Curriculum is quite helpful in the
development of balanced personality. The activities in curriculum concerning
physical, intellectual, emotional, social, economic, aesthetic and cultural
development play their role for developing balanced personality.
8. Process of living: Curriculum is a process of living in which interaction between
the individual and his environment takes place. Curriculum .s concerned both
with the life of the individual and his environment.

5
9. Dynamic: A good curriculum is dynamic. The needs and interests of the pupils
go on changing with the passage of time. For varying needs different types of
activities are required. This tends to necessitate some changes in the curriculum.
Curriculum is never static. It has to be different, for different students, different
classes and different schools. It has to be kept dynamic in order to keep with the
needs, interests, abilities, attitudes and lives of the pupils.
10. Mirror of Philosophy of life: Curriculum is regarded as the mirror, of
philosophy of life. It depicts philosophy of life. Democratic or autocratic way of
life is reflected in, the curriculum. Each way of life is having different
philosophy and hence different goals of education.
11. Achievement of goals: Curriculum is prepared to achieve some set goals and
objectives of education, which are set by society. Curriculum helps in.achieving
the aims and objectives of education.
l .3 Broad Components of Curriculum
The components of curriculum, according to Agnes. S. Robinson (5971). are the
goals, objectives, content, processes, recourses and means of evaluation of all the
learning experiences planned for pupils both in and out of school and community through
class room instruction and related programmes (for example: field trips, library
programmes, work experience education, guidance and extra classroom activities.)
According to K.A. Leithwood (1981), curriculum encompasses educational
philosophy, values, objectives, organizational structures, and materials, teaching
strategies, student experiences, and.assessment and learning outcomes.
Three main components of the curriculum are as
under: Programme of studies
Programme_of Activities
Programme of Guidance
Programme of Studies: This refers to the various subjects like History,
Languages, Mathematics, and Science etc. Emphasis on the study of a subject/subjects
has changed from time to time in accordance with the philosophical and sociological
ideals. Conservation and promotion of culture has been an important detenninant in the
selection of the contents of the subjects. In view of the vastness of culture, principle of
selection is followed. The level of information to be imparted at a particular stage or class
is graded suitably.
The methods of imparting knowledge are determined on the basis of psychological
findings especially regarding learning.
Programme of Activities: With the changing concepts of education and
consequently curriculum an increasing emphasis of being laid on the·organization of
various activities in the schools. In view of the importance of activities in the promotion
of ideals of citizenship, cooperative living and democracy, many educators advocate that
curriculum should be envisaged in terms of activities rather than subjects,. The principles

6
 of learning emphasize that participation in activities goes a long way in sublimating the
instincts of children and making teaching-learning more enjoyable as well as-effective.
Programme of Guidance: A comprehensive programme of guidance includes
helping students solve their educational, vocational and personal problems. With the
rapid changes in the society in various fields, it has become ,very much necessary to
include the guidance programme in curriculum.
Curriculum and Syllabus
A UNESCO publication entitled "Preparing Textbook Manuscripts' (1970) has
differentiated the curriculum and syllabus as: "The.curriculum sets out the subjects to be
studi d, their order and sequence, and so ensures some balance, between humanities and
science and consistency in the study of subjects, thus facilitating, inter-subject links. It
follows that the curriculum determines the amount of school-times allotted to each
subject, the aim of teaching each subject, the pace of the.psychomotor domain, which
takes time, to acquire, and possibly, the variations between rural and urban school
teaching., The curriculum in the schools of developing countries is often directly related
to the requirements for development. The syllabus determines the basic content of
instructions in a given subject and the range of knowledge and skills which the pupils
must acquire and establish in detail the themes and individual points to be studied in each
. school year the syllabus is a refined detail of the curriculum at a particular stage of
learning for a particular subject".

Need of Curriculum.
The following points demonstrate the importance ofcurriculwn:
1. Achievement ofeducational aims: Curriculum renders help in achieving the
aims of education. Withoutsuitable curriculum aims of education cannot be
achieved. In the absence of curriculum it is not possible to do anything
systematically.
2. Fixing- limits: Curriculum is quite helpful in fixing limits of teaching and
learning. It helps in detennining the work of the teacher as well that of the pupil.
3. Development of democratic values: Curriculum is helpful to the students in
developing democratic values such as liberty, equality, fraternity, justice, respect
for dignity of the individual and group living.
4. Development of citizenship: Development of citizenship is one of the major
responsibilities of education: Suitable curriculum is helpful in. achieving this aim
of education.
5. Development of character: There is no system of education, which does not
aim at developing character in the youth. Character can be developed through
suitable curriculum.
6. Satisfaction of needs: Curriculum is able to satisfy educational, vocational and
psychological needs of· students. There· is a great variety of interests, skills, a\?
ilities, attitudes, aptitudes, and requirements of students.
7. Criteria of suitable teachers: The curriculwn mainly shows what type of teachers
is needed in the schools. We should know what type of work they are. required to

7
 do and this is to be in accordance with the requirement of the curriculum.
8. Selection of suitable methods: Cun-iculum makes the teacher to select suitable
methods of teaching. 'How to teach' will be detennined by what to teach i.e. the
curriculum.
9. Acquisition of knowledge: Curriculum helps the student in the getting
knowledge. By studying various subjects laid down in the curriculum the student
gets knowledge in conformity with bis abilities and level of intelligence.
10. Development of personality: Curriculum is useful in developing physical
intellectual, aesthetic, social, cultural, moral, spiritual religious and vocational
abilities of the student. Suitable curriculmn is necessary for the complete and
balanced development of personality.
11. Reflects trends in education: Curriculum is meant to achieve the end i.e., the
changing aims of education with the changing social requirements. Hence
curriculum reflects the trends in education and changes in philosophy. Modem
education expects following demands on the curriculum:
(i) Providing suitable knowledge: The curriculum should provide suitable
knowledge, which will be quite helpful in the achievement of aims of
education.
(ii) Providing suitable activities and experiences: The curriculum includes
well-selected activities and experiences required for development of
pupils according to social requirements.
(iii) Providing wholesome influences: The cuniculum should provide
wholesome school programme for developing the desirable behaviour
patterns in the pupils.
12. Discoveries and inventions: At the university or higher level of education the
main aim of curriculum is to encourage research and inventions.
Thus curriculum acts as a pivot in organizing educational effort on some
manageable basis and is the heart of the school.
Scope of Curriculum
The scope of the content concerns question about what to include and what to
exclude as for as the selection of subject matter is concerned. It includes the broad fonn,
which is the range and extent of each area to be covered. Determining the scope must
include some reference to aims and objectives and range of the !earning experiences.
Counseling what is to be included in the content is sometimes referred to as detennining
the scope and it can be seen by operating at four levels. ·
a) First there must be decisions regarding what to include as a whole in the major area
within which the curriculum operates.
b) Should the concerns be with certain subjects that are basic to the understanding of
the human caring, such as those within the behavioral science and humanistic?
c) Should the selection drawn from the life science in that these may help the student

8
 understand physical factors of care?
d) Should the material be developed that addresses the learning?
e) Is there a need to include a study of the exceptional in tenns of psychological
considerations that are appropriate for the study of pedagogy? Thus, sort of
questioning is directed at the identification of the subjects, which are thought to be
eclectically desirable for the underpinning of the base of teaching practice. These
have been considered at length before and viewed as the essential antecedents to
distinctive instructional knowledge.
Second there is level of scope, which looks at the area of a distinctive subject and
considers what might be borrowed and used. This eclectic use of knowledge draws and
extracts from the particular established discipline concerned without necessity of
accepting the total area of ideas and beliefs within the totality of the discipline.
Third level of scope detennination concerns the individ al teachers working from
curriculwn at classroom level and involves independent decisions, about how much
material can be developed within a particular period of time and where the emphasis
should be placed within certain subjects and topics.
A fourth level of scope relates to individual lessons concerning the areas to be
dealt with and the extent they are to be covered and the level of intellectual difficulty
involved that the patterns of the curriculum should adapt a certain idea of scope, which
focuses on certain centers of organization. Such centers of organizations can be seen to
operate through themes or modular theme.
In dealing, with the scope of the contents certain basic principles can be usefully
followed and these can also act as a general guide from making decisions.
I. There is a need to work from basic generalizations or universal thinking
about the content progressively towards specific or particular elements.
2. The initiated . decision-making should be concerned with the
identification of the major areas of knowledge to be included..
3. The content to be included must be educationally worthwhile.
4. Thecontent must occupational be relevant for teaching.
5. The content should be professionally relevant for teaching.
6. The scope must determine the appropriate skills, attitudes and betiefs,
which the students need to be aware of.
7. The scope should detennine the appropriate intellectual and practical
level of difficulty in the content.
8. The scope needs to be taken. into account whether additiona external
expertise is needed from outside the field of teaching
9. The scope of the content should reflect the necessal)' educational
technology to be included and the curriculum materials.
10. The scope ought to include consideration of the basic form of
assessment and examinations to be used.
Inevitably when the scope of curriculum content has been determined there will
be concern for the tradition approaches of the past, which may well he thought to have
stood the test of time. ·

9
 2. CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
Lik curriculum, curriculum planning has been defined in various ways:
I. Curriculum planning is a process in which participants at many levels make
decisio!ls about what the purposes of learntng 01.tght to be, how those
purposes 1nighty be carried out through teachlng leartiing situations and
whether the purposes and means are both appropriate and effective.
2. Curriculum planning consists of all the processes necessary to plan for and write a
curriculum.
3. Curriculum planning is the process of gathering, sorting, selecting, balancing,
and synthesizing relevant infonnation from many sources in order to design
tholie experiences that wiJJ assist learners in attaining the goals of the
curriculum.
4. Curriculum planning is the orderly study and improvement of schooling in the light
of stated objectives.
5. Curriculum planning is the preliminary phase of curriculum development when
the curriculum workers make decisions and take action to establish the plan that
teachers and students carry out.
6. Curriculum planning is the process whereby ammgements of learning opportunities
or curriculum plans are created.

Characteristics of Curriculum Planning

These may be stated as:
I. Curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of the learners.
2. Curriculum planning involves decisions about both content and planning.
3. Curriculum-pla,ming involves decisions about a variety of issues.
4. Cu1Ticulum planning involves many groups.
5. Curriculum planning takes place at many levels.
6. CutTiculum planning is a continuous process.
Process of Curriculum Development
The process of curriculum development begins with the following:
I. Fonnulation of objectives of education, which are based on the ultimate, aim.s of
life, and also on the political and social philosophy and development needs of a
country.
2. Specification of objectives of education in respect of different stages of school
education and also in respect of different subjects and activitles and experiences
at different stages of education.
3. Determination of the scheme f studies, syllabi, etc,
4. Preparation of instruction tMtelials iike tex.thooks, supplementiu-y readers
workbooks, teacher guides, etc.
5. Implementation of cutTiculum in the school.
6. Evllluation of curriculum to ensure quality control for effecting suitable
modifications in the curriculum.
Effective Curriculum Planning .
Following are some crucial factors, which guide effective curriculum plannin g;

IO
 I. . CuiTiculum planning must be based upon a clear conception of what make
s a good life.
2. Curriculum planning must take into account the characteristics of past,
contemporary and future society.
3. Curriculum goals should address a broad range of needs, interests of both
individual and society.
4. Curriculum planning should recognize and encourage diversity among learners.
5. Curriculuin planning must make provision for all aspects of teaching-
learning situations, ThfY should include suggestive activities, content,
resources, and measuring devices, etc.
6. Curriculum planning should be done in the light of the characteristics of 1he
leamers for whom they are intended.
7. Curriculum planning should also make use of approaches other than subject-
area approach..
8. Curriculum planning must provide flexibility to allow teacher pupil plannin g.
9. Curriculum planning must provide for the infusion of spontaneous ideas,
which emerge during the interaction of the learners and teachers.
10. CutTiculum planning should rdlect a balance among cognitive, affective
and psychomotor needs of the learners.
11. Curriculum pla1ming should include provision for reflective thinking, values and
valuing, enhancement of self-concept and self-esteem.
12. Cooperative planning and development are most effectively done in cooperat i
l'I: settings.
J3. Curriculum planning should take into consideration an integrati:d set, )I"
experiences rather than a disjointed conglomeration of activities.
14. Curriculum planning must provide for continuous evaluation of all aspects of"
curriculum.
Basic Principles of Curriculum Development
Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the teachers, to give training to children in
the art of living together in the community. It is a tool, which, considerably helps
to inculcate those standards of moral action, which are essential for successful
living in society and for getting true satisfaction out of life. lt is therefore; very
essential that the curriculum should be, based on sound principles.
The following. principles should be kept in mind when framing curriculum ;
I, The Co1uervative Principle: lt has been stated that nations live in the present, on
the pas·t .in·d for the future. This means that the present, the past and the future
peeds of the c.onununity should be taken into consideratio, n The past is a great
guide for the present as it helps us to decide what has been useful to those,
who have gone before and what will be useful to those, who are going through
now. The point has been explained in the Handbook of Suggestions for
Teachers as ''It is, in fact, being increasingly recognized that the various
subject of the curriculum represent certain fonn of skills and certain branches
of knowledge, which have proved to be of importance in the experience of the
race, and which have to be taughl to each succeeding generation. From this
point of view it is the function of

• 11
 the school to preserve and transmit the traditio ns, knowledge and standards of
conduct on which our c ivilization depends .
This principle will be of help only when we carefully select as to what things of the
past are likely to help us in the present. All the things of the past may not suit us. It is,
therefore, essential that we shou ld select only those subjects and activities, which are
required by the present generation .
Th is principl e has been crit ici zed by some educationists on the ground that it
looks to subjects and not to the pupils. It is contended by its antagonists that in these
days when it is accepted that education and schools, and therefore curriculum, should be
child centred, this principle does not take us very far. It may be replied to such critics
that to condemn everything of the past is not a sound policy and especially in a country,
which has had a glorious past and, which showed the path of knowledge to other
countries. Another point to be stressed is that there must be a base to stand upon and if
the base is durable it must be accepted. Thirdly, it would be wrong to say that in the past
the child was entirely ignored. However, as stated above, the principle of selectivity
should be adapted in the selectio n of the curriculum on the basis of the past.
2. The Foi·wa rd-look in g Principle: While discussing the first principle, we have
pointed out that in the present, future needs and requirements of the community
should be given their due place. Children of today are the citizens of tomorrow.
Therefo,re their education should be such as it enables them to be progressive
minded persons. Education should give them a foundation of knowledge and
feeling that will enable them to change the environment where change is needed
3. The Creative Principle: In the curriculum those activities should be included,
which enable the child to exercise his creative and constructiw powers. The
objective of education is to discover and to develop special in terests, tastes and
aptitudes. Week r says, ..Th e promptings to anyone of the intellectual interests
may fade away and become practically irrevocable unless opportunities be then
and there forthcoming. None of the child's native gifts should escape our notice
and so perish of inanition. In a curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and
of the future, there must be a definite bias towards definitely creative activities.
4. The Activit)· Principle: The curriculum should be thought in tenns of activity and
experience, rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored growth
and learning take place only where there is activity. 'Experience' rather than
'instruction' is to meet the needs of the various stages of growth. In the words of
John Dewey. "The general movement is away from the old over-reliance and
verbal instruction, formulated subject and learning from books, and in the
direction of more varied and many sided individual activities in keeping with
child's real interests".
Playgrounds, shops, workrooms and laboratories not only direct the natural active
tendencies of youth, but they also involve intercourse, communication and co
operation.
Abbott and Wood report has also stressed the activity principle, "It is vitally
important that young children should not be required to sit still for long periods at
a

12
 time. A young child needs rest. it is true. but he must play, he must explore. and
he must be physically active if he is to derive a daily satisfaction out of his
attendance at school. In short, he needs experience more than instruction".
The curriculum must ensure the activity of body and mind. lt should be the centre
of the curriculum. All modern methods of teaching, i.e. Kindergarten, Montessori,
Project, Basic, etc., are based on this principle of activity.
5. Principle of Preparation for Life: This is most important principle in the
construction of the curriculum. Education must equip an individual for life.
Hence, curriculum must include those activities, which enable the child to take his
part effectively and amicably in the activities of the community when he
becomes an adult. We have to prepare him in such a way, as he is capable of
facing the various challenges of the complex problems of the future.
6. Child-Centred Curriculum: It is true that the child is to be prepared for life. But
this does not mean that his immediate interests should be sacrificed for the sake of
the future, which is indefinite. The best preparation for life that we can give a
child is to help him to live fully and richly his life at that stage at which he is. The
child automatically prepares himself for the next stage by living well and true life
at one stage. Smith and Harrison observe, 'Education.... regards the child as an
individual growing by his own activity, living in his own environment, and
preparing himself for adult life, not by imitating the adult, but by living as full y
as possible in the environment of childhood"
7. Principle of Maturity: Curriculum should be adapted to the grade of the pupils and
to their stage of mental and physical development. In the early childhood;
'wonder' and 'romance' predominate . So subjects and activities, which present the
elements of 'wonder' and 'romance, should be included at this stage. At a later
stage they are interested in practical things. So at the tlementary Stage the
curriculu m should provide for practical problem. At the next stage, that is the
Secondary Stage. students are interested in generalizations and accordingly
curriculum should provide such activities. The child at this stage is keen to
discover, to find out and discuss new facts. The curriculum should harness the
adventurous spirit of the growing child.
The experience provided should be within the comprehension of the students.
8. Principle of Individual Differences: Individuals differ in tast e,
temperament, skill, experience, aptitude, and innate ability and in sex. There fore,
the cun-iculum should be adapted to individual differences. It should not be rigid.
9. Vertical and Horizontal Articulation: On the one hand, each year' s course should
be built on what has been done in previous years and at the same time should
serve as basis for subsequent work. It is absolutely essential that the entire
curriculum should be coordinated.
10. Principle of Linking with Life: The conununity needs and characte risti cs should
be kept in view while framing the curriculum.

13
It. Principle of Comprehensiveness and Balance: The curriculum .should be framed
in such a way as every aspect of life i.e. economic relationships, social activities,
occupations and spiritual life, is given due emphasis.
J 2. Principle of Loyalties: The curriculum should be planned in such a ma1U1er that it
teaches a true sense of loyalty to the family, the school, the community, the town,
the province, the country and the world at large. It should enable the child to
understand that there is unity in diversity.
13. Flexibility: Curriculum should take into consideration the special need and
circumstances of the pupils. Curriculum of the girls may not always be identical
with the boys. The special needs of both the sexes should be given their due
consideration. In general the curriculum of the vii!age and the urban school will be
the same but there might be variation according to the specific needs of the
locality.
1-t Principle of Core or Common Subjects: There are certain broad areas of
knowledge, skill and appreciation with which all the children must be made
conversant and these should find a place in the curriculum. This is more important
at higher secondary stage where there are diversified courses. These subjects are to
be common to all groups. They are known as core subjects. Mother tongue or
regional language, special studies (general course), general science including
mathematics and one craft are expected to be the core subject.
15. Principle of Leisure: The curriculum should prepare the child for the use of
leisure time. According to llerbert Spencer, Literature , Music and Art occupy the
leisure part of life and should. therefore, occupy the leisure part of education. The
capacity to enjoy leisure greatly determines a man's capacity to work. If leisure is
spent in gambling. drinking and reading obscene lite rature, it will hamper
progress not only of an individual but also the nation as a whole. The school
curriculum should therefore. prepare the would-be-citizens to use effectively their
leisure time.
I6. Principle of All-round Development of Body, Mind .and Spirit: All kinds of
experiences should be provided to the students so that they may develop their all
powers.
Elements of Curriculum
CutTiculum development process consists of various phases or elements. The
curriculum planners have to consider all these phases while working on such process.
According to J.S, Farranta (19 90; p-24) the elements of curriculum development are
philosophy, society, aims, educational administrators, school organization, teaching
material teacher's role and teaching methods,
In the words of Lawton D. (1976; p-21) the elements of curriculum are the goals,
objectives, content. processes, resources, and means of evaluation.
Weeler (1974; p-30) has given five elements of curriculum as:
l. The selection of aims, goals and objectives.
2. The selection of learning experiences calculated to help in the attainment of
these aims, goals and objectives.
3. The selection of content (subject matter) through which certain types of experience

14
 may be offered.
4. The organization alid integration of learning experiences and content with
respect lo the teaching learning process within school and classroom.
.5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of all aspects of phases 2,3, and 4 in attaining
the goals detailed in phase I.
ht the light of above mentioned elements and taking into consideration the'
educational system in Pakistan, curriculum must have the following important
basic factors:
(a) Situational analysis
(b) Setting the objectives.
(c) Content
(d) Learning experiences
(e) Evaluation
(a) Situational Analy11ls:
Geographical condition of the country, society, its religion and culture, all
influence the process of cutriculum development, as one of the functio·ns of curriculum
is to preserve the cultural heritage of society and the school programmes are
responsible to transmit this heritage to the coming generation.
The cun·iculum development process is also influenced by the geographical
Conditions especially when general decisions are made for school timings, duration
of working thne, summer and winter vacations, nva!lability of natural sources,
animals, plants, etc.
In the same way, sociological conditions are also important to be kept in
view. According to Murray, Print (1993; p-39), "Curriculum developers serve lite
function of translating traditional assumptions, ideus values, knowledge and attitudes
into curriculurn objectives, content, leanting activities and evaluation...Of these
elements sociological sources have their greatest impact on education system of a
country,
When curriculum is planned, the cultural background of the concerned
society is also considered. The objectives, which are set, the content, which is
selected, the methods, which are followed, and the evaluation procedures, which
are adopted, all can only be effectively done if they are according to the cultural
and religi ous background of the country.
Curriculum planners have to give due importance to the society, beliefs,
attitudes, values, likeness, dis•likeness, etc. during the process of curriculum
development.
(b) Setting the Objectives:
The objectives play pivot role in the curriculum design. They are the starting
point.
Nothing can be done without havins any target to be achieved.
Hughes (1967) indicated that there are normally four sources or inputs
through which.curriculum developers go for objectvies. These arc society.
knowledge, learners and learning process. Curriculum planners use research
findings and opinio ns of philosophers, educationists. Psychologists, subject
specialists and sociologists as inputs for their designs. The selection of objectives is
based on their collective value position,

15
 which is supposed to be the representative of society because the composition of the
committee is meant to-reflect this and the opinion of the committee is focused on the
main targets or objectives to be achieved.
Perhaps you tend to use the terms 'goals' 'aims' and 'objectives interchangeable.
But, in fact, these tenns express different concepts. Therefore, we should be clear
about
· the main distinctions at this stage, although they are treated in much more detail in
coming units.
Educational aims refer to the overall purposes of education, which represent the
needs, and aspirations of a society as manifested in its educational policy.
Goals are the general purposes of education that are nonnally prepared for
particular stage or level of the education system; whereas objectives refer more
precisely to the changes in behaviour, which we hope will result from studying
particular courses. While goals are less general than aim but less specific than
objectives.
The very first question one must face in developing a curriculum-is "what are its
aims and objectives". There, must be some point to planning activities, some intended
educational outcomes.
When consider the nature of aims and objectives, we come across many conflicting
views about issues like "Why do we teach"? What should be the purposes of education?
For example, what is the major purpose of education and what should we select as a
teaching material to reach and achieve the main purpose.
(c) Subject Matter or Content:
This is the element. which has been emphasized mainly in the past. At the time of
subject matter selection, the following factors are to be considered:
;.> Type of society/culture
";> Type of curriculum
;;.> Number of diversified courses offered
Scope of the subject itself
)I' Level age of the learners
);,, Number and qualification of the teachers
;,. Available sources and resources
Y Strength in the classrooms
> Demands of the society
);- International needs
Methods of content organization
System, of examination, etc.
(d) Methods of Teaching/Activities:
This is another important element of curriculum development. It includes the
method\ adopted by the teacher during instruction and the learning experiences or
activities perfonned by the students. This element has been ignored too often in the past
and even it is being ignored at present. It is not fair to ask teachers to achieve certain
goals without giving them guidelines how to go to the achievement of desired goals. In
Pakistan the curriculum development process is centralized. Teachers are not directly
involved in this process. So most of them are ignorant of the process of achievement of

16
desired goals. They may be subject specialists with full command on subject matter but
still they may have the problem of selecting appropriate methods of teaching and
engaging the learners in various activities accordingly after we have determined the
goals, aims and objectives, the next important problem is the selection of the subject
matter. Out of the huge amount of ever expanding knowledge, what should we impart to
our pupils? What knowledge is of greatest value to them? Further, should we emphasize
"process" or "information"? Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant or
common to all or differentiated, practical or liberal?
(e) Evaluation:
Curriculum development is a dynamic process, which needs a continuous research
and evaluation for its betterment
In order to cope with the society demands and bring about desirable changes,
evaluation is made by the curriculum planners/researchers and teachers.
Curriculum evaluation must not be misinterpreted as student evaluation. It is a
broad term used to make judgment about the set curriculum and to make decisions about
the worth or effectiveness of it on the basis of evaluation the experts can modify the
curriculum by bringing about desirable changes. Keeping into account the process of
dynamic nature of the curriculum development, evaluation becomes necessary for
decision making at all stages in curriculum planning. Guba and Stufflebeam (1970)
identified four types of decisions, which are involved in-curriculum evaluation.
(a) Planning (objectives to be selected).
(b) Planning procedure (personnel, method and material to employ).
(c) Implementing procedures (whether to continue, modify or abandon a procedural
plant plan).
(d) Outcomes ( extent of achievements of targets or objectives).

17
 3. SUMMARY
Curriculum is a Latin word which means the "race course" or a run-way, which
one takes to reach a goal. Thus, a curriculum is the instructional and educative
programme through which the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of life.
Cunningham says, "Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (the teacher) to mould
his material (the pupil) in accordance with his ideals in his studio (the, school)." The
curriculum however cannot be considered synonymous with courses of study, although
they form an important part of curriculum.
The term curriculum in recent years has come to mean all the planned activities and
experiences, which are available to students under the direction of the school. It " includes
the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on
in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, playground and in the
numerous infonnal contacts between teachers and pupils. ln this sense, the whole life of
the school becomes the cu1Ticulum, which can touch the life of the students at all, points
and help in the evolution of a balanced personality.
For constructing school curriculum, these principles should be bome in mind:
1. Curriculum should be child centered
2. Curriculum should provide fullness of experience.
3. Curriculw11 should make provision for flexibility within framework of
acceptable principles and values.
4. Curriculum should be related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people.
5. Curriculum should be able to develop a rational outlook.
6. It should lay emphasis on learning to live rather than onliving to learn.
7. Curriculum should make provision for socially useful productive work.
8. Curriculum should be able to promote social justice, democratic values and
national integtation.
9. Curriculum should make adequate provision for the study of languages.
10. Curriculum should make provision for attistic experiences and expression
11. Curriculum should make provision for physical development
12. It should have provision for character building and human values.
13. Curriculum sbould provide for uniformity and variety.
14. Curriculum should provide for continuity in the whole programme.
15. It should be well integrated.

18
 4 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q.1 Write down different definitions of 'curriculum' quoting at least three educational
theorists.
Q. 2 After Considering various definitions and views on curriculum, write down your
own ideas about the meaning of 'curriculum'.
What are the main principles for curriculum construction? Explain.
Explain the meaning and characteristics of curriculum.
What is the importance of curriculum?
What are the defects in the existing curriculum? Suggest principles of curriculum
construction.
Explain the scope of curriculum in the light of four levels.
Write short notes of the following
1. Effective curriculum planning
ii. Basic principles of curriculum development
iii. Elements of curriculum

19
 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. htt:/Iolga-curiculum.blogspot.com/2009/02/nature-of-curriculum-development
system.html.
2. Print, M., Curriculum Development and Design, 1988, Allen and Unvvin Ltd.,
Australia.
2. Shahid, S.M., Curriculum Development and Instruction (Urdu), 2001. Majeed
Book Depot, Urdu Bazar, Lahore.
3. Shahid, S.M., Curriculum Development (Urdu), 2000, Majeed Book Depot, Urdu
Bazar, Lahore.
4. Shahid, S.M., Curriculum Development (Urdu), Majeed Book Depot, Urdu
Bazar, Lahore.
5. Taba, H., Curriculum Development;, Theory and Practice, 1962, Harcourt Brace
& World, America.
6. Wilies, J. & Bondi, J., Curriculum Development; A Guide to Practice, 1993,
McMiltan Company, New York.

20
Unit-2

HISTORY OF CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

Written by:
Dr. Miss Feroza Yasmin
21
 CONTENTS

Objective ............................... ...................................................................... .....,............24

l. Development of curriculum in Islam...............................................................25
Introduction,..............................................................................................25
Briefreview ofCurriculwn Development During the Period of the Holy Prophet
(peace be upon him), the Omayyads and the Abbassides.................................25
Activity-l.................................................................................................. 25
Activity-11.......................................................................................................26
Contributions of Imam Ghazali and Ibn-e-Khudun Contributions........26
Activity-Ill........................................................................................................26
2. Development of curriculum in the sub-continent........................................28
Legacy of the British Rule........................................................................28
Activity-IV.............................................................................................. 31
The Hartog Co1nmittee............................................................................31
The Punjab University Enquiry Committee...........................................31
Kamal Yar Jung Committee.....................................................................31
Sargent Scheine........................................................................................31
Central Advisory Board...................................................................................32
Self-assessment Questions - Exercise No l.............................................33
3. Curriculum development since 1947...........................................................34
Educational Conference 1947..........................................................................35
Activity-V................................................................................................35
Activity-VI.......................................................................................................35
Punjab University Commission I 950-52...............................................36
Six-year National Plan of Educational Development.............................36
Activity-VII.............................................................................................37
Board of Secondary Education, Lahore 1957.................................................38
Karachi Board of Secondary Education, Karachi,..................................39
3.9 The Commission on national Education 1959 .... ... .... ...... .. .......,,q,,...-40
3.10 Curriculum Committee for Secondary Education...................................41
3.l l Activity-VIU...................,...................................................................43
3.12 Modern Science and Mathematics Course..............................................45
4. Curriculum Development under various educations polices ..,.,..... ,, .. 46
4.I New Education Policy, 197......... ....... ............... ,......,......,....,.................46
Education Policy, 1972-80................................................................................47

22
 Activity-IX........................................................................................49
Activity-X........................................................................................ 51
4. National Education Policy, 1978 ...... ......................................................5 l
National Education Conference..................................................................................54
Concluding Remarks...........................................................................55
Setf assessment Questions-Exercise No.2................................................55
Answer to Self..ai;sessment Questions-Exercise No I and 2...........56
4.10 Bibliography...............................,.........................................................56

23
 OBJECTI
I. VES
When you have studied this unit, you should beable to:
2. List curricula offerings during the period of the Holy Prophet (peace be
upon him), the Omayyads and the Abbassides with special reference to
Ghazali and lbn-e- Khuldun.
Trace and describe some representative fornlS of the evolutionary process
3. curriculum development in the sub-continent of lndo-Pak during the
Muslim followed by detailed description of subsequent developments
down to the present day with emphasis on primary and secondary
4.
education.
Analyse the causes which led the colonial British Government to frame a
Curriculum that produced white-collared personnel in the sub-continent.
5.
Discuss the guidelines given by the Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali
Jinnah for the future development of education in Pakistan in general and
6. curriculum in particular.
Describe the process of change in curriculwn development with special
.. \ . 7.
.· reference to Pakistan.
List and appreciate the efforts made by different governments in
Dromoting the cause of education and curriculum through education
8. policies.
Assess the role of prominent educationists in reshaping curriculum at different SI
9.
in Pakistan.
Discuss the circumstances which led to the formulation of the. prese nt·national
and objectives of education and of curriculum in Pakistan, and
Appreciate the importance of educational planning in the implementation
of curriculum in Pakistan.
 1. DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM IN ISLAM
Introduction
In unit-I you have studied the nature and scope of curriculum and the force that
affect it. You have also studied the principles-of curriculum development in a Muslim
society. Alt this must be kept in mind while studying the present unit as this will depend
upon understanding of the complex nature of curriculum development.
The history of the curriculum in Pakistan, today, may be traced back to the period
when the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (peace be upon him) started teaching the
principles of Islam to the people. In order to appreciate the meaningful development of
curriculum at various stages in Muslim history, we have started from the development of
curriculum the early Muslin period and traced it through different stages finally upto the
present time in Pakistan.
Brief Review of Curriculum Development During the Period of The
Holy Prophet {peace be upon him), The Omayyads and Abbassides
It was through education that Islam completely changed the entire fabric of life
and living. The Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) started educating people. In his period,
instruction was imparted in the following subjects:
(a) Reading and writing (Arabic)
(b) Quranic education
(c) Leaming the Quran by heart
(d) The Fiqha
(e} Mathematical calculations in respect of distribution of property
(f) Basic medicine: Genealogy
(g) learnjng foreign languages
(h) Art of sewing; masonary and arrow-shooting
(I) Horse riding
Activity•I
Develop the concept of curriculum from the Holy Prophet's scheme of studies of
the Muslim youth and adults.
During the periodof Hamlt Umar, the second Caliph of Islam, curriculum
included horse-riding and preparation of armaments besides other subjects.
During the period of Omayyads notable progress was made in various fields of
education. During this period. curriculum included Arabic Grammar. Rhetorics, Fiqh,
Hadith, Mathematics, and Medicine besides the subjects already introduced.
During the period of Abbassides (Banu Abbas). Muslim education visited new
lands. Islamabad had spread to the whole of North Africa, Southern Europe. Middle East.
Central Asia and the South East Asiam sub-continent Many new subjects of studies were
added. Great progress was made in the field of astronomy and many laboratories were
set up; history and geography were introduced as new subjects. Many branches of
Mathematics. such as Arithmetic. Algebra. Geometry, Trigonometry. were recognized
Philosophy and Ethics gained importance.

25
During the Abbassides period, the curriculum included the following subjects:
1. Algebra 2. Geometry
3. llm-ul-kalam 4. Literature
5. Hadith 6. Tafsir
7. Fiqh 8. Trigonometry
9. Arithmetic l 0. Plain Geometry
11. Arabic Grammer 12. llm-ul-fraiz
13. Physics 14. Chemistry
15. Astronomy 16. Astrology
17. Philosophy 18. Histrory
19. Geography 20. Sciences of Medicine and
Surgery.
Every student was free to take up the subject of his own choice. All the
expenditures including expenses on boarding and lodging were borne by the state.
Activity-11
Indicate the new trend of curriculum during the Abbassides period. Visualize and
describe some socio-cultural changes that might have brought about this new trend?
Contributions oflmam Ghazali and lbn-e-Khuldun Contributions
During the 10th and 11th centuries many new subjects of study appeared and
there arose a controversy whether to include them in the cLmiculwn or not. Before this,
the distinction between important and unimportant useful and not useful subjects for the
students was little cared for. The result was that sometimes unimportant subjects received
more emphasis and important subjects were relegated to secondary position. Imam
Ghazali realized this confusion and introduced refonns in the curriculnm. He divided the
subjects into Farz-e-Ain and Farz-e-Kifaya. Every Muslim was bound to learn about'Farz-
e-Ain, subjects which included Kalima, prayers, fasting, Nazra Quran, Fiqh, Hadith, llrn-
ul-Kalarn and other essentials relating to fundamentals of Islam. Under Farz e-Kifaya, he
included useful subjects which were necessary for better living but not obligatory for all. A
few Muslims should suffice on behalf of the Muslim Community by studying subjects
under Farz-e-Kifaya.
For the students, Ghazali divided the subjects into three categories: compulsory
subjects embraced Arabic grammar and vocabulary, Nazra Quran, Tafsir, Fiqh Kalam,
Ethics and Philosophy. Elective subjects included the Science of Medicine and Surgery,
Mathematics, Politics, Literature, History, Geography, all vocational subjects like
tailoring, hair-cutting, gardening etc. Subjects not worthy of learning by the students
were jugglery, mesmerism, etc.
Activity-Ill
Substitute some current educational tenn for the term Farz-e-Ain. Under present
circumstances, do you think that some modem subjects can be included under Farz-e-Ain
category for the Muslim Ummah? If so mention a few of them.

The curriculum, designed by Allama lbn-e-Khuldun in his memorable 'Muqaddama',

included the following subjects to be taught.

26
1. ruabic lanmiage - k\rabic grammar
3. Tafsir - iqh
- Hadith 6. literature
7. Um-ul-Kalam 8. !Rhetoric
- rrasawwuf 10. llm.ul-Fraiz
11. Mathematics 12. Algebra
13. !Geometry 14. Trigonometry
15. k\stronomy 16. Ethics
17. Philosophy 18. 8otany
19. Medicine 20. Historv
21. Geography

27
 2. DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM IN T'-lE
SUB-CONTINENT
Under the Muslim rule, changes in curriculum were introduced from. time to
time to frame curricula according to Islamic principles. Some of these significant changes
are listed below:
(a) Curriculum which was introduced during the 13th century included Arabic
· language, Arabic grammar, literature and elementary arithmetic. Besides these
subjects, students were given practical skills in various arts and crafts that were
popular in those days.
(b) In the 17th century, institutions offering Dars-e-Nizamia were established which
taught Arabic grammar, Rhetoric, Fiqh, Principles of Fiqh, Ethics, Islamic
Philosophy. Ilm-ul-Kalam, Mathematics and Astronomy.
(c) Akbar, the Great Mughal introduced a curriculum which included morality).
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, astrology, Arabic grammar,
agriculture, history, geography, political administration, ethics, philosophy and
theology. Akbar's curriculum was more of a worldly nature and it included the
subjects which were useful in everyday life.
(d) After the decline of the Mughal empire, the Muslims of India lost their prestige and
their condition deteriorated in all walks of life. The British who had succeeded the
Mughals tried to destroy the Muslim identity by clqsing their Madrasses. Shah
Wali Ullah was the first Muslim thinker of the sub-continent who tried to reinstate
the Muslims once again through education. He worked in a Madrassah known as
Madrassah-i-Raheemiyya established by his father. He laid great stress on the
moral education of the Muslims. He tried to reform their un-Islamic habits and
customs. His curriculum included the Quran,. Hadith, Piqh, Arabic language,
Persian language and moral education.
(e) Encouraged by the success of Shah Wali Ullah, Darul-Uloom Deoband, Nadvatul
Ularna Lucknow, Madrassah Jamia Millia, Delhi, were established with stress on
religious education and other subjects of everyday use. (But each of these has a
typical curriculum model of its own based on its own unique philosophy.) Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan was the pioneer of Aligarh movement. He advocated modem
education laying greater stress on European sciences. English language and
literature with proper scope for religious knowledge.
Legacy oftbe British Rule
With the decline of the Mughal empire, East India company had established itself
in the year l 600 as purely a trade concern and as such it undertook no educational
activity during the first hundred years of its existence. The Charter Act of 1698, however,
required that schools should be established for the Company's Indian employees. As a
result of this Act, the company established a few schools, which were called 'Charity
Schools', inprincipal,. towns such as Bombay. Madras and Calcutta. A few Anglo Indians
were atimitted in these schools. Tue curriculum of these schools was limited to impaning
instruction in three ''Rs" and the principles of Christian religion.
 The activities of the company in the field of education actually began in the
decade1781-91. The first institution, 'the' Calcutta Madrassah' was established in 1781.
It was a higher institution established for students. The curriculum of the,' Calcutta
Madrassah' comprised arithmetic geometry, Quranic theology, law, logic, grammar and
national philosophy. As such the curriculum was much inferior to the curriculum of
higher institutions in the days of Muslim Kings. For example, in Madrassahs built by
Akbar, the curriculum included advanced studies in ethics, arithmetic, accountancy,
agriculture, geometry, astronomy, economics, physics, logic, natural philosophy and
history. The curriculum for Muslim students included learning of the Quran, Fiqh,
Hadith and 1Im-u1Kalam while the Hindu students learnt Vedanta and Patan-jili's
commentary on "Yoga".
It may be pointed out that during the British period, the word Primary
Education and Primary Schools had a connotation different from that of the primary
schools of today. The curriculum of the Primary Schools included the study of 3Rs,
History of England and of the sub-continent, Geography, Euclidan Geometry and
Trigonometry. The number of classes in these schools varied from six to ten.
With Macaulay's Minutes, which he wrote in 1853, education took a new turn,
and the Minutes gave a new direction to educational activities in the sub-continent. The
Minutes proposed a new system of education, in which English would be used as the
only mediwn instruction and all the money eannarkedfor education would be spent on
English education only. The Board of Directors in the Dispatch of February, 1834,
doubted the utility teaching oriental literature but the Committee-of Public Instruction
did not share these vie s and favoured retention of oriental subjects of study. This stand
of the Conunittee brought in open the brewing controversy of the Orientalists and
Anglicists. The fonner were in favour of adopting the classical languages, v1z., Persian,
Arabic and Sanskrit as the medium instruction. while the latter stuck to English as the
only medium of instruction. Argumen countered arguments until in 1835, Macaulay's
measures for adopting English as the only medium of instruction. According to
Resolution of March 7, 1835, all the funds at the disposal of the Cominittee were
channelised to the cultivation of a knowledge of English literature and science through
the medium of English.
In 1837, the government decided to abolish Persian and substitute English as
The language of administration. This change made English important for earning of
livelihood, and thus contributed substantially to the growth of English Education in the
sub-continent.
During the period 1835-54, the missionaries became the pioneers of English
education in the Punjab. These schools were established at Lahore. Towards the end of
1954 there were eight Zillah schools (government schools situated at headquarter of
districts) addition to Mission Schools . The subjects of study in these schools included
English geometry and geography. Beside this, by 1854, there were 24 Tehsil Schools
(Elementary Schools) in which arrangements for the teaching of 'Three R's, English
and Persian were made.
In the Punjab two types of high schools were established. In one of these types
n English was taught up to the end of the Matriculation stages. white in the other.
teaching

29
of English started in Class IV. In classes VI to VIII, in addition to its being taught as a
subject English became the medium of instruction for several subjects and at the high
school stag it was the medium of instruction for all the subjects apart from its being
taught as a language The number of high schools, teaching through the mother tongue
eventually faded in almost all parts of the sub-continent. For classes Ito III the course of
study comprised the three 'Rs and geography in both the types of schools. In classes IV
and V the common course comprised the three Rs and Geography. However, English
was taught as a compulsory subject in classes IV and V of the English High Schools,
while the students of the corresponding classes in the non-English schools were taught
an additional course in Mathematics. In the middle classes i.e. classes VI to VIII, the
common courses in the two types of high schools comprised Urdu, Mathematics
(Arithmetic and Experimental Geometry) History and Geography. English was taught
as a compulsory subject in the English High Schools while the students of non English
schools in classes VI to VIII had to study an additional course in Mathematics
comprising Euclidean Geometry and Algebra.
The 'Hunter Commission' of 1882 recommended the introduction of vocational
courses at the upper secondary stage (two top-classes of a high school). The curriculum
of the commercial classes included Mathematics, Modern English, History and
Geography, Drawing and Practical Geometry and a Modern Language of the sub
continent. The Punjab Universityinstituted an Entrance Examination in science. Physical
education was a required subject for all students who appeared in this examination.
Later, Drawing, Agriculture Physiology were added as additional optional out of which
a student had to offer one subject on the lines parallel to the Matriculation examination.
It also organized a clerical commercial examination. The curriculum leading to this
examination comprised l sections, compulsory and elective. The compulsory part
included English dictation callig raphy, Precis Writing and Correspondence, General
and Commercial Geography, Book-keeping and conunercial Arithmetic. In addition to
the compulsory subjects candidate had to select one more subject, out of the subjects of
Urdu, native system accounts, and shorthand.
In the Punjab, the first School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination was not
held until 1921. The syllabus comprised two compulsory subjects, viz., English and
Arithmetic (including Commercial Mathematics) and three elective subjects to be
chosen either for Group-A or from Group B as given below:
Group-A
i. Shorthand and Typewriting
ii. Book-keeping and Commercial Correspondence
iii. One subject from:
A Language of the sub-
continent B A classical language
C History and Geography.

30
Group-B
i. Agriculture
11. Physics and Chemistry
111. Drawing
iv. History and Geography
v. a. A language of the sub-continent or a modem language
b. A classical language
VI. Physiology and Hygiene.
The University of the Punjab later amalgamated SLC examination and Matriculation
examination in Arts and Science into one known as Certificate Examination.
Activity-IV
Study the above two groups of subjects and briefly explain the purpose behind
these offerings.
The Hartog Committee
Th(: Hartog Committee; in 1929, emphasized the need of introducing
vocational courses iucluding some courses for girls schools as the enrolment in girls
schools was increasing' day-by-day. In this respec,t progress was low . In the, Punjab,
manual training centers were attached to the secondary schools and instructic,n was
arranged at the time when it was convenient to students and the administration .
Vocational fonn of training had become very popular and therefore soap-making,
basket-making, chick-making, rope-twisting, poultry fanning and sericulture were
introduced in a number of vernacular schools. Now you can well imagine the
economic concern of educationists in those days.
The Punjab University Enquiry Committee
The Punjab University Enquiry Committee in 1932-33 suggested the
establishment of Higher Secondary Schools imparting education for 3 years after class
IX. It suggested that apart from schools providing literary education of a purely college
preparatory nature, there shouldbe a good proportion of higher secondary school which
should give specialized training in agriculture and military and conunercial subjects for
adopting them as careers. ln 1934, the Sapru Committee recommended the introduction
of vocational subjects. As a result, a number of vocational subjects were introduced
along with four compulsory subjects, i.e. English, one language of the sub-continent,
History and Geography and Arithmetic.
Kamal Yar Jang Committee
Kamal Yar Jang Committee was set up by the Muslim Educational Conference
to study the educational problems of the Muslims. The Committee recommended
diversification of curricula during the last four years of the high school. It
recommended the institutkm of a course in humanities and languages, a course in
science, a course in agriculture, a course in conunerce and so on. ·
Sargent Scheme
The Sargent Scheme recommended that a system of compulsory and free
education be introduced for all children upto the age of 14 years, primary school for
five

31
years up to the age of 11 and middle stage for 3 years up to the age of 14 and further
three years for brighter students who would be sent to High Schools.
Central Advisory Board
The Central Advisory Board of Education recommended that the high schools
should be of two main types, viz.,
i. Academic High Schools, to impart instruction in arts and pure sciences and
ii. Technical High Schools, to impart instruction in applied sciences and
industrial and commercial subjects.
It was further recommended that the medium of instruction in all high schools
should be the mother tongue of the pupils. English should be taught as compulsory
second language. All pupils should acquire more knowledge of mathematics and science.
Physical training should be obligatory. Rigid distinction between compulsory . and
optional subjects was discarded. It was considered that the range available should be as
wide as circumstances pennit and· the individual pupil should be allowed to choose
according to his interests, and also according to the requirements of his probable future
career. For girls' high schools, domestic science for all at the appropriate stage was
included in the curriculum.
in the year 1937, an Educational Conference was held and Mr. Zak.ir Hussain of
Jamia Millia is Delhi was asked to submit a scheme of educational improvement. This is
known as Wardah Scheme. It prepared the syllabi for different subjects for classes Ito
VII. Another Committee suggested that six types of subjects should be offered at
secondary stage. They were recommended as under:
(a) Language, literature and Social Studies and Mathematics
(b) Natural Science and Mathematics
(c) Art
(d) Commerce
(e) Technical and Professional subjects
(f) Domestic Science
The Committee also recommended that there should be a common compulsory
core curriculum in all the subjects. This core curriculum should consist of:
l. English'
2. Urdu (or Hindi)
3. Physical Culture and General Knowledge.
Besides compulsory core subjects, students were required to take up three
subjects in Humanities and Science.
During the period J930-47, various conunittees set up to reorganize educational
system in the sub-continent, forcefully expressed that the educational system-needed a
drastic reorientation. A shift from pure academic course to technical and professional
courses was the key note of all recommendations. In spite of all these
recommendations and attempts, no substantial change was seen when Pakistan
emerged as an independent Muslim stage.

32
 Self-assessment Questions - Exercise No. 1
l. State how the curriculum introduced by Imam Ghazali was different from the one
introduced during the period ofBanu Abbas.
2. What kind of reforms were introduced by Shah Wali Ullah in the curriculum
during Muslim rule in the sub-continent, and what were their results?
3. Macaulay's Minutes (1853) are considered to be an important document in the
history of education in the sub-continent. Discuss why?
4. How and 'when did the vocational subjects find their place in the curriculum?
Which 'reports' recommended their introduction?
5. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Kamal Yar Jang Committee recommended _

(ii) Institutions offering Darse-Nazamia taught the subject of _

(iii) In 1837, the British Government made a decision that compelled the
people in the sub-continent to learn English. What was the decision?..

(iv) What prov1s1on was made particularly for Muslim students in the
curriculum of 'Calcutta Madrassah'?

(v) Horse-riding formed a part of curriculum during the period of _

6. Tick True or False against each of the statements given below:

(i) History and Geography were introduced as subjects of study during the
period of Banu Abbas. T/F
(ii) Imam Ghazali divided the subjects into five categories. T/F
(iii) Um - ul-Ka lam was included as a subject-of study in the Daras-e-Namazi
in India in the Mughal period. T/J='
(iv) Persian was abolished as a language of administration in 1837. T/ F
(v) Vocational subjects were introduced in the sub-continent in 1934. T/F

33
 3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1947
Pakistan as you know, came into being as an independent country in 1947. At
this time, the University of Punjab was the main body governing the preparati n of
curricula of the secondary stage and higher education in West Pakistan. However,
primary education was the responsibility of the provincial govenunents. The Punjab
University conducted two examinations, at the end of the high school stage, viz., the
Matriculation Examination and the School Leaving Certificate Examination (SLC). For
the Matriculation Examination, five subjects had to be offered by a candidate. The
subjects were divided into two groups compulsory and elective as detailed below:

Group A. Compulsory Subjects

I. English
2. Mathematics or in the case of girls, Arithmetic and Domestic Arithmetic and
Household Account
3. History and Geography.
Group B: Elective Subjects
1. Pakistani languages such as Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, or a foreign
Language, say, French or German.
2. A classical language Arabic, Persian, Hebrow, Latin, or Greek Physics and
Chemistry
3. Drawing
4. Agriculture
5. Physiology and Hygiene or Civics and Hygiene or Domestic Economy for girls
only.
For School Leaving Certificate Examination, compulsory subjects were:
1. English
2. Arithmetic including Commercial Arithmetic for those taking up Group A -
Compulsory, or Algebra for those taking up Group B - Elective.
Group A. Elective
(a) Shorthand and Typewriting
(b) Book-keeping and Commercial Correspondence
(c) One subject out of the following:
i. A classical language (as for Matriculation)
11. A Pakistani language (as for Matriculation)
iii. History and Geography
1v. Civics and Hygiene.
Group-B
(a) Agriculture
(b) Civics and Hygiene
(c) Physics and Chemistry and
(d) One more elective from
1. Languages
iii. Drawing
iv. History and Geography
v. Civics

34
Gradually, School Leaving Certificate Examination became so unpopular that nobody to
this examination in the year 1950 and 195 1. From here we switch over to the first
education conference in Pakistan.
Educational Conference, 1947
The Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah had a great faith in education as a potent
factor in realizing his aim of making Pakistan a' truly Muslim state. He lost no time,
directed that an Education Conference be called as early as November, 1947. In his mess
to the Pakistan Education Conference, 1947, he laid down the future education policy
saying:
"You know that the importance of education and the right type of
education cannot be over-emphasized, tinder foreign rule far over a
century, sufficient attention has not been paid to the education of our
people, and if we are to make real, speedy and substantial prcgress we
must earnestly tackle this question and bring our educational policy and
programme on the lines suited to the genius of our people, consonant
with our history and culture, the modem conditions and vast
developments that have taken place all over the world." (IO:p.8)
Activity-V
. Derive principles of curriculum-making from the above policy statement of Quaid-i-
Azam. On another occasion the Quaid-i-Azam remarked:
"The future of our state will and must greatly depend upon the type of
education we give to our children and the way we bring them up as
future citizens of Pakistan. Education does not merely mean academic
education. There is an urgent need for giving scientific and technical
education to our people in order to build up our future economic life and
to see that our people take up science, commerce, trade and industry. At
the same time, we have to build up the character of future generation. We
should try by sound education, to instil into them, the highest sense of
honour, integrity, responsibility and selfless service to the nation."
J. J Activity-VI
Indicate the character traits emphasized by the Quaid-i-Azam and express your i
personal opinion.
The first Education Conference of November/December, 1947, gained importance
because of the guidelines offered by the participants of the future plans and educational
programmes. Mr. Fazalur Rehman, the first Education Minister of Pakistan, while
supporting the views expressed by the Father of the Nation in his message, remarked:
"Our existing educational system, as originally conceived by Macaulay, was intended to
serve a narrow utilitarian purpose and its growth, has been largely a matter of artificial
improvisation It has rightly been condemned for lack of realism and inability to adjust
itself to the needs of rapidly changing society, for its own literary bias and for its soul less
character. It is inspired by no lofty idealism. It has no common faith nor it is governed
by sound ethical principles or high intellectual standard. It has, therefore,

35
conspicuously failed to inculcate and maintain the stem moral and intellectual discipline
which is the hall-mark of our true culture. The growing realization of these great
deficiencies and their paralysing effect on national life inevitably bread acute
dissatisfaction in the minds of all thinking people, and has in the recent years led to a
considerable concentration of energies in a complete overhaul of or entire educational
structure." (1 O:p. 12)
Consequently in the Conference Pakistanis' have now before them the opportunity
for reorientating their entire education policy to correspond closely with times and to
reflect the ideals for independent state stands.
Since curriculum is the nerve system efforts have been made to modify it and to
improve it. Commissions undertook review of curricula as an exercise. Significant efforts
made in this direction are summarized below:
Punjab University Commission 1950-52
The Commission observed that the school curricula did not provide for enough
diversification to suit the ranging tests and aptitudes of the students. The Commission
recommend that courses in the middle schools should consist of certain basic subjects
such as Religious Education, Physical Instruction, Urdu, Mathematics, History and
Geography, Practical Arts and one language from amongst Urdu, English, Persian,
Arabic, Bengali, French, Latin, etc. it was considered that this would" give the students of
the age 11-13 a sound general education. For secondary stage, there should be a few
compulsory subjects and a few electives to be chosen from the various groups (one from
each group) such as:
I. Languages: Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Bengali, French, German, Latin, etc.
2. Social Sciences: History, Geography, Elementary Civics, etc.
3. Natural Sciences: Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Domestic Science, etc.
4. Mathematics: Algebra, Geometry, Drawing, etc.
5. Arts and Music: Drawing, Painting, Designing, Modeling, Eastern Music,
Western Music.
The Committee emphasized that each stage should be treated as complete and the
courses of studies should e designed on the basis of a continuous process for the whole
unit.
Six Year National Plan of Educational Development
It was on I 8th and 19th July, 1951, that Mr. Fazalur Rehman, the Central
Education Minister, invited Provincial Education Ministers, Secretaries, Vice Chancellors
and other high ranking officers in a Conference at Karachi, to detennine the basis for the
preparation of the Six year National Plan of Education Development of Pakistan.
As regards the secondary school curriculum in general, the Conference made
certain suggestions. It was observed that generally for the students of the age range 13
plus to 16 plus differentiation in the interests and abilities of the pupils had long been
considered to have been taken care of by following two main lines, viz. Humanities and
Science and Mathematics. However, educational experience and psychological research
justify greater differentiation with less broad divisions into groups of subjects. The
differentiation of curriculum should not take the form of exclusive compartment aliza tion,
36
but courses of study should be organized by laying more emphasis on those subjects for
which the pupil shows greater inclination. For instance, a pupil may study two or three
modem language in addition to the core subject; another may study physics, chemistry
or biology; yet another may study the outline of World History including Islamic
History, Elementary Economics and Elementary Civics.
Another positive shift was towards the ideological basis of education. It
discussed in detail the "ideological rationale of Pakistan' which would need an
educational system corresponding more or less to the ideological rationale of the
country. With this basic philosophy in view, the principal objectives of the new
plan were enumerated as:
I. To organize education on the basis of the objectives resolution to be embodied
in the Constitution of Pakistan.
2. To achieve as comprehensively as possible di.iring the period of six years
an Integrated and balanced development of education.
3. To provide health and physical education.
4. To eradicate illiteracy from the country.
5. To provide equal opportunity to all.
It also reconunended 5 years Primary, 3 years Middle and 3 years Secondary
education pattem The new structure was to provide in total, eleven years schooling upto
secondary level and three years instruction at the under-graduate level. When this
proposal was referred to the Inter-University Board, it was accepted readily.
. .
When recommendations for reforms were being made, Pakistan did not have
uniform pattern of education. The du.ration of condary education in Karachi, Sindh, was
seven years of schooling at the Primary level. In the Punjab, Khyberpakhtunkhwa and
Baluchistan, the duration was five years, beyond five years of Primary education. The
President, Karachi Board of Secondary, Education, suggested the folJowing pattern:

Pre-primary
2 years age level 3+ to5+
Primary
Secondary 5 years age level 5+ to 10+
a. Lower level 3 years age level 1 to 13+
b. Secondary 3 years age level 13+ to 16+
c. Higher secondary 2 years age level 16+ to 18+
Karachi proposal, as we see. corresponded to the educational practices in Great
Britain Act, 1944. Rejecting the Karachi Scheme for structural and curricular leaving it to
the mental exercises of its experts, theauthors of the plan decided to stay wit in their
limited scope: The Central Government had no constitutional control over education in
the provinces and. therefore, no worth mentioning development could take place.
However, diversification of courses was accepted by all.
Activicy-Vll
Compare the structural design of the Six Year National Plan with that of the
Karachi Proposal. Find out the major differences between the two, if any.

37
 Board of Secondary Education, Lahore (1957)
First five-year plan (1955-60) favoured the creation of Board of Secondary
Educa tion to take over the charge of conducting the public examination at the
Secondary Education level. The Board proposed in its meeting that there should be two
public examinations, one at the end of class X and the other at the end of class XII. The
Board in their sitting on the 15th of March, 1956, approved the following scheme
regarding the courses of study for the two stages of Secondary Education:
(a) High School Stage
i. Religious Education shall be the qualifying compulsory subject. Where
Religious Education could not be provided, ethical or Moral Education was
temporarily approved.
ii. Compulsory Subjects
a. Urdu one paper to be taken by those not offering urdu elective
b. English tow papers (not to be taken by those offering English group)
c. Social Studies two papers ( paper A, History and Geography, and paper
B, Civics, Health Education and Vocational Guidance).
Candidates were required to offer one of the following groups in addition to the
compulsory subjects:
Group-I (Humanities) .
Any three of the following subjects:
I. . History 2. Geography. 3. One language
4. Art and Drawing
5. Music 6. Mathematics 7. General Science.
Group-II (Science)
I. Physics and Chemistry 2. Geography
3. Biology or any' subject from I to 3 listed under the Humanities Group.
Group-I JI(Oriental)
a.
l Arbic two papers 2. Persian one paper 3. Urdu one paper or
I. Persian two papers 2. Arabic one paper 3. Urdu one paper or
I. Urdu two papers 2. Arabic One paper 3. Persian one paper.
b. Any one subject excepting a language from Humanities Group.
Group-IV (f echnical)
One of the following courses with cognate subjects (the entire group was equal to
three subjects or six papers):
I. Industrial Arts 2. Commerce
3. Home Science 4. Agriculture
5. Military
Studies
Group- V (English)
(a)
I. English advanced level, two papers
2. Any other group.
(b) Higher Secondary Stage (I)

38
 As for the higher secondary stage, the decisions taken·by the Board were as
under:
The following were the qualifying compulsory subjects:
1. Physical and Health Education.
11. Urdu (one paper) for those who had not passed the Secondary School
Certificate Examination of the Board of Secondary Education, Lahore.
The following were compulsory subjects:
1. Social Studies three papers (paper-A Pakistan, its constitution, resources
problems in the context of World Affairs and paper-Band C, Foundation Studies
two papers.
ii. English two papers.
Candidates were required to offer one of the following groups in addition to the
compulsory subjects:
Group-I (Humanities)
Any three of the following subjects:
History, Economics, Geography, Psychology, Civics, Statistics, Mathematics,
Religions of the World with Special Emphasis on Islam, Music, Fine Arts, one Language.
Group-11 (Medical)
I. Biology, "2. Physics 3. Chemistry.
Group-III (Engineering)
I. Mathematics 2. Physics 3. Chemistry
Group-IV (Oriental)
The same subjects as for Secondary School Examination.
Group- V (Technical)
One of the following courses with cognate subjects. The entire group was equal to
three subjects or six papers:
1. Industrial Trade Course 2.
Commerce 3. Honie Science
4. Nursing 5. Military Studies 6.
Agriculture
All papers carried J00 marks each. A subject consisting of two papers for
instance carried 200 marks.
Karachi Board of Secondary Education, Karachi.
The Karachi Board recommended two types of public examinations at the end of
class X:
•1 .
ii.
Secondary School Leaving Examination (General). ..
Secondary School Leaving Examination (Technical).
The course of study leading to the SSLE (General comprised of two sections
compulsory and elective. The compulsory subject included):
1. Physical Education
2. Religious Education (both non-examination subjects)
3. English (mother tongue and non-mother tongue)

39
4. Urdu (mother tongue and non-mother tongue)
5. Mathematics (Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra)
6. General Science or Domestic Science for girls only).
Elective Subjects
Two elective subjects from any one of the groups listed under: Group-I
1. History, 2. Geography 3. Civics
4. Economics 5. Elementary Commerce
Group-11
I. Physics and Chemistry
2. Domestic Science (not for those who take domestic science in lieu of genera
science).
3. Physiology and Hygiene.
Group-IR
I. Commercial mathematics
2. Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry.
Group-IV
1. Biology
2. Geography and Geology
3. Engineering Science
Group-V
Arts and Practical Arts
Group- VI (Language)
1. Arabic 2. Persian
3. Latin 4. Sanskrit
5. Gujrati 6. Benga.li
7. Urdu 8. Sindhi
9. French 10 Hindi.
For the School Leaving Examination (technical) Compulsory Subjects
I. Urdu
2. Practical English
3. Mathematics (practical Arithmetic and algebra)
4. Mathematics I and Il (Plain Geometry, Trigonometry, Menstruation an
Solid Geometry, and
5. Physics and Chemistry.
In addition to the compulsory subjects, a candidate required to offer
Engineering Drawing or Engineering Science (Applied Mechanics and Applied
Electricity). The ftrst-five year plan proposed without any reservation, a school
·system that would inc1ude both academic and vocational discipline·s in an integrated
schenic of work.
The Commission on National Education (1959)
Now you enter upon a big educational development in the history of Pakistan
since1947. "The Commission. as you know, was appointed by the Pakistan Govenunent in

40
 December, 1958 and its report was submitted on August 26, 1959. The Preamble of the
Commission Report states:
"Whereas the educat ional system of Pakistan is not adequate to meet the
needs and requirements of the nation, it has become necessary to set up a
competent body to review, in consonance with the aspiration of the
people of the country , the educational for the purpose of ensuring an
integrated and balanced development of the education at various stages."
In order to bring full development of the child as (a) an individual (b) a citizen
(c) a worker, and (d) a patriot, schools offering, besides a basic core of subjects, should
include a range of optional subjects suited to a student's talent and related to our social
and cultural needs.

Curriculum Committee for Secondary Education

In July, 1960, the Goverrunent of Pakistan appointed the Curriculum
Co1runittee for Secondary Education for implementing the recommendations of the
Commission on National Education. The Committee had the following objectives in
view:
(j) To fonnulate the curriculum and syllabi for secondary education in confonnity
with the recommendations of the Commission to ensure the realizati on of
national objectives which may be su1ru11a rized as under:
(a) Projection of trained manpower, educated citizenry and competent
leadership for the country
(b) Training of students to lead productive public lives and full personal
lives according to their talent and interests.
(c) tv1ai ntenance of the freedom, integrity and strength of Pakistaii.
(d) Preservation of the moral and spiritual values of Islam, which emanate
fro m the concept of a universe governed by the principles of truth,
justice, benevolence, equality and universal brotherhood.
(ii) To maintain unifonn academic standard throughout the country.
(iii) To draw up a general scheme of studies for secondary education by integrating
into its scheme for studies the three parts of secondary education (a) classes VI
to VIII (b) classes IX to X and (c) classes XI to XII.
(iv) To lay down the broad principles for the guidance of Committee of courses for
framing detailed syllabi in individual subjects
(v) To examine and coordinate the syllabi prepared by the Conunittee of course and
to ensure that they constituted an integrated and hannoniou s who le T he
Committee consisted of 47 members drawn from institutions and other agencies
concerned with education. The Curriculum Committee on Secondary Education
recommended a mended comprehensive programme of wide var iety for
adoption in all types of secondary schools from middle stage to higher secondary
stage. The Conunittee was Conscious of the sporadic efforts made in the past ,v
hich lacked cooperation; therefore, it made a sincere of th e to coordinate and
integ rate the work done in midd le , s eco ndary and higher seco ndary schoo ls
.

T he general scheme of education for middle stage classes \'ito VIII was as under:
Required courses with number of periods allotted:
Subjects
Periods allotted per week
I. Urdu 8
2. English 8
3. General Mathematics 7
4. Social Studies 5
5. General Science 5
6. Religious Education 8
7. Physical Education 2
8. One each from both the groups 3
(a) Arts and Crafts
Clay-modelling, Toy-making. basketry, Pottery, Fabric Printing, Leather Work
Puppetry. Book-binding, Weaving, Cane and Bamboo Work and such other crafts as may be
prescribed.
(b) Art and Practical Art
Wood Work, Metal Work, Applied Electricity. Agriculture and Gardening, Fish
culture, Home Economies and other Practical Arts as may he prescribed.
Electives
One of the-s ubjects: Arabic, Art, Bengali, Dancing, Gujrati, Music, Paki, Pushto
Punjabi. Persian, Sanskrit, Sindhi , Urdu and such other subjects as may be prescribed.
Variety of activities were offered at middle stage, through which the special
aptitudes and interests of the children may be discovered to enable them to choose·
appropriate careers or subsequent courses of study at the higher stage of learning.
Secondary Stage (Classes IX-X,)
Required Courses
Urdu 200 marks, English 200, Social Studies 100, General Mathematics 100.
General Science 100, Physical Education 100, Manual work 72 hours of work during the
year.
Elective
Any of the following group:
i. Humanities Group
Subjects Carrying 100 marks so as a make a total of 300 marks.
a. Mathematics or Household Ac counts (for girls only)
b. History
c. Geography
d. Islamic Studies
e. Art
f. Geometrical and Technical Drawing
g. Classical language s: Arabic, Persian, Greek, Sanskrit etc.
h. Modem language s of the world.
1. Physiolo gy and Hygiene

42
 J. Health and Physical Education
k. Civics
I. Elementary Economics
m. Music
n. Outline of Home Economics
o. Such other subjects as may be prescribed
p. One paper of 100 marks from any other group for not included in the list.
2 Science Group
a. Mathematics
b. Physics
c. Chemistry
d. One subject out of Biology, Physiology and Hygiene, Geometrical and
Technical Drawing. Geography, one pair carrying JOO marks on a subject not included
above.
3 Commerce Group
a. Business Methods and Correspondences
b. Conunercial Geography
c. Arithmetic and Book-keeping
d. Type working.
4 Industrial Arts Group
a. Mathematics
b. Physics
c. Chemistry
d. Any two subjects out of Metal Work, Wood Work, Applied Ek:ctricit y.
pottery and ceramics Leather work Ornamental Art, and crafts, wca\·ing.
Geometrical and Technical Drawing Building Constrnction. Can e Wq1!,;,
Tailoring. Confectionary and Bakery, such other subjects as m:;\ b·.'.
prescribed.
5. Home Economics Group
a. Chemistry, Phys ics and Biology
b. Food and Nutri tion, Social Science
C. Elementar y Botany , Horticulture and Gardening
d. Elementary Zoolo gy, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries
e. Mathematic s or a paper carrying I 00 marks from any othe r grnup.
Tota l Marks
700 for required subjec ts and 300 or 400 marks from the six groups of the subje cts. :-\ ,
to keep the total of maximum marks between I000 and 11 00.3. l l
Activity-VIII
Discuss the term 'Hu manities' and 'Home Econo mic s' and indicate the ir moq
s igni ficant contribu tio n for our social ,velfare.
l ligher Secondary Education (Class less XI and XII) Required Courses
1 . Urdu
2. English

43
3 . Physical Educat io n (non-examining subject)
4 . Manual work examining

Electi've Courses
1. Humanities Group
a. General History or Islamic History
b. Economics
C. Geo graphy
d . Military Science
e. Logic
f. Psychology
g. Civics
h. Stati stics
1 . Islamic Studies
j. Outline of Home Economics
k. Music
I. Fine Arts
m . One of'-th e Classical and f\fodem Languages of the world
n. Commercia l Practic e
o. Health and Physical Educ ation
p. Such other s ubjects as ma y be prescribed.
2. Science Group
a. Mathematics
b. Physics
c. Chemistry
d. One subject out of Biology. Physiology and Hygiene. Geometrical and Technical
Dnt\ving, Geqgraphy. One papercarrying I00 Marks on a subject not included
above.
3. Commerce Group
a. Book-keeping
b. Principles of Commerce
c. Economics and Commercial Geography.
4. Technical Group
a. Applied Mathematics
b. Applied Science
c. Engincaing Dra\\'ing
d. Works hop Practice :ind Survey
5. Home Ernnomics Group
:\ . Cic111.!ral Scie nce . food and Nutritio n
8. Clothingand Textil e and Applied At1
C Family Life and Home Management
6. '.\ursing Grnup
a. Nursing and first Aid Anatom y, Physiolog y and Hygiene practical and ornl.

44
b. Anatomy and Physiolo gy. Health of mother cind child dietetics pra1:tic:1l :ind nral
c. Two or more su jcct fonn other groups.
7. Islamic Studies Group
a. Arnhic
h. Quran :ind ffadith. Fiqh ;ind T Jsnnl-e-Fiqh
c. Islamic History and Culture.
8. Military ScienceGroup
a. War
b. Military History
c. Economics of War
d. Military
e. Defance of Pakistan
f Special Military Studies.
9. Agriculture Group
a. Agriculture part Iand II
b. Two or more subjects carrying 400 marks from any other group.
At the higher secondary stage, the commission prescribed live subject s in all: to
require and three elective. Req uired areas of stud y were English. Urdu or Benga li
carrying 200 marks each, while three elect ives to be selected from IO groups carrying
200 marks each, so as to make the total of 1100 marks.
The Commissio n also recommended two public exam inat ions For 9th and I O'"
classes separately for Secondary School Certific,1te Exa minatio n. In the manner
explained, above,' the Commission on National Education.1 959 recommended a
diversified curriculum in secondary schools. Th e proposed curric ulu m was to be both
tenninal and college preparatory .
Modern Science and Mathematics Course
A dedicated group of scientists and curriculum specialists visual ized that sc ie nce
and technology was advancing so rapidly in other countries that if we remained contents
with what we had, we would remain decades behind the developing countries. They thought
of catching speed and devoted themselves to introducing modem concepts of science and
technology in the curriculum. As one of them remarked:
"We may not have introduced the la test science courses, but have at leas t
succeeded in preparing people mentally for a change"
The arduous task was undert aker by the West Pakistan Educatio n Exte nsio n Ce
ntre. Lahore. The redeeming feature of this exercise was that not only the courses were
modernized, but adequate arrangements were also made to prepare the in- serv ice
teachers for effectively teaching the courses to their students, by arra nging a network of
in service training courses throughout West Pakistan. The courses were revised for IX
and X classes of secondary stage, classes XI and XII of Intermedia te stage and for
degree classes. New textbooks were also ,vritten on modem lines. This attempt.
generally, goes by the name of "modernization of cutTiculum.

45
 4. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNDER VAROIUS
EDUCATION POLICIES
From 1970 onwards various governments formulated Education Policies and
took steps to implement them effectively. In these policies these were clear directions
for Curriculum. The following Education Policies were announced under which
curriculum were also refonnulated.
New Education Policy, 1970
New Education Policy was fonnulated in March, 1970, with the following basic
concepts inspiring the goals/and guidelines of education development:
(a) The role of education in the preservation and inclusion of Islamic values as an
instrument of national unity and progress.
(b) Reorientation of educational programmes laying more emphasis on
Scientific, vocational education.
© Role of education as an instrument of social change and development and
as the creation of opportunities of education
(c) The paramount importance of quality in education and the crucial role of
teachers in the improvement of educational quality.
(d) . Decentralization of educational administration to ensure academic freedom and
administrative and financial autonomy required for healthy and efficient growth
of educational institutions particularly at the higher stage.
(a) Curriculum
It was recommended to set up curriculum conu11ittees at app ropriate levels to
design - curricula suited to the needs of each stage o f education . Curriculum
development, however, should be viewed as an integrated and continuous process. it
was, therefore, recommended that each province should have a pennanent Bureau of
Cuniculum Developmen t for - supporting activities of the various agencies concerned
with curriculum development, e.g. Teacher Training inst itutions, Textbook Boards and
the Secondary Education Boards. The Ministry of Education was expected to continue to
coordinate the fonnulation of national policies in curriculum development and
preparation of text books and other learning materials. The policy laid down some
principles for the development of curriculum for elementary and secondary schools.
(b) Elementary Curriculum
The curriculum should be inspired by Pakistan's national objectives. The
,:u rric ulu m of elementary schools should be redesigned around basic linguistic and
,1t1mcrical sk ills and manual and production work to suit the practical needs. of everyday
life. The aversionto manual work should be countered by relating the curriculum to the
physical and social environments of the children which will make elementary education
more responsive to the needs of society. With a view to developing the children's
analytical and problem-solving skills, teaching of science should be introduced at the
, !· mentary stage in the form of the study of nature and the environment.
:rJ Secondary School Curriculum
The polic y reconm1t:nded that the curriculum at the secondary sta,ge should be

46·
redesigned with particular emphasis on science and technical subjects and manual arts.
A large number of students should be diverted to technical, agriculture and industrial
streams designed to prepare them for absorption in the economic life of the country.
.As the regime which floated the ideas of New Education Policy was short-lived, the
recommendations could not be carried out but they prepared the ground for the next
Education Policy.
Education Policy 1972-80
Education Policy 1972-80 was introduced with the objectives of:
1. Ensuring the preservation, promotion and practice of the basic ideology of
Pakistan and making it a code. of individual life.
2. Building up national cohesion by promoting social and cultural harmony
compatible with our basic ideology through the conscious use of the
educational process
3. Building up and maturing the total personality of the individual dynamic,
creative and capable of facing the truth as it emerges from the objective study
of reality: an individual who should be able to comprehend fully the nature of
technical and social change and having deep concern for the improvement of
society.
4. Providing a comprehensive programme of studies through the integration of
general and technical education and by keeping option open to transfer from one
course of study to another. (3: 1)
(i) Curriculum Development
The relevant decision s in the Education Policy relating to curriculum
development and revision were as follows:
(a) Designing curriculwn relevant to the nation'schanging social and economic
needs compatible with our basic ideology and providing a massive shift from
general education to more purposeful agro technical education.
(b) Curricula, syllabi and textbooks will be revised to eliminate overloading, to
emphasize learning of concepts and skills and to encourage observation,
exploration, experimentation, practical work and creative expression.
(c) The system of elementary education will be so designed that the knowledge and
skills imparted, attitudes formed and the learning methods employed will ensure
that those proceeding to secondary education can be usefully absorbed into the
economy of the local community. For those leaving school after class VIII.
Special course of training in the skills of their vocational interests will be
provided in the school workshop. It is essential that children who dropout after
class VIII should carry with them enough skills to return to their local or
ancestral vocation as better farmers or craftsmen. ·
(d) The integration of general and technical education will equip secondary'
and College students for gainful employment.
(e) Education will be introduced as an elective subject for matriculation,
lntennediate at and degree levels.

47
 (l) An integrated science course, including mathem atics. biolo gy and physical
Sciences will be introduced at the high school and intennediate stage.
Following schemes of Studies were laid down:
Scheme of Studies for Elementary Classes (Primary Level: Classes l-V)
Subjects
l. Language
a 1st language
b. 2nd language
2. Mathematics
3. Science
4. Social Studies
S. health and Physical Education
6. Islamiyat
7. Arts
Scheme of Studies for Elementary Level (Middle Classes: Classes VI to Vlil)
Subject
I. Languages
a Ist language
b 2nd language
d English compulsory
2. Mathematics
3. Science
4. Pakistan/Social Studies
5. Health and Physical Education
6. Islami yat
7. Arts
8. Vocational
Scheme of Studies for the Secondary School Examination Component- l Compulsory
I. Urdu
2. English
3. Pakistan Studies
, J. Islamiyat (or Akhlaqiya t for non-Muslim students).
Component-71 (Electives)
Group Mathematics
2. Physics
3. . Chemistry
-L Biology
General Group
l General Mathematics or Mathematics or household Ac1.:ounts and Related
Problems or Elements of-' I-Ionic Economics
3. General Science
2. Two subjects have got relevanc e wit h the subjects not ed abo \ C.
48
(Component-III (Elective)
Vocational subjects: one vocational subject.
(Component-IV (Elective)
Compulsory non-examination exercises:
I. Physical exercises
2. Training in civil defiance, first aid and nursing.
Activity-IX
Is the secondary school curriculum light or heavy? Discuss this point with your
colleagues and try to arrive at some conclusion.
Scheme of Studies for the intermediate Examination
Component-I Compulsory
I. Urdu
2. English
Component-II
One of the following groups:
A- Science Group
1. Mathematics
2. Physics
3. Chemistry
4. Biology
25% of the marks and time allotted to these subjects will be devoted to practical work.
B- Social Sciences 1 Gcnera l Group
1. Any three subjects from the "Y" list, one being allied to the
vocational field
2. One vocational subject.
Component-Ill (Compulsory non-examination exercises)
a. Physical Culture: 15 to 30 minutes daily
b. Practical training: 75 hours in the two academic years in military science
proceeding the examination.
General Group
I. General Mathematics or Mathematics or Household Accounts and Related
Problems or Elements of Home Economics
2. General Science
3. Two subjects which have got relevance with the subjects noted above.
Component-III (Elective)
Vocational Subjects: one vocational subject.
Component-IV (Elective)
Compulsory non-examination exercises:
I Physical exercises
2. Training in civil defenses, first aid and nursing.
''Y" List of Elective Subjects
I. Economics 2. Geography
3. Environmental Studies 4. Psychology
5. 1-1istory of Education 6. Principles of Home Economics

49
 7. Sociology 8. Political Science
9. History of Freedom Movement Till the 10 Islamic History
Emergence of Pakistan Islamic History
11. World History 12. History of the Inid-o-Paksitan sub continent.
General Subjects
13. General Science. 14. Astronomy and Space
15. Geology 16. Mathematics
17. Statistics 18. Engineering Drawing
19. Business Principles and Procedures 20. Philosophy
2I. General Agriculture and Animal 22. Music
Husbandry
23. Fine Arts 24. Military Science
25. Arabic 26. Persian
27. Urdu Literature 28. Turkish
29. Bengali 30. English Literature
31. Gennan 32. French
33. Japanese 34. Chinese
35. Russian 36. Spanish
37. Latin 38. Punjabi
39. Sindhi 40. Pushto
41. Gujrati 42. Baluchi

The Ministry of Education, Curriculum Wing, Islamabad, asked the Provincial

Bureau of Curriculum to frame curricula in all subjects at primary stage.
The first initiative for fonnulation of curriculum was taken by B ureau of
Curriculum Research and Development, Lahore, in 1973. A meeting of curriculum
framers and educationists was convened at the Education Extension Centre, Lahore
where approaches to curriculum designing were discussed and prominent educationists
addressed the participants. A sample curriculum of all the subjects at primary s tage was
presented by the Punjab which. served as the guideline for the curriculum framer's of
other provinces.
A National Committee of Curriculum in each subject was fanned which
discussed the provincial draft curricula in each subject and the final draft was prepared
and approved by the Ministry of Education in each subject in 1974. The curriculum for
classes Ito III was introduced in 1974. Textbooks were prepared under the guidance of
curriculum framers.
Micro testing of the curriculum in the subjects of Urdu, Social Studies,
mathematics and Science was done before introducing the curricula in all the schools.
After the Introduction some of the concepts were deleted, others modified and some
added.
After the introduction of primary school curriculum, similar steps were taken to
prepare and implement the curricula for the middle and high stages.
Revised curriculum up to class X was introduced by 1976. Curriculum of te acher
education courses was also revised. Semester system was introduced in teache r training
colleges in B Ed, CT, and PTC classes. One year course for these classes was introduc ed.
Recommendations for three years elementary teacher training and three years B Ed after

50
F A l F Sc were made. Three years scheme has not been introduced in Elementary
Colleges, but three years B Ed course was adopted by some training institutions .
Activity-X
How do you view the idea of three years BA/B Sc, B Ed course after
Intennediate? Think over it for five minutes and record your opinion point-wise.
National Education Policy 1978
You will recall the an educational conference was convened in 1977 to review
the state of education in the review the state of education in the ways and means to bring
it in line with our faith and ideology. The government directed that this conference
should be major step in the search of an indigenous education policy. It was attended by
eminent scholars, educationists, journalists, lawyers, vice-chancellors etc. The
conference examined and redefined the aims the nation should attempt to realize through
education. National aims of education in confonnity with the lofty principles of Islam,
our rich cultural heritage and our socioeconomic needs and requirements were
incorporated in the Education Policy. Some of these objectives were:
a. To foster in the hearts and minds of the people of Pakistan in general and the
students in particular a deep and abiding loyalty to Islam and Pakistan and a
living consciousness of their spiritual and ideological identity thereby strength
ening unity of the outlook of the people of Pakistan on the basis of justice and
fair play.
b. To create awareness in every student that he, as a member of Pakistani nation, is
also a patt of the universal Muslim Ummah and that it is expected of him to
make contribution towards the welfare of fellow Muslims inhabiting the globe
on the one hand and to help spread the message of Islam throughout the world
on the other.
c. To produce citizens who are fully conversant with the Pakistan Movement, its
ideological foundations, history and culture so that they feel proud of their
heritage and display finn faith in the future of the country as an Islamic State.
d. To develop and inculcate in accordance with the Quran and Sunnah, the
character, conduct and motivation expected of a true Muslim.
e. To promote and strengthen scientific, vocational and technological education,
training and research in the country and to use this knowledge for
socioeconomic growth and development thereby ensuring a self-reliant and
secure future for the nation.
Evidently, these aims fanned the basis for detennining the content of education
all levels.
The most important criterion of relevance and adequacy of curricula is the
ideological basis of Pakistan and the needs and aspirations of the nation. It had,
therefore. got to the ensured that know ledge. Attitudes, and skills to the imparted at all
le ve ls, were in line with the teachings of the Quran and Sunnah.
(i) Recorrunendations of the conference, however, could not be implemented
because of a number of reasons. In the National Education Policy clear decisions
and programme for the revision of curricula and textbooks had been included .
Recommendations regarding curriculum were as under;
(i) The entire curricula and textbooks will be reviewed ensure that adequate content

51
 on Is lam and lsi::mi,· :t k nio gy 1 in cluded: that due co\·e rage is given to instructio nal
materials aim <.?d at the prnmntio n of national cohesion and integration .
Textboo ks of all lc\'els will also he revis ed to ensure that Islamic ideology is prote
cted and hiµh academ ic s tan(fard;; are maintained.
(ii ) In order to ;,w id <•'-' ri,.xH:i:1 ;in d o._·crl:;ppi ng. intcgrritcd curricu la and
textbooks will be introduced. At th,e, -, · i:nar:, 1.ew i more weighing will be given
to practical
,vork and creative ac, ti : it:cs S\l :_iiat child ren co uld gain desired attitudes
and skills.
(iii) The Textbooks Boards will he reor ganized to improve their efficiency. Effective
liaison will he established between the National Book Foundation and the
Textbook Boards.
(ii) Programme
The programme out lined for the implementation of the recommendations of the
policy regarding curric ulum was as given below:
The entire curricula and textbooks will be reviewed to ensure inclusion of
adequate content on [slam. ideology of Pakistan, and promotion of' national cohesion and
integration.
Universit y Grants Commission will undertake review of curricula and textbooks
for higher educatio n progranune to bring them in consonance with the ideology
Pakistan and principles of Islam. The new curricula will duly emphasize latest
knowledge and development s in scientific discipline s in particula r.
Evacuation studie s of the ex is ting c urricu la will be undertaken to ident if y
strengths and weakness es of the existing curricula.
In tegrated curricula and textbooks will be int roduced in class I and 11 from the year
1979-80.
At the prim ary stage more weig ht age will be given to the practical work and
creative activiti es so that children could gain desired a ttitudes and skills.
The component of agro-technical education, already introduced at middle and
secondary stages, will be evaluated and the progr amme s will be made production
oriented.
The process of curriculum development will he improved by proper emphasis on
research studies. Field testing will be given due impo 11ance.
The revised curricula will be implemented in a phased manner.
National/ Provincial c urriculum develop ment agencies will work in close
Collaboration and involve adequate number of studen ts and teac hers.
Supplement ary reading materials for children and teacher guides/manuals for
teachers will be prepared for the enrichment of experie nces students and teachers.
In order to make the reacher-l e arning proce ss more effective. Laboratory
equipment and instructional aid s 'k it s will be provided .
A stand ing co mmittee of the ational Education Co uncil on Curric ulum and

52
Textbooks will be constituted to review the existing cutTicula and te xtbooks improve
ment and to identify textbooks which can be prescribed throughout the country.
The Ministry of Educatio n will unde1t ake a re,·iew of all the textbooks
prescribed by the English medium schools. These textbooks and auxiliary materials will
require approval by the Ministry of Education.
Possibilities of introduction of common textbooks in selected subjects at different
levels will he examined.
Textbook Boards will he reorganize tied to imp rove quality of 'text booksand to
ensure their in time availability. Professional staff will be recruited by the Boards for
editing.
Printing, production , research and develo pment. The exis tin g staff will be
provided in-service training for effective performance of the i r functions.
Supply of quality paper at cheaper rates will be arranged for the Textbook
Boards. The Boards will be allowed to import paper duty free. Import of other machinery
required by the Boards will also be made duty free. Adequate facilities for printing,
storage and distribution will be developed.
The textbooks will be suppl ied to all the students at the primary level. As
envisaged in the Fifth five year plan. the teachers will be made responsible for
distribution and maintenance of these books. The books will be retrieved for subsequent
use.
The Provincial Governments and Textbook Boards will provide sufficient
subsidy to keep the prices of textbooks within the reach of common man.
(iii) Implementation of the Recommendation s of Educatio n Policy 1978
Steps were taken to implement the recommendations of the Educat io n Policy
concerning curriculum as:
(a) As a first step towards the implementation of Education Policy a National
Textbook Review Committee .ii number of educat io nists partic ipated. The
Conunittee reviewed the textbooks of all leve ls and deleted all the material,
which in any way was not in li ne with the Quran'or Sun nah. The textbooks,
thus revised , were reprinted by the Textbook Boards.
(b) The research inst itu tions s uch as Curriculum Centres/Bureaux unde11ook
research and curriculum issues, includi ng their evaluati on and revisio n.
(c) An intensive eval uation of curricula o f agro-technical s ubjects was undertaken.
(d) The cu rric ula of Deeni rvladras;;ahs were reviewed to make them in line with the
Q uran and Sunnah on one s id,e and with t he demands of thc modern age on the
othe r. The work was undertaken by ;1 natio nal c(1111mittee s t:t up fi.H' the purpose.
(e) A project for preparation or intcgrat..:d curric ula and ll·xt hl,oks for classes I and
II was unde 11aken by the .\linislry of Education in cL,l lahorntion with the
Bordeaux of Curriculu m.
(f) Programmes of in servic e education of teachers at Primary and Secondary level
were undertake n by various organizatio ns suc h a s the l\1ini try of Educa tion and

53
 Provincial Education Extension Centres. Allama Iqbal Open University has also
under took the training of primary school teachers through correspondence
courses supplemented by radio-television lessons and workshops.
(g) The scheme of studies for intennediate level (classes XI and XII) was revised so
as to lay more emphasis on Mathematics and integrated Science course. General
Mathematics was made compulsory for all groups.
(h) School teachers were trained for practical work and research.
(iv) Second World Conference on Muslim Education
One of the recent landmarks in the history of curriculum development was the
Second World Conference in Muslim Education, "Islamic Concepts and Curricula" which
was held in Islamabad in 1980. This Conference classified the subjects into two
categories: subjects containing 'Perennial' knowledge, and subjects containing 'Acquired'
knowledge, but recommended the integration of both as under:
A - Group-I 'Perennial'
(i) AI-Quran
(a) Recitation (Qirah), Memorization (Hifz) and Interpretation (Tafsir)
(b) Sunnah
(c) Sirah of the Prophet (peace be upon him), his companions and their
followers (which covers the early history of Islam)
(d) Tauhid
(e) Usool-i-Fiqh
(f) Qureanic Arabic·
(ii) Ancillary Subjects
Islamic Metaphysics. Comparative Religion, Islamic Culture.
B - Group-I! 'Acquired'
To be divided into the following sub-categories:
(a) Imagination (Arts): Islamic Arts and Architecture, Languages , Literature.
(b) Intellectual Sciences: Social Studies (Theoretical), Philosophy, Education,
Economics; Political Science, History, Islamic Civilization, Geography, Soci
ology, Linguistics, Psychology, Anthropology.
(c) Natural Sciences (Theoretical): Philosophy of Science, Mathematics, Statistics ,
Physics, Chemistry, Life Sciences, Astronomy and Space Science, etc.
(d) Applied Sciences: Engineering and Technology, Medicine, Agric ultu re and
Forestry.
(e) Practical: Commerce, Administrative Sciences (Business Administration, Public
Administration).
(t) Library Science, Home Sciences, Communication Sciences (Mass
Communication, etc.
It was reconunended that the above branches of acquired sciences should be
taught from the Islamic point of view. Islamic schools of thought should be
established in all branches of social studies.
National Education Conference
After takin g-over as Prime Minister m December. 1988. Benazir Bhutto

54
convened the National Education Conference in Islamabad in March. 1989. Major
objective of this conference which was attended by about 500 delegates from different
institutions and walks of life was to reconsider the aims of education at the national level
and thus make them up-to-date according to the changed circumstances.
Recommendations of this three-day workshop were passe d on to the Goverrunent of
Pakistani for processing and giving the nation a revised education Policy.
Concluding Remarks
The history of curriculum development in Pakistan is a story of emerging
curricula. It proves one thing, i.e. interest of the nation in an appropriate curriculum for
the children. a curriculum which is according to the nation's aspirations and needs. The
development of curriculum from 1960 onwards has been methodical and somewhat
action research oriented, which is a sign of scientific thinking in the field of education.
However, there are numerous problems in the implementation of curricula such as:
(a) Shortage of financial resources
(b) Shortage of trained manpower
(c) Rigid attitudeof teachers, parents and community
(d) Inadequacy) of physical facilities in the institutions
(e) Frequent changes in national priorities in the light of international scene.
Steps are being taken to overcome these problems gradually.
The main aim before the nation now is to introduce a curriculum which is
consistent with the Quran and Sunnah and which also in a help the individ ual to develop
his personality to the maximum possible extent. For making progress in the field of
science and technology. The purpose is to produce throug h such curriculum creative,
productive, sincere and patriotic citizens who may work for the devefop ment of' the
nation within the framework of the principles of Islam.
Self-assessment Questions-- Exercise No. 2
1. In what way does the present curriculum for classes VI to X differ from that of
pre-independence period?
2 Analyze the general trend in curr ic ulum reforms since 1959 .
3. How won Id you inculcate the spirit of unity and integrity a general c
urriculum at the secondary stage.
4. Compare the recommendations regarding curriculum refonns contained in the
two education policies of 19 72 and 19 78 and hig hlight the main differences.
5. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Education Policy 196 0 could not be implemented because- - - - -

(ii) Micro-testing of the curricula was carried out

(iii) The chief cr iterionof rele vance and adequacy of curricula is_ _ __

(v) List three main problems which in your opinion, have cau sed slow
imp le mentation of education polic, y 1978 - - - - - - - -
55
 (vi) A National Textbook Review Comminee reviewed the textbooks in 1979
for the purpose of
--------------------
6. Tick True or False against each of the statements given below:
(i) The First Education ('inference, p was held in Karachi in November,
1947. T/F
(ii) The Curriculum Committee for Secondary Education was appointed in 1960
for implementing some of the recommendations of the Committee on
Education. T/F
(iii) The Education Commission, 1959 recommended one public examination
for class X. T/F
(iv) The 1972-80 Education Policy recommended the introduction of
Education as a subject at Intennediate and Degree levels. T/E
(v) The Second World Conference on Muslim Education held in Islamabad
in 1980 generally classified the subjects into two categories viz
'Perennial' and acquired'. T/F

Answers to Self-assessment questions - Exercises

Exercise No. l
Q I to 5: For answers to questions No. 1-5 see the relevant po11ions of the uni t.
Q 6: (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True (v) True
Exercise No. 2
Q l to 5: For answers to questions No. 1-5 see the relevant portions of the unit.
Q 6: (l) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) False

4.10. Bibliography
Aziz, abdul. Educational Pyramid Reinvested 1967, Ministry of Education. Islamabad.
Education Policy 1972-80, Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Islama bad.
National Education Policy and Implementation Programme 1978, G ove rnm e nt of
Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Islamabad.
New Education Policy, 1970, Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Educat ion and
Provincial, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.
Report of the Commission on National Education, 1959, Government of Pakistan,
Ministry of Education, Islamabad.
Report of the Curriculum Committee for Secondary Education, 1980.
Report on Second World Conference on Muslim Education, Government of Pakist an,
Ministry of Education. and Islamabad.
Resenthal F. (Editor) Mu4p;4 /ksma lbn-e-Kbuldum. Prinston. London.
Slialbi, Ahmad, History of Islamic Education. ldara-e-Saqafat-e-lslam, La bo re. Speec hes
and Writings of the Quaid-i-Azam. Sange Mee! Publ ic at io ns. Lahore.
Taba, Hilda, Curriculum Development . Harcourt, New York. Walton. Jack. Curriculum
Development. Jack, Cun-iculum Development and Design. \Vorld look Ed uca t io n.

56
UNIT-3.

FOUNDA'"fIONS OF CURRICUl..UM

Written By:
S. M. Shahid

Reviewed By:
Shaheen Ashraf Tahir Khali

57
 CONTENTS
Introduction.......................................................................................................59
Objectives..........................................................................................................60
1. Philosophical Foundations...................................................................... 61
l. I. Philosophy and Curriculum...................................................61
Philosophical Categories..................................................................61
Ontology....................................................................................61
l. 2.2. Epistemology.............................................................62
1.2.3. Axiology.....................................................................62
2. Psychological Foundations.....................................................................64
Role of Psychology in Curriculum Development............................64
Psychological Sources...............................................................64
Educational Objectives..............................................................64
Student/Leamer Characteristics.............................64
Leaming Methods.......................................................65
Teaching Methods......................................................65
Evaluation Procedures...............................................65
Human Growth and development..............................66
3. Sociological Foundations.....................................................................67
Etymological Meaning of Sociology...............................................67
Definitions of Sociology..................................................................67
Role of Sociology in Curriculum Development...............................67
Curriculum for Modernizing the Society.........................................68
Culture 68
Society and Culture......................................................68
Complexity of the Concept"culture"................................... 68
The Structure of Culture............................................68
Values Based Curriculum.................................................................70
Influences of Society and Culture on Curriculum..................71
Culturally Induced Bias and the Curriculum.....................................72
·4. Su!l1lnary......................................................................................................73
5. Self Assessment Questions..................................................................75
6. Bibliography.........................................................................................76

58
 INTRODUCTION
The curriculum foundations may be defined as those basic forces that influence
and shape the minds of curriculum developers and enhance the content and structure of
the subsequent curriculum.
Ideas about curriculum do not arise in a vacuum. Such ideas are actually based
upon views about human nature, source of values, worthwhile knowledge, and the role of
teachers and the school. Therefore, the development of curriculum depends largely on the
ideas that grow out of the fields of philosophy, psychology and sociology. These three
ideas contribute to curriculum development plans and help learners to grow and develop
into unique personalities for accomplishing satisfactory lives within the framework of
acceptable nonns of society.
The foundations of curriculum development can be analysed in tenns of
philosophical, psychological and sociological foundations.
These sources of curriculum foundations constitute the principal areas of
curriculum development and affect the ways developers think and conceive about
curricula.
Philosophical work can aid curriculum developers to understand the nature of
objectives, structure and interrelationship of objectives, nature of curriculum activities,
the structure of curriculum plan and the contents and methods.
Psychological foundations aid curriculum developers to understand the nature
of the learners, learning process, learning experiences, interest of learners and the
conditions facilitating optimum learning.
According to sociologists, schools are social institutions especialJy set up for
the preservation and transmission of culture by the society. The curriculum, therefore,
includes learning experiences based on the way of life, kind of knowledge and attitudes
and beliefs Considered important by the society.
Cuniculwn must take into account the philosophical, psychological and
sociological considerations otherwise; it will remain bookish and divorced from life. A
curriculum that ignores these foundations does not serve any purpose. A sound
curriculum must be based on the needs and aspirations of the learners as well as of the
society.

59
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, the learner will be able to:
1. Define curriculum foundations.
2. Differcntiate between the various philosophical categories.
3. Relate growth a11d development of learners with curriculum.
4. Define sociology culture and values.
5. Describe role of sociology in curriculwn development.
6. Discuss the influences and biases of the society and .culture on curriculum.

60
 1. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge. It is the study of realities
and general principles. It concerns with the research of intem:il truths.
Philosophy provides systematic procedure for clarifying issues and problems and
making decisions on critical points of curriculum development.
Philosophical work can aid curriculum development in many ways but it is
particularly useful in helping us to understand:-
>" Nature of educational objectives:
The structure or inter-relationship of the objectives:
>" And Nature of curriculum activities.
Defined literally, philosophy is "pursuit of rational thinking and sound
judgment". "Aristippus (435-359 BC) wrote, "Philosophy is the ability to feel at ease in
any society." Kabir, Huyaun (1902-1969) stated, '"Philosophy seeks to give knowledge
of the whole".
Philosophy and Curriculum
Every society is held together by a common faith or "Philosophy", which serves
its members as a guide for living a good life. It is, therefore quite natural for the adults of
the society to pass on this philosophy or "knowledge of good" to their children. In
primitive societies knowledge of the good life was passed of informally, from father to
son and from mother to daughter. But in developing and developed societies, schools are
established to induct the young into the ways of living that adults consider well. Thus the
curriculum of the schools, whatever else it may do, is first and foremost designed to win
the hearts and minds of the young to those principles and ideals that will direct them to
wise decisions; i.e. decisions whose consequences lead to the concepts of good life.
Indeed, the curriculum is so thoroughly permeated with the cultural aspects of philosophy
of life that a certain philosopher of education was prompted to write, "what a man really,
believes is frequently more clearly revealed in what he teaches to his students than in
what he professes in his public statements (Thut 1957).
Philosophical Categories
There are three philosophical categories that have particular relevance for
curriculum development.
(1) ONTOLOGY (The Nature of Reality)
(2) ESPISTEMOLOGY (The Nature of the Knowledge)
(3) AXIOLOGY (The Nature of Value)
1.2.1. Ontology ,
Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality, and by asking the question
"what is real"? A number of queries become clear. While this ques tion may appear
simple at the first glance, it deserves greater consideration. Different societi es, for
example, perceive reality in quite different ways. as do the individuals', who constitute
these societies. In primitive societies, it was accepted as real that the earth was flat, yet

61
today we would regard this as nonsense. Similarly, one society may regard the use of
chemical fertilizers as essential, while another may consider biological wastes more
useful than the chemicals.
Thus what is real to a society is very important and must be taken into account
while constructing curriculum. Indeed, some curriculum developers see, their role as a
vehicle for change: Thus a new social studies curriculum may depict "Kelly Gang'' as a
symbol of working-class resistance to authoritative oppression and so re-create reality for
a new generation of school students. Thus, some recent curriculum developments like
multiculturalism gender equality and environmental education, etc. have sought to
achieve just that.
1.2-2. Epistemology
The philosophical problem that deals with the nature of knowledge and of
knowing is called epistemology. For Waller and Evers (1988), "epistemology is the study
of the nature, scope and applicability of knowledge'". In curriculum, what we advocate
becomes the basis for student learning. We are actually concerned with the nature of
knowledge, its basis, how we know and what we know.
When studying epistemology, we ask:
What is true?
How do we know the truth?'
How do we know what we know?
These are obviously vital questions for curriculum developers to consider,
particularly in a society, which purportedly values truth and seeks to pass the truth to
subsequent generations. Ultimately our position becomes a statement of faith, a stand on
those questions, which we believe, and are prepared to accept, as true. As such we rely
heavily upon our fundamental ontological beliefs (what is real?)
In this way the close relationship between epistemology and ontology .is
consolidated. Thus in any curriculum development activity, but particularly in relation to
schools, the epistemological stance taken by those developers involved is of vital
importance. Will they include the accepted truth? What does that constitute? To what
degree is there a consensus accepting that truth, or is that "consensus" a fallacy too? And
so the epistemological questions continue. At the very least curriculum developers should
be aware of epistemology and be prepared to pose the fundamental questions involved in
such a study.
Axiology
Axiology is that aspect of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of value.
Axiology questions are a fundamental feature of our life in that the resulting decisions
have a profound effect upon our behaviour. Questions such as:
what is good? and
what is attributable to humans? etc. are both fundamental to our very existence
and constantly present in our daily lives. Thus the axiological considerations are
important in one's development of a curriculum for future generations.

62
Zais (1976) contends that axiological questions are usually divided into two main
categories.
(a) Ethics
(b) Aesthetics
(a) Ethics:
Is concerned with concepts of good and bad. right and wrong as they apply to
human behaviour. When constructing the curricula, developers should be aware of both
their own ethical positions and the ethical basis (hopefully not biases) that they are
integrating into the curriculum. Thus, developers will select objectives and contents that
in their minds are more ethical both in terms of knowledge and process.
Robert Zais sununarized the situation succinctly" Education, after all, is a
process of deliberately influencing. Children and youth in such a way that they become
what they would not otherwise become. And the curriculum is the master plan by which
this purpose is accomplished. At this point it is important to raise these issues
and questions in the minds of curriculum developers. There is increasing evidence in
recent years that saver elements of Pakistani society want a greater and more
purposeful input of ethical aspects into school curricula.
(b) Aesthetics:
Is concerned with such values and issues as beauty and enjoyment of human
experience. Aesthetics questions: What is beautiful? What aspects of the senses
produce enjoyment? And what aesthetic experiences yield "higher order" enjoyment?
The issues involving aesthetics produce particular difficulties for curriculum
developers because individuals answer the above questions in very different ways. What
is beautiful to one person may be ugly to another, particularly if they come from
different cultures. And what produces aesthetic enjoyment to ORe individual, may
produce hay fever in another'! The sensory pleasure associated with a bottle of quality
cold drink may be difficult for the patient/individual who suffers from allergies. In
answer to these questions, curricula developers in the part have opted for a more
conservative, accepted view of what is beautiful and what is enjoyment. In more recent
times, this position has weakened and we have witnessed the emergence of more
"popular" aesthetics within the school curriculum.
For the curriculum developers the value of philosophical considerations is
abundantly clear. Ontology, epistemology and axiology provide a useful structure for
examining one's own philosophical position as well as how philosophical stances affect
the development of curricula. In these considerations, one might pose some typical
philosophical questions that are useful to curriculum develo per. The questions are:
>" On what grounds should contents be selected or rejected?
};,> How different is instruction from conditioning?
>" Are there distinct fonns of knowledge?
>" How can specific curricula be justified?
};> How should content be structured within a curricu lum?
);,, Should a curriculum be differentiated for different students?
>" What is fact?
>" To what degree should " new" reality be included within the curriculum?

63
 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
The word psychology is cleriw d from two Greek words "psyche" means soul and
"l0gos" me;ios studv. Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour.
Role of Psychology in Curriculum Development
Psychology attempts to describe, explain and predi t hum;m behaviour.
Psychology gives us an insight into the child's development and learning and provides
various techniques of inquiry for use in the curriculum area.
The contribution of psychological basis to curriculum is significant and is
growing. As this is a r latively young discipline, the scope for applying its concepts,
principles, processes and values to curriculum development is gradually increasing.
Psychological Sources
The purpose of psychology is the study of human behaviour. The psychologists
are concerned with:
Dei,cribing
Explaining
Predicting
Evaluating (investigating) the behaviour of human being, curriculum developer•s .
therefore, can draw upon psychology, particularly educational psychology. for at least
five areas of infonmtion.
( l) Educational objectives
(2) Student characteristics
(3) Leaming process
(4) Teaching methods
(5) Evaluation procedures
The c;tudy of psychology does not provide a source of contents a school
curriculum (other than for a few subjects on psychological studies).
Let us briefly examine the psychological sources that the curriculum developers
can employ.
Educational ohjectives
Knowledge of the psychology of learning helps the curriculum developer,; to
devise and phrase appropriate goals and objectives. The curriculum developers c n
detennine goals and objectivesare suitable for various developmental levels ,md
whethre
ages of learners and that whether they are attainable or not. Subsequently. the
fonnulation of curriculum goals and objectives has profound influence upon the
selection of contents for the curriculum.
Student/Learner Characteristics
An understanding of the nature of learners particularly of individual differences
and personalities will assist, the curriculum developers to-make more choices in
curriculum decision-making. The study of personality can tell us whether different
personalities respond to learning experiences in different ways. Indeed, this is
something the experienced teacher has long known and some teachers have,
endeavoured to
64
accommodate these differences within their classrooms. Similarly, an understanding of
individual differences is most useful to the curriculum developers. An effective
curriculum is able to acc0mmodate <lifforences in student skills and abilities.
Learning Processes
Perhaps the greatest contribution that psychology makes to curriculum is an
understanding of how people learn. The curriculwn developers, who have a sound grasp
of learning and learning theory, are in a commanding position to devise an appropriate
curriculum for learners. In particular, an understanding of learning is essential to the
effective selection of appropriate learning/teaching strategies.
Whether or not one supports a theory of operant conditioning such as that of B.F.
Skinner, some fonns of Gestalt theory (K. Lewin). Jean Piaget's approach to growth and
development, or some other fonn of explaining how learning occurs, the final outcome
speaks how the curriculum is shaped. Indeed, one of the difficulties encountered by
currir;ulum developers is the vast array of theories, paradigms and algorithms that support
to f.xplain the process ofleaming.
Teaching Methods
Psychology makes a significant contribution to both the selection of learning
experiences and the way teaching is conducted in the classroom. In the school curriculum
an understanding of psychology is essential to the curriculum developers in devising
appropriate learning experiences and conditions for learning, In selecting learning
experiences, the curriculum developers should take an account of: -
> Leaming theories
)i.- Individual differences amongst students
>'" Motivational strategies
> Personality
> Cognitive and affective development
> Teaching style
> Group dynamics
> Teaching methodology and
)i.- Leaming styles

This extensive list of psychological factors suggests that, the curriculum

developers can make substantial use of psychological sources while selecting
learning/teaching experiences.
Evaluation Procedures
Psychology can also provide curriculum developers with directions for
undertaking the evaluation of students and teacher's perfonnance. Educational
psychologists have developed a vast array of techniques for measuring the degree of
students learning, students' attitudes towards learning/ teaching and so forth, as well as
the extent of teacher's effectiveness.
Educational psychologists, as well as other educators, have been concerned with
such evaluation issues as:
» Nonu-referenced assessment or criterion referenced assessment

65
» The role of formative evaluation
» Appropriate instruments to measure students' performance.
» Determination of teacher's effectiveness.
These aspects of psychology indicate the range of influence that psychology has
upon the development of curriculum.
Human Growth and Development
Knowledge about the growth and development of the child has a great bearing on
what to teach at a given level. Learning outcomes have to be detennined with reference to
the characteristic thought forms at the various age-levels, with a view to orienting
curriculum to child/learners needs and capacities. We must consider the functioning of
intelligence and development of capacities. The processes of human development and
nature of learning have special significance for curriculum development.
The relationship between psychological foundations and the curriculum are given below:
» Curriculwn to be child-centered, must take into account the psychological make
up the learners i.e. nervous system, has a great bearing on the curriculum
development for different age groups.
» Learning experiences should be provided according to the: mental development
of the learner. On this account, learners are divided into ability grouping.
» The effectiveness of the curriculum depends on the interests of the learners. So
the curriculum planning, must take into account the interests of the le arners.
Human growth and development are very important elements in curriculum
development. Curriculum decisions are not to be made arbitrarily but on the factors
detennining individual's growth and development. A fixed and rigid curriculum is hardly
suitable as it fails to accommodate the needs of slow learners, late starters as well fast
learner.
School curriculum on the whole, should aim at enabling the learners to acquire
knowledge, develop concepts and inculcate skills, attitudes, values and habits conductive
to the all-round development of their personality and commensurate with the social,
cultural, economic and environmental realities at national and international levels.

66
 3. SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
Curriculum must take into account ihe sociological considerations otherwise it
will remain bookish and divorced from life. A curriculum that ignores sociological
foundations does not serve any purpose. It results in waste of time, energy and
resources. It will produce individuals, who cannot play their role effectively as
enlightened members of a society.
A sound curriculum must be based on the needs and aspirations of a society. An
unrelated curriculum may lead to individuals, who can neither find employment nor
engage themselves in fruitful occupations and consequently remain dissatisfied,
maladjusted and frustrated.
Etymological Meaning of Sociology
Sociology as defined in dictionaries is ''the science or study of society",
The term was coined by COMTE (1830) linking the Latin "socius" (originally a
people, tribe or city allied to Rome, but later a society) to the Greek "logos" (study). The
tenn spread rapidly and is now used in virtually all languages to denote any real
rigorous, reasoned study of society.
Definitions of Sociology
"Sociology is the systematic study of the groups and societies, human beings
build and the way these alliances affects our behaviour".
"Sociology is the study of social life and social causes and consequences of
human behaviour".
"Social life" encompasses all interpersonal relationships. The "causes and
consequences of human behaviour encompasses how these relationships,' groups, and
organizations are inter-related and how they influence personal and interpersonal
behaviour. "Sociology is the study of social relationships, social institutions and
society''.
Role of Sociology in Curriculum Development
According to sociologists, schools are social institutions especially set up for the
preservation of culture and transmission of culture by society. School seeks to discharge
this function through the curriculum. The curriculum, therefore, includes learning
experiences based on the ways of life, kinds of knowledge; attitudes and beliefs that are
considered important by the society. Some kinds of selection are needed, as all the
aspects of culture cannot be included in the curriculum planning thus becomes a way for
the selection of various elements.
There are various sociological foundations like cultural, economic and political
that deeply influence the school curriculum, its conception, content and organization.
Among the most important sociological considerations that should guide those engaged
in the task of curriculum development, may be listed as below:
Core values of society
Changing values of the people
Demands of modernization
)" Criterion of a good family life
)," New forms of cooperation
67
 Media explosion
Population explosion
Regional and national imbalances
Economic efficiency
Education for fellowship and leadership creative and purposeful activities
Curriculum for Modernizing the Society
The curriculum for modernizing the society stressed the following:
Restructuring contents of the various subjects in the light of modern development
in science and technology.
Adopting new methods of teaching.
Encouraging activities for awakening cunos1ty and developmental interests,
attitudes and values and the building up of such essential skills as independent
study and capacity to think and judge for oneself.
Culture
Culture defines an accepted way of life. One implication of this statement, of
course, is that the "accepted'' way of life is the preferred way that is the "accepted"
way oflife has more "value" then other alternative ways.
We can see that culture is a "value loaded" enterprise, so to speak. It provides the
members of society with the "goods" and the "bads", the "beautifuls" and the " uglies,"
the "shoulds" and the "should nots".
Society and Culture
A society is a collection of individuals, who have organized themselves into a
distinct group, to be a society, however, a distinct group and not just a collection of
individuals, the members of the group must perceive themselves as "having things in
common", which enable them to "belong". These "things in common" are the stuff of
which culture is made. Culture, then, may roughly be viewed as a kind of social cement
that consists of the characteristics, habits, ideals, attitudes, beliefs and ways of thinking
of a particular group of people. Even from these sketchy definitions, it is clear that while
society and culture is certainly not the same thing, "without a culture there could be no
society, and without a society there could be no culture".(Smith, Stanley, and Shores 1957)
Complexity of the Concept "Culture"
Culture is a highly complex concept that requires a great deal of considerations
and study then we are able to allow here; it is similar to such concepts as "democracy"
"morality' and " love", which have a multiplicity of meanings. In relatively broad term
we might say that culture defines an accepted way of life. It includes a vast array of
easily observed facets of living such as material products, political and social
organizations, characteristic vocations, modes of dress, fads, foods, games, music, child
bearing and rearing practices, and religious and patriotic rituals.
The Structure of Culture
A structural framework was proposed for the purpose of facilitating the Study of
curriculum. This theoretical model was based upon a classification of the total curricular
phenomenon into a complex of eight internal factors. which are:

68
:,. Epistemology
),> Society/Culture
),> The individual
),> Learning theory
),> Aims
),> Contents
),> Leaming activities
),> Evaluation
In much the same way, the study of culture will be facilitated if we are abk to
proceed upon the basis of a hypothetical structural framework. One useful framework,
proposed by Ralph Linton (1936), is presented here because of its simplicity and its
congruence with the theoretical constituents of society and culture that we have been
developing. Linton has proposed that all elements of culture can be classified into three
principal categories.
),> The universals
),> The specialties
The altematives
The Universals
The universals comprise those values, beliefs and customs that are generally held
by the entire adult population. For example, in a wide variety of instances, behayiour in
such areas as language, food, religion and economics tends rather circumscribed in our
society.
The Specialties
The second category identified by Linton, includes those elements of the culture
to be found only within sub-groups of the society. Among the most conunon of these are
the vocational subgroups; in our society certain behaviour is expeckd of professors, for
example, that be quite different from those expected of businessmen. Thus, professors are
expected to be shabbily dressed: thinkers leftist in their politics, absentminded, and
impractical in worldly affairs; businessmen, by contrast, tend to bl! viewed as smartly
dressed doers, conservative in their politics, mentally alert, well organized, efficient, and
practical.
The Alternatives
The alternatives are those beliefs and practices that violate culturally accepted
nonns (universals and specialties) in their attempt to fulfill a need, solve a problem, or
simply to allow a more congruent perception of reality. Alternatives are like specialties;
however, all members of the society may not share them. Unlike specialties, however,
any sub-groap may not share them. A simple, tangible exampie of an alternativ might bl!
the introduction of pizza in place of the traditional food as an afternoon (lunch) or dinner.
Since curriculum workers and teachers are in the business of intervening: in the
lives of yow1g people for the purpose of making them something that they would not
otherwise become, it is necessary not only that they have full and conscious knowledge
of cultural universals and specialties, but that they evaluaie and compare them with all
manners of alternatives. Current practice, however, consists mainly of accepting cultural
directives and transmitting them through curriculum as efficient as possible. 'I his

69
procedure, of course, constitutes little more than mindless indoctrination. To educate, on
the other hand, calls for a curriculum, that promotes the illumination, examination, and
evaluation of cultwal universal and specialties in the light of projected desirable
alternatives. As we shall see in the following sections, breakiug out of the cultural trap is
a long, demanding process requiring substantial quantities of both wisdom and courage.
Values Based Curriculum:
Like the concept of "culture", value is a misleading complex idea/opinion.
Following lyf'P.S of experiences and activities may be planned for developing
desirable values among pupils:
Exemplary behaviour of teachers.
Value formation through various types of co-curricular activities i.e., student
participation in school management, social service programmes, labour Weeks,
visits to hospitals, etc.
» Lectures or discourses.
Creation of an envirorunent of psychological safety and security for the
students in the school.
» Value oriented content in various subjects studied in school.
Classification of Values
Values have been classified in a number of ways and th ir meanings also vary:
Instrumental Value
A subject is said to have instrumental value when it is pursued, not for its own
sake, but for some ends beyond itself. Instrumental values include preparatory or
introductory, practical or utilitarian, socializing and onventional values.
Preparatory Value
A subject is said to have a preparatory value when it prepares the way for other
studies. Arithmetic prepares the way for Algebra.
Introductory Value
Since a particular study introduces us to a number of subjects, it has an
introductory value. It is identical with the preparatory value. To illustrate we may select
physical Geography which introduces us to a little of Botany, Zoology, Physics and
Chemistry.
Practical or Utilitarian Value
These values lie in a study of subject whose pursuit is individually and directly
useful as it satisfies many wants and needs. The subject is individually and directly
practical when the knowledge of the subject is applied directly by the person himself. A
person may use his knowledge of hygiene to avoid smallpox. The same knowledge can,
however, be used through other agencies. through society, for example. A subject is said to
possess a socializing value when it creates socially desirable habits and reactions, or when
it enables us to understand society in its complexities. The socializing value includes
moral values too. These moral values refer to certain moral habits that society wants
individuals to develop through education.

70
Conventional Value
Conventional values implies to a value, which is customarily Jesc.ril:ied and
desirable in a subject. Certain subjects may be studied because their knowledge is
expected of people of a certain class. Their knowledge is indeed, for prcr r social
enjoyment. In the time of Locke, a gentleman was expected to learn Latin, Greek and
German because they were necessary in that social set up.
Intrinsic Value
Dewey has described these as the appreciative studies. The resulting experiences
in these subjects are worthwhile on their account. The values that occur from their
studies are in the fonn of pleasures or intellectual joys.
Liberalizing and Sentimental Values
The liberalizing values consist of the pleasure that accompanies intellectual
insight. The sentimental value, on the other hand, refers to pleasure that emerges when
our feelings are exercised. The aesthetics, the comics, the social and the moral situations
may arouse our feelings. Drama, literature, music, painting, sculpture and religion have,
in varying degrees, these values.
Essential Values
These values involve the basic nature of man himself and include elementary
physical skills, basic social skills, ability to use symbols such as language and nwnbers.
Personal Values
These values make a person good for himself.
Social Values
These values are good for the society and form the basis of relationship of an
individual with other people in society.
Institutional Values
These include values established by institutions.
Global Values
These values are detennined completely outside the schools.
Values may differ from place to place and time to time but values like truth and love
remain constant.
Influences of Society and Culture on Curriculum
The social and cultural influences that affect curriculum developers are evident
in both conscious and unconscious ways and their impact is certainly profound.
Education manifests through the curriculum and reflects society and culture, that
reflection is a result of cuiiculum developers being an integral part "of that society and
culture in both of the above ways. In this way the curriculum more "reflects" society and
than society leads to change.
Indirectly society and culture influence curriculum developers simply because
they are members of a particular society, cultural values, attitudes and beliefs are
acquired by individuals unaware of that process, yet, once acquired, these cultural traits
become consolidated and affect our social behaviour. And when the process of
curriculum development takes place, the cultural traits within developers influence the

71
very selection of objectives, contents, methods and evaluation that constitute the
curriculum they are devising.
Take, for example, a group of primary school teachers, who decide to, enhance
the literacy component of an existing curriculum on completion one could analyze the
result to detennine why they undertook the task, what objectives were fonnulated, what
content was ernpiayed, how it was taught and how it was evaluated. In many instances,
when probed deeply enou::;::1, the teachers would be unaware of the basis of their
decisions, if story reading were a component of the revised curriculum, what proportion
would be of oral readmg? Why? And how would that be assessed? What stories were
selected for students? Why? These are typical of the questions that should be asked of
curriculum developers when they construct curricuia, and which reveal indirect
influences of society and culture. Altcmatively, curriculum developers may be well
aware of social and cultural influences and have the deliberate intention in mind (or not)
of reproducing aspects of that culture m the curriculum.
Culturally Induced Bias and the Curriculum
One particular aspect of the social and cultural influences on the curriculum,
which deserves specific attention, is that of culturally induced bias. As societies
perpetuate themselves through impkmcnting values in the young through institutions
such as schools; it is distinctly probable that some of these values will be culturally
biased. Indeed, these values may be so cfft:ctiveiy integrated within schools and society
that they are perceived not as biased but as accepted components of the very fabric of
society.
It can be argued that until recently the perception of the traditional occupational
role for women was that, of child rearing and domestic duties. A small range of their
typical occupations such as nursing, teaching, s u etariai duties and so forth were also
condoned with society. But to imagine, even before 30 years, women lawyers, engineers,
politicians, pilots, judges and senior business executives would have been almost
unthinkable.
Today the fonner view is perceived largely <1s iudicrous. But to achieve this
change in values and attitudes many barriers have had to be sunnounted, not the least
being pervasively held sex-stereotyped beliefs. These beliefs were so tightly woven into
the fabric of society that they were perceived as natural and essential. In changing these
stereotypes, the school curriculum was sei::11 as an important vehick in promoting and
consolidating the new values and attitudes. In fact, it can be seen that social and cultural
forces have a profound effect upon the curri :.ilum in bulb direct and indirect ways.
Curriculum developers whether at systemic, local or school level within educational
enterprise, should not forget that they are a product of their culture and that every
decision that they make will be culturally related.
Lastly, curriculum developers serve the function of translating traditional ideas,
assumptions, values, knowledge and attitudes into cufficulum objectives, contents,
learning activities nd evaluation. Of these curriculum clements soi:iological sources
have their greatest impact on 1.:o ntents.
Thus it is not possible to talk about a culture free Clm ic ulum.

72
 4. SUi ll\llARY
The word curriculum <.:omes from the Latin work "currere" which means. "to
rw1", it is a runway, a course on which one runs to reach a goai.
Curriculum foundations arc those force:, that influeuc..: and shaµ,; th1;; ;uin<ls of
curriculum developers and enhance the content and structure of ti11! subseq ent
cwriculum. They intluc:n<.:e devi.!loi,er's thinking ab0uc cutrh,;ulwi1.
Three: foundations of cwriculum are: philosuplii<.:.al founuai10r,.:;;, psycholog1Cal
fow1dations and socioiogicalfoundations.
Philosuphy i1- the pursuit of wisdl i" and ki1owh:<lge, the: si udy vf rea!itief. and
general principles. It concerns with the searcn of internal truths. Philosophi s
foundations give understanding of nature of educational objectives, structure or
inte1Teia t:duess of objectlv\;s, nature of curriculum activities and the structurt! of
curri\.ulum plan.
Philosophical cate ories have particular relevance for curnculum development
and "these cattgolies include: ()ntology (the nature of reaiity). bpistem'-ibgy (the nature
of knowledge:) and Axiology (the naturt- of valu..:).
The word psychology is derived from two Greek words " p:,yd ie" ( oul) :md "!
ogos" (:-.tudy). Therefore. psychology is the study of Hulllan beh;, vir,ut. P yrhui0gical
foundations giw us an insight into chiid <levelopm1;:nt and lcami11g and provide
various tt:chmques of inquiry for use i11 the curri,.;ulum arna.
Tht pa1ticular areas of information in psyd1ol0gy 111:::ludcs, edilrntion I 1.1 (i
ct1vcs,
studies characteristics, learning pro<.:esses, teaching methods and evaluat10n procedures.
Knowledge about grm\-th and devd opmen t of the child has a great btaring as on
wu.it to ttach at a giv1;;11 level. The prou:ss of hu.a1an growth, devclo .nn i:nt and
nature of leaming have special significance for curril:ulum development.
The word so,.;i0iogy is <lcriveJ from Latin word ··:,vein>" (soc .iety, aud "lvgvs"
(study). Sc,.;iology is the sy:,tematic.; stuJy of sudal relationships,sucial institutions
aud society. Sociological foundatiuns deeplf influence the school cutril-u lum, its
c.:unceµts, content and organization.
Soc.:iological c.:o nsideratu.;os engaged in the task of curriculum <1e velopmen t
include: c.:ure values of society, changing values ot p1,;;opk, demands of
lllt>demization, rit..:rio11 of a good family life, democratic ttmp.;r of tht society, nt w
forms of cooperation, Illl!dia explusion, popuiation explosion, r.::gio11al anJ 11a1ioual
imbalance and economic efficiency.
C u1Ticulum for moderniziug sucicty incluJt:s rc:,,u·uctured cuntems of various
subjects m the light of modem dev.e k, pment in scicni..: and tc;;hnok,gy, adopting new
teaching methods and em:ouraging adivities for awakening curiosi,ty de\.ek,pmental
interes ts, attitudes, values and essential skills.

73
 Culture is a "value loaded·' enterprise. It provides the members of the society
with the "goods" and the ..bads", the "beautifuls" and the "uglies", the "shoulds" and
the "should noes".
Society and culture arc certainly not the same things while, "without a ture there
could be no society and without society there could beno c ulture".
· Litton has proposed that all elements of culture can be classified into three
principal categories: universals. specialties and alternatives.
Society and culture influence curriculwn developer because they are
members of a particular society. When the process of curriculum development takes
place, the cultural traits influence developers in selection of objective, content,
methods and evaluation procedure.
In fact, it can be seen that social and cultural fOICes have a profound effects
upon curriculum.

74
Q.No.1
Q.No.2
5. SELF-ASSESSMENTQUESTIONS
Q.No.3
Define Cunicuium?
Q.No.4
Define curriculum foundations?
Q.No.5
Enlist three terms in which curriculum foundation can be identified. '
Q.No.6
What is the role of curriculum foundations in curriculum
development? What is the relationship of philosophy and
Q. No.7
curriculum?
Q.No.8 Write components of philosophical foundations. which
give understanding in curriculum development?
Q.No.9
EnJist philosophical categories that have particular relevance for
Q.No.1
curriculum development? ·
0
Differentiate between the old and new concepts of psychology?

Q.
What is the role of psychology in curriculum development?
No.11 How is the growth and development related to psychological
Q..No.1 foundations of curriculum?
2 How does sociology affect curriculum development?
Q. Enlist the types of values needed for curriculum?
No.13 How does culture and society influence curriculum?
Q.No.1 What are the culturaUy induced biases and how do they affect
4 curriculum?
 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Print. M. Curriculum Development and Design. 1988. Allen and Unwin ltd..
Australia.
2. Shallid. :3.Iv1., Curriculwn Development and Instruction (Urdu). 2001, Majeed
Book Depot. Urdu Bazar, Lahore.
3. Shahid. S.M.. Curriculum Development (Urdu) 2000 Majeed Book Depot, Urdu
Bazar. Lahore.
4. Shahid. S.M. Curriculum Development (Urdu), Majeed Book Depot. Urdu Bazar.
Lahore.
5. Taba, H. Curriculum Development; Theory and Practice. 1962. Harcourt Brace
World, America.
6. Wilies. J. & Bondi. J., Curriculum Development; A Guide to Practice, 1993,
McMillan Company. New York.
7. Zais. R.S. Curr.icululll Principles and Foundations. Crowell, America.
8. Allen, C Dantcl, 2007 The Foundation of Education Cougage Learning
Published.
9. John, W & Joseph, C. 20IO Curriculum Development: A guide to practice Printer
Hail, New Jersey.
10. Arend, E. C. 2009 Teacher Empowem1ent Through Curriculum Development.
Juta & Company, South Africa.

76
Unit-4

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Written by:
Dr. Khawaja Nazir Ahmad
77
 CONTENTS
Introduction .........................................................,.............................................80
ObJectives..............................................................................................................80
l. Need for conceptual framework of curriculum development....................81
2. Models of Development curriculum......................................................82
Conceptual Model Proposed by Ralph Tylor.........................................82
Curriculum Model of the General College at the
University of Minnesota...........................................................82
Conceptual Model Developed by Neagley and Evans...........................82
3. Relationship among the elements................................................................85
4. A Proposed conceptual framework........ ............... ..... ...................,..................86
4.1 Self-assessment Questions..............................................................86
5. Process of Curriculum Development ..................... ... .....................................8..7
Fonnulation of Objectives......................................................................87
Selection of Content.....................................................................87
Approaches to Content Organization...................................................88
(i) Organization Focused on Discipline/subjects.........................88
(ii) Organization Focused on Specific Competencies................88
(iii) Organization Focused on Special Activities and Problems...90
(iv) Organization Focused on Process Skills.............................91
(v) Organization Focused on Individual Needs and Interests......93
· Self-assessment Questions....................................................................94
6. Selection and organization of Method:s . .... . . .... . . . . . . . . · : ; .......................95
Lecture and Verbal Presentation Methods..............................................95
Discussion-questioning Methods.........................................................95
Practice and Drill Methods....................................................................95
Viewing,, Listening, Answering Methods.............................................96
Heuristic Problem-solving, and Discovery Methods.............................96
Laboratory and Inquiry..................................................................97
Role Playing, Simulation and Games............................................97
Instructional Methods for Unstructured Situation................................97
(a) Playing, Manipulating, Acting.....................................98
(b) · School Activities Programme..........................................98
(c) Independent Learning and Self-instruction....................98
(d) Community Activities.................................................98
7. Bases for Selecting Instructional....................................................................99
Achievements of Objectives.................................................................99
Principles of Leaming.............................................................99
Individual Leaming style...........................................................99
Self-fulling prophecies and Educational Stratification.............99
Facilities, Equipment and Resources..........................................100
7.6 Accountability.....................................,....................................100

78
 8. Curriculum Evaluation.........................................................................101

8.1 Meaning and Significance......................................................10I

Design for cuniculum evaluation...................................................................................101
Foffl18tive Evaluation............................................................101
Summative Evaluation.........................................................102
Self-Assessment Questions (Exercise No.3).......................103
Self-Assessment Questions (Exercise No.4).....................103

9. Bibliography.........................................................................................104.

79
 INTRODUCTION
Education is a purpose.fol activity which schools organi?.:e an<l arrange to
achieve smne pre-rletmnined objectives specifica llya ssignixl to them. Such activities
which the placf! inside or outside the r:-honl under the direction and <mttolof the
teachers are known a "the rnrn-::ulum". How to develop a curriculum is fl question 0f
great importance and crmcem. Conce;,t1.•al frameworks help determine relationships
among various elements of the curriculum. 111e concep 1al frameworks al o help in
evaluating the outcomes of nmicn!um, and JT'ake it possible to modify or change the
curriculum in a systematic way. In t!1is unit we shall <lis ('uss the various conceptual
frameworks of curriculum development and then develop a model of our own.

OBJECTIVES
When y0 11 hiwe gone through this unit, you should he able to:
I. Discu5o; the nl"ed of conceptual framework curriculum develo pment.
7.. State the variN1s models of conce tual framework for curriculum development
3. fxph1in the eleme ntsof ct1n-iculum developme nt and relationship among them.
4. Descr.be the followi!lg stages in the process of curriculum development.
a. Formul;ition l)f oh,je :tives
h. Seler.tion an organiwtion 0.f co ntent.
c. Selection and organizationof methocis
d. Curriculum evaluation
5. Discuss the criteria of content selection
6. Re son Ollt the merits and limitations of the various approaches to Mntent
organizati0n
7. Discuss the major characteristics, usefulness and applicability of the various
instnictional methods to achieve different specific as well as general objectives
in strnct11re<l and unstructured situations.
8. State the hao;es for selecting instructional methods.
9. Explain the conceptsof accountability
lO. Discuss the necessityof evaluation for the improvement of curriculum
.I l. Describe the faction of (a) formative evaJu;ition, and (b) summative evaluation.

80
 1. NEED FOR CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
OF CURRICTJLUl\f DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum developme t i:-" w mplex undertaking that involves many kind of
decisions. Decisions need to be made about the general aims of education and the specific
objectives of instruction: The major areas of the curriculum along with the specific
content of each must be selected. Choices must be made about the learning experiences
which would ensure the achievement of conte"\ understandings and other objectives.
Decisions are needed regarding how to evaluate student learning and the effectiveness of
the curriculum in. achieving the desired goals and objectives. And, finally, 'as choice must
be made regarding the over-all pattern of the curriculum. These decisions are made on
different levels.
Generally speaking, curriculum is socially and historically located, and culturally
detennined. The curriculum does not develop in a vacuum but it is based on the belief
such as, about how people lea rn, what they should be like, what society is. The
cuni culum is, therefore, interwoven with the social fabric that sustains it.

The decisions regarding curriculum development are based on consideration of

many issues. If curriculum development is to be adequate, all these decisions must be
made competently, on a recognized and valid basis, and with some degree of
consistency. The complexity and multitude of decisions and the fact that they are made
on several diff levels make it all the more important that there must be an effective
conceptual frame of curriculum development. It needs to be ensured that while making
decisions certain considerations are not underemphasized or others over-emphasized.

A conceptual framework is, therefore, like a light house at the sea. It does not the
where to go or restrict movement, but iris necessary to guide movements an warn of the
danger spots. As described by Hilda Taba, "the conceptual framework is a way to organize
thinking about all matters which are important for curriculum development". "A framework'
she further elaborates," is statement which identifies the elements of the curriculwn, states
their relationship to each other, and indicates the principles of organization and the
administrative conditions under which it is tooperate.

A conceptual model must be based on a rationale which establishes the sources to

be considered and principles to be applied. Both are needed to make consistent decisio ns
about the curriculum.

81
 2. MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Conceptual Model Proposed by Ralph Tyler
The conceptual model proposed by Ralph Tyler for analyzing and developing a
curriculum answers the following four fundamental questions:
(i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(ii) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
(iii) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
(iv) How can we detennine whether these purposes are being attained?
Tyler's questions represent a four-step sequence of (1) identifying objectives,
(2) (4) evaluating the outcomes. Starting from the purposes and asswning t.he cyclical
nature of the process, we may present this model graphically as under:

Selecting_ Organising
Experiences Experiences

Identifying Evaluating
objective Out comes
Ralph w. Tyler's model conceptual framework of curriculum
Tyler proposes that education objectives originate from tl:tree sources: (I) the
studies of a society, (2) the studies of the learners, and (3) the subject-matter
specialists. However, it might be asked from what sources do the society and those who
study learners, and the specialists in subject matter receive their objectives? is there
some underlying based that ties the three sources together? Tyler's linear sequence of
questions appears to be faulty because it fails to show this underlying base.

The curriculum model of the General College at the University of

Minnesota
The curriculum model of the General College at the University of Minnesota
indicates a framework represented by a triangle. The apex of the triangle represents the

82
 purposes. One the base is the philosophy of education and life. One side of the triangle
are the needs and interests of the students while the other side of the triangle is based on
the needs of society and resources of the school. This model points out that a curriculum
is based on beliefs, the purposes which provide direction to the needs of students, and
the individual a part of the society.
Purposes

Social need and Interests

Students needs And Interest

Philosophy of life and education Curriculum model (university of Minnesota)

As we can see from the model, it does not seem to articulate thecrucial
significance of the meant/experience etc. that may be employed for attainment of the
purposes.
Another model is proposed by the Thirty.School experiment. The model
describes four inter-related elements: (1) objectives, (2) subject matter, (3) method and
(4) organization and evaluation. It seeks answers to the questions: (I) what is to be
done, (2) what sub matter is to be employed, (3) how are the results to be appraised?
These questions suggest the steps which are not sequential but which are closely inter
related. However, the model does not indicate the bases from which decisions
regarding them are made.
Hilda Taba suggested an orderly procedure for a more dynamically conceived
curriculum. According to her, following steps are required to be taken to frame a
curriculum:
Step I Diagnosis of needs
Step 2 Formulation of
objectives Step 3 Selection of
content
Step 4 Organization of content
Step 5 Selection of learning experiences
Step 6 Organization of learning experiences
Step 7 Detennination of.what to evaluate and of the ways and means ofdoing it.
The model developed by Taba offers statement of the basic principles involved
an exposition of the relation of those principles to the practice of curriculum
development. Much of the literature on curriculum development is conce rned with this
model.
The conceptual model de,·elopment by Neagley and Evans encompasses the
following procedure for a thoughtfully planned curriculum:
(i) Organization of the curriculum committee(s)

83
 (ii) Selection of objectives , aims, and goals of instruction.
(iii) Designation of appropriate content, learning experiences, and teaching
aids,
(iv) Choosing the best methods of instruction.
(v) Selection of the evaluation procedures commensurate with the
designated objectives, amiss and goals
(vi) Trial and evaluation of these materials, learning experiences and
methods.
(vii) Development of appropriate curriculum guides
(viii) The provision of procedures for continuous study, evaluation, and
improvement of the curriculum.
A careful study of the conceptual frameworks given above can be the help us in
developing a model containing the basic elements of curriculum development. A
curriculum model makes and clarifies the bases of selection and emphasis on the various
elements, as well as the sources from which these criteria are derived. It should,
furthennore, indicate as to what criterion applied to which element, because selection
involves values and opinions this is where the disagreements and controversies being.
From an analysis of the various models of curriculum it could be inferred that
the basic elements of curriculum development include
(i) Objectives,
(ii) Contents,
(iii) Methods, and
(iv) Evaluation
Objectives are dependent on such factors as values and needs of the society, the
nature of knowledge and culture and the needs of the learners. One the other hand.
decisions about content or subject matter derive from an analysis of the characteristics of
the knowledge represented by school subjects and the learning process. Epistemology
and psychology are brought into relationship to develop concepts.
The primary consideration in selecting and organizing the methods of achieving
curriculum objectives is, "how the pupil learns". Here, theories of learning, principles of
pedagogy and psychology help in the selection and organization of learning experiences.
The fourth element of curriculum evaluation in not possible, evaluation must
encompass the objectives of the curriculum and provide continuing feedback for
improvement of the curriculum.
The basic elements for the curriculum enable us to construct a model for
developing a curriculum which aims to answer the following questions.
(i) what is the 'purpose of curriculum?
(ii) what subject matter is to be used?
(iii) what teaming experiences and school organization are to be provided?
(iv) how are the results to be assessed?
The criteria used for answering the questions should be made explicit.

84
 3. RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE ELEMENTS

As already discussed, the elements of curriculum are closely inter-re!ated a11d

interdependent. Taha observes that a decision made about any one element out of
relations to others is bound to be faulty. Each element of curriculum acquires meaning
and substance in reference to the other elements. For example, the specific objectives
derive their meaning from the general aims of education. If the general aim is to
develop intelligent citizenship, the development of ability to think critically becomes
important. The fact that critical that critical is an important objective imposes certa in
requirements on the selection and organization learning experiences, and this, in turn,
makes it essential to include the evaluation of thinking the evaluation programme.

The type of content organization adopted puts restrictions the learning

experiences which are possible. The consideration of the nature of students and their
back grounds help determine the appropriate content and effective learning experience
But, if these elements are seen as mere components or as organically interacting
factors curriculum developmen,t their treatment, too often, becomes mechanical. Then
the task curriculum development tends to be regarded as merely technological.

A good conceptual model also describes the elements and the relationships
among them and their supporting principles in such a way as to indicate priorities
among the elements and principles to be considered. It should, however, be noted that
not all criteria and plinciples have equal significance in developing the curriculum
often criteria of least significance have priority over criteria of greatest significance.

85
 4. A PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR PAKISTAN

The stu<ly of different conceptual frameworks ('If curriculum development,

elements of curriculum and their interdependence presents vivid picture of an effective
curriculum model and enables us to propose one which will not only fulfill our societal
needs but will also meet our ideological requirement. In the conceptual framework
presented below, values are given the central role, whereas in the frameworks discussed
so far, values are either ignored or only implied. This framework shows their essential
importance for the detennination of objectives, selection of content, methods, and
evaluation. the influence of philosophy and beliefs I.as been recognized in the models
of already discussed. But little specific consideration has been given to the concept of
values although they reflect beliefs and philosophies and influence the selection of
desirable behavior.
Values must be in hannony with the physical environment, the learner,
educational objectives, the content, learning experiences and evaluative procedures in
order to bind together the elements of curriculum. Throughout the model, values are
transposed and appear in modified forms. As we all know, Pakistan being an
ideological state, we have certain hard core values like virtue , truthfulness, honesty etc.
which do not undergo any change over a given peno<l.
These values provide the overall framework for determining objectives of
education of course, taking into account other requi1ement of a society. Then fonn
objective we go to determine content method of teaching and finally the evaluation.
After evaluation, in cases of need, we refer back to methods, contents, objectives etc.
and then finally to the values. But here referring back to the values means referring
only to their periphery and interpretation side and not their core sprit.
Activity
Discuss the main points of different conceptual models amongst your fellows/
colleagues and try to development a model of your own which you think is appropriate
for Pakistan.
Values and
Needs of " objectives i:r content methods c:r evaluation
society
4.1 Self-assessment Questions
l. Why is curriculum development does a complex undertaking?
2. What kinds of decisions does a curriculum developer require to make?
3. What is Tyler's model of curriculum development'!
4. What steps docs Hilda suggest for developing a curriculum?
5. What is the difference bt:tween the conceptual frameworks developed
by Hilda Taba and Neagley and Evans?
6. You have read about various model of curriculum development. Which one
do you prefer to be adopted for developing curriculum is Pakistan? Give
reasons.

86
 S. PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
The elements of curriculum constitute four stages in the process of development
(i) Selection of objectives,
(ii) selection and organization of content,
(iii) selection and organization ofleaming experiences (;ethods), and
(iv) Evaluation.
Curriculum development is not an activity which is undertaken once and then it
finished; it is rather a continuous process. Knowledge and insight gained from evaluation
are used as a feedback for providing a fresh starting point for further development.
Let us briefly describe each one of these steps as under:
S.1 Formulating Objectives
Given the values, the first stage in curriculum development is fonnulation
objectives. Objectives detennine the structure for building the curriculum. The scope of
entire education programme, and the nature of the learning activities provided, are
embodied in them. If the objectives are expressed precisely and clearly, the selection and
organization of learning activities become easy. But if they are general and vague it
becomes difficult to select the content and learning experiences and to evaluate the
outcome of instruction. Objectives may be classified as under:
(i) Short and Long -term Objectives
Objectives are short or long-tenn. The fonner are achieved in a fairly short period
of time, while long-tenn objectives usually cover the entire period of education
of an individual.
(ii) Specific and General Objectives
Specific objectives are related to a particular area of the curriculum, where as
· general objectives are not related to any subject area at all.
(iii) Behavioural and General Objectives
Objectives are either expressed in behavioral terms 9r in more general and non
explicit tenns. The movement to state objectives in behavioural terms often
credited to Tyler. He emphasized that: the purpose of a statementobjectives is to
indicate the kinds of changes in the student to be brought about so that
instructional activities can be planned and developed in a way likely attain these
objectives; that is, to bring about these changes in students, Behavioural
objectives are expressed in the form of what the students a expected to be able to
do at the end of a course.

Selection of Content
The hierarchy of aims, goals and objectives have been discussed under the unit
"Aims, Goals, and Objectives of Education" by Dr. Mushta'q Ahmad Goraha. Selection
of content and its organization involve moving from the general objectives to specific
objectives that are considered to be achievable by a particular population (say students of
class VIII). Specific objectives need not be narrowly stated; they may be open-ended
statements of desired outcomes broadly defined. For example, if the general objective is
to help students to attain skills of continued learning, the specific objectives, related to it,
would be to develop skills of reading, listening, questioning and organizing information.

87
 , .
V

The next step is to identify the possibk types of ontent in each subject area
which will help in achieving the specific objectives. Then arises the question of how to
organize the C, G "i! nt. Taba suggests that cont.::;)t ;r,u s t be o; J.:,uzed with a view to getting
adequate scope, st:quen ce and integration. Scope meaus identifyiI,6 what is to be covered
and learned in clepth. A mun exten:.ive coverage of the subject is confused with depth of
understanding and mcnt.il :'TOcesses learnt. Sequence is concerned with the order in
which content and processes are presented to the students. "Much of the confusion and
difficulty in develop111g c u.n ufat.ive and continuous learning comes from the fact that
in setting up sequence in curriculum design, only the sequence of content is considered,
while the sequence of the powers and competencies is largely overlooked". Integration is
associated with the: relationship betv;::en the learning.in various areas of the curriculum
which takes place at the same time.
Selection of content must be made on the basis of certain criteria, some of which
might be considered more important than others. Before a particular type of content is
Included in a course, it should satisfy the criterion of sigHifican c e , c riterion of
interest, and criterion of learn-ability. These criteria have beeu discussed under the unit.
"Principles and Criteria of Conteni Selection: by Dr. M. R. Siddiqui and also in unit
"Curriculum Change" by Dr. A. R. Saghir.
Approaches to Content Organt..::cttfon
In order to serw educatim1a l ob je1,;cives, content needs to be organized. The
type of content organization followt:d is pt rn,,ps one of the most important factors in
detennining how learning proceeds. Otku the;: umiculum is int:ffective not because its
content is inadequate but because it is orga,uL.,:-d i u a. way that makes learning difficult.
As Taha observes, chaotic content is usually not effective in attaining any important
educational objectives.
Content organization is both an difficult and w mµ),;;x. It requ ires an application
of all we know abvut the aature of knowledge:, ali,J ut child growth and learning.
Following are the approaches to content organization:
(i) Organization focussed on disciplines/subjects.
Gi) Organ ization focussed on specific t.:o rnpetenc1es.
(iii) Organization focussed un social
activities an problems.
(iv) Organi;:.a uou focussed on µn.;1.-e ss s kills.
(v) Organization fo1,;l1Ssed on individual m: ds auJ intuc::sts.
(i) Orga11i zatio11 Fucu:,sed 011 Disciplines/Subjects
The dominant con ept of curriculum, historically and currently, is that of school
subje cts taught by teachers and learnt by stud ents. The most characteristic and
comp rehensiw feature of the subject organization is the relative orderliness uf this
patlc:m. The curnculum plan appears neatly divided into ubjc::c ts whi1:h a re tu1ther sub
divided into divisions corresponding to school grades. This orderliness is the inherent
principle structure of a discipl ine. The structur of a discipline, ac1:ording to Saylur and
Alexandt:r as:-

88
 "The set offundamental generalization that binds a field of knowledge
into a unit", organize this body or knowledge into a cohesive whole, fix
the limits of investigation and inclusion of knowledge for the discipline
itself and provide the basis for discovering what else exists within the
field".
Thus, each of the traditional school subjects such as mathematics, chemistry, and
physics, has its own distinct organization, and the curriculum planner has only to
detennine what of this organization to use, and when and how: But the structure of other
subjects is very unclear not completely lacking. For example, in Pakistan, materials for
Pakistan Studies are down from more than one basic discipline like History, Civics,
Geography etc. Amalgamation of these materials necessitates special organization of
some order of the content. Similarly in many cases the established disciplines do not
offer students opportunities to learn to deal with problems of living. Therefore new
organizations of content that are basically extra disciplinary or perhaps interdisciplinary
have been created and classified as subjects. Business education, environmental
education, health education, industrial arts education and physical education are just a
few of the many invented subjects. Thus while the established discipline and the
subjects clearly derived from them have an order or structure, many so called subjective
have no inherent organization. This makes the total curriculum design appear as
confused.
The literature on curriculum is full of arguments for and against a
curriculwn organization based on subjects. One of the most persistent argument
given in favour disciplines/subjects organization is that of educational convenience;
that is, since knowledge is organized into disciplines, the easiest way to set a school
curriculum is to use these subject This agreement of convenience assumes that schools,
teachers, parents and citizens general, are geared to the subject-contred curriculum
and support whole heartedly to this organizational plan.
In 1960 Jerome Bruner favoured disciplines/subjects approach by advancing
case for teaching the structure of the subjects. He writes:
''The curriculum of a subject should be determined by the most
fundamental ·
understanding that can be achieved of the underlying principles that give
structure to that subject. Organizing facts in terms of principles and ideas
from which they may be inferred is the only known way of reducing the
quick rate of loss of human memory."
Emphasison structure, Bruner argued, would help each student to achieve his
optimum intellectual development "and provide a general picture in tenns of which the
relations between things encounter earlier and later are made as clear as possible.
Limitations: the disciplines /subjects organization approach, however, has the
following limitations:
I Th e subjects tend to become fixed and the curriculum turns out to be inflexible.
2 There is lack of direct relation of the organized subject matter to the problems
and interests of the student.

89
 It may be uftliese limitations of the discipline/subject centered organization
appi,,;a::h. over Bruner himself in 1971 reconsidered his emphasis on structure of
krn)1.s, ledge expressing doubts on the usefulness of disciplines/subjects approach in the
modern world of today, and called for a re-emphasis on structure of the subjects in favour
of attention to more urgent problems.

(ii) Organiwtion Focused 011 Specific Competencies

The competency-based content organization assumes a direct relation among
objcetives, learning activities, and performance. In it the desired perfonnances are
stipulated as behavioural objectives or competencies; learning activities are planned to
ach1L"ve objectives. and the students performance is checked as a basis for his/her
moving from one objective to another. Thus in Pakistan Studies the student learns how to
read a map ;md demonstrates this competency before he learns about and demonstrates his
knu\\'lcdge of particular geographic location and relations. Therefore, an organization
bas,-:d on specific competencies is characterized by specific, sequential, and demonstrable
learning of the tasks. activities , or skills which constitute the acts to be learned and
performed by students.
The advocates of competency-based curriculum place objectives before subject'
a
matter and call for curriculum plan which would be built around specific life activities
of :1dults. They insist that the objectives should be focussed on what the student is to
learn or to do. not what he study or to experience or even to know. Moreover , they view
the objectives. though pointed to perlorm,mcc. as nwre general guidelines for instruction
A .somewhat specialized aspect or
the competency-based organization is the job
analysis rrocedure which involves specification of the basic skills of a trade or
occupation and development of specific training activities for skills in a sequential
arrangement. To the extent that the school trains its students for particular jobs, job
training is essential. This curriculum organization contributes efficiently to the develop
ment o f job co mpetency. Motivation on the basis of job aspirations is high in this phase
of the curri culum, and it contributes to the develo pment of talents and capabilities not
fully provided for in oth er curriculum organizations. Furthennore, specific job training
uti li z es , to the fullest, the maximum that learning result, from experience, and the more
meaningful a nd sig nifica nt the experience, the more the lea rning.
Limitations: Fo llowing are the limitations to the compete ncy-based approach to
conte nt organ izatio n:
I. Th e compe te ncy-based app roach to curric ulum development has much utilit y for
, 1)m; O b j(-cti VL'S. It has ma xim um utility in the le arnin g s kills . but ha s failed to
_d, · dop crit ic d readin g . !i s tcn111g , md dis cussion.
' , [' Ti'.1r,m ·: rn he co ntri, t'd and falsified, especially whe n it beco mes a basis
111c_,l'
li•r marL . l'L",.;' ird and puni s hmL'.lll. In the affective domain and even in many
,,c 11i tl\ e .i r,c h 1me soo n e nco unte r insu rmounta ble difficulties in shaping one
tn-one matc hes of specifi e c o mpete ncies and le a rning experiences.

90
(iii) Organization Focussed on Social Activities and Problems
(1) This approach includes three organizing patterns:
The social function or areas of social living or persistent life situation
approaches that are based on the belief that the curriculum design should
follow the persistent functions, areas, or life situations in man's existence as
social being;
(2) The theory that the curriculum should be organized hold the improvement of
society through direct involvement of the schools and their students to be a
major goal of the curriculum. The common denominator of these theories is
a curriculum design that features social activities and or problems rather
than subject or objectives or other organizing based on social activities or
functions exhibits an organizational pattern derived from studies of group
life. Some of the major functions of social living are listed blew:
(a) Protection and conservation of life, property, and natural resources.
(b) Production of goods and services and distribution of the returns of production.
(c) Consumption ofgoods and services.
(d) Communication and transportation of goods and people.
(e) Expression of aesthetic impulses.
{f) Expression of religious impulses.
A design based on conununity activities or problems might employ a similar list
but uses only those functions that are important in the community concerned, as for
example, food, clothing, shelter, health, religion and work.
The social reconstruction theory has been less developed as a curriculum
design than as an educational philosophy. However, recently some educational
reformers insist on building social action into the curriculum. The organizing element
under this approach is a cluster of social activities and/or problems. In the broader
design of social functions these elements are universal and timeless; in the
community school the selection criterion is local significance; in the social action
programme the criterion becomes problems areas or realities in which students become
participate effectively.
In summary, the socially central curriculum approach has its central
element as focus on social activities and/or problems. These activities and
problems may be the canters around which instruction is organized or they may
serve primarily as criteria for the selection of content within the subject or other
organizational unit.
There are two primary arguments for socially cantred content organization approach:
1. It can directly contribute to the needs of society for continuing improvement:
and
2. It is relevant to students needs and concerns and is, therefore, of great
significance and interest to the students.
Limitations: The limitations of the social-centred approach are indicated by its
use generally for only a portion of the curriculum.
(iv) Organization Focussed on Process Skills
The "process skills approach" is more characteristic of instructional methodology
91
than of content organization. It is difficult to separate instructional process and
curriculum organizing centers' of process type. Thus problem-solving procedures may be
methods used within an instructional programme organized around the learning process
of problem solving. The procedures can also be used in a programme organized around
the traditional subjects or around social problems. Hence the process skills approach is
one where the process skills are clearly defined as organizing centers for. The approach
may be considered a process, only when the process of the selection of content in say,
social studies and other subjects in areas such as music, physical education and
vocational course are clearly the competencies of the type discussed under the
competencies approach. The process focus is most frequently advocated in tenns of
learning processes.
The emphasis on process as content is the most significant aspect of the search
for relevance. Content then becomes a vehicle for developing process skills such as
students' ability to engage in rational decision-making. The stress on process does not
derogate assimilation of knowledge as stated by some, but greater importance is attached
to the methods of its acquisition and to its subsequent utilization. Therefore, a distinction
must be made between knowing something and knowing what is good for. Knowledge
becomes the vehicle rather than the destination.

The process approach of content organization consists of three interacting

operation:
I. The student must take in data
2. He must manipulate it; and
3. He must apply it.
Some cuniculum theorists focus on valuing processes. The purpose of value
judgment is to develop increased commitment to a set of values, and to offer
opportunities to examine the conflicts among the many sets of values and viewpoints
held by the members of the society. If the citizens are not able to understand and apply
the values they accept, there is every possibility that the social structure will disintegrate.
Some theorists stress that the aim of education is to produce "process-oriented"
persons who are able to handle themselves and the situation of which they are a part
with adequacy and ease. They describe eight process skills:
1. perceiving,
2. communicating,
3. loving,
4. decision-making,
5. knowing,
6. organizing,
7. creating, and
8. valuing.
In summa ry, there is no single approach and set of characteristic features that
include all of the theories identified as focusing on process skills. One group of theories
places major emphasis on learning processes. Some give problem-solving activities a
separate and significant role. Others focus on valuing processes as a major component of

92
the curriculum organization. Still others view process skills more generally and so
significant as to permeate the subject organization or even to replace it. The common
element in them is their emphasis or process as more dynamic curriculum elements than
in structure of knowledge.
Their focus on process skills is based on the following arguments.
(a) Since the most significant is the development of life long
learning skills and interests, curriculum plan should make these skills and
interests central.
(b) (b) Curriculum should be planned and organized so as to have maximum
carryover into life processes and skills. Greater carry-over is likely when the
curriculum organization directly reflects these processes and skills.
C) The process of valuing, other processes having a high effective elements as well
as essential cognitive skills can be taught. Both should be included in the
curriculum.

(v) Organizatio,r Focussed on Individual Needs and Interests

This approach was used in the eighteenth century by Rousseau in the education
of Emile and later on by Pestalozzi and Dewey. It is variously called as child-centred,
experience centred, and progressive education and, more recently, open, alternative, and
humanistic education. This approach more strongly reflecting the influence of Dewey,
uses student needs and interests as a base for content organization. There is, however, a
tendency on the part of curriculum planners to interpret these needs and interests as
common needs and interests of the particular population to be served. Reflected in
curriculum plans, this interpretation has become the rationale for teaching what has been
taught before without studying the genuine needs and interests of students. This
approach has following characteristics features:
(a) The curriculum plan is based on knowledge of students' needs and interests in
general and involves diagnosis of the, specific needs and interests of the
population to be served by the plan.
(b) The curriculum plan is highly flexible, with built-in provisions for development
and modification to conform to the needs and interests of particular students
with many options available to them.
(c) The student is consulted and instructed individually at appropriate points in the
curriculum and instructional process.
The key to learning, in this approach, is what Kilpatrick termed as the "project
method". The idea behind this was that students would learn to think, if they-worked on
problems of genuine interest to them. Thinking, Dewey stressed, is problem solving. To
Dewey, thinking was the key to intelligent action as opposed to routine action.
The most c01mnon approach to meet grouping are to match the needs and their
grouping for special progratmne believed interests of students concerned. Ability an
provided for curriculum individualization .
Predominant use of needs and interests in curriculum planning necessitates the
Provision of options for individual students. The options concept has the following three
features:

93
1 the options are based on knowledge of students characteristics;
2 scheduling and other arrangements facilitate ready selection and choice
of options, and
3 students ar a tjy ly inyQlyed in plannit)g 4 valuating the options in general
aid for themseiv inp fticular .
Three arguments (;an pe given in favor of this approach:
I. learning opportunities based on needs and interests are more relevant to the
students
2. the needs and interests organization involves a high degree of motivation and
,therefore, success of the students; and
3. achievement of the individual's potential is facilitated by this organization.
The validity of the first argument is obvious if the learning opportunity i s truly
based needs and interests, it surely must relate to them. As to the second arguments ; it
must be noted that motivation is a highly internalized matter and 'hat students are not
necessarily motivated fir a learning opportunity planned externally. As to the third
argwnent, the diagnosis of student needs and interests and provision for them are
essential in good education.
Limitation:s This approach atso has its own limitations, which are as follows:
(,i) The chief limitation of this approach is its possible neglect of social objectives.
If the learning opportunities are not based on students' felt needs, there is no
assurance that students would participate effectively in social activities,
particularly those of adulthood involved in work and citizenship. This approach
is, therefore, not appropriate for the human relations domain.
Cb) It is suspected that the establishment of so-called free and other alternative forms
of schooling will continue to meet the needs and interests of the students.
Self-assessment Questions
I. What are the various elements of curriculum development? How are they inter
related? Give examples for explanation.
2. Why is content of curriculum mostly organized according to disciplines/subjects
approach?
3. What are the limitations of disciplines/subjectsapproach of content organization?
4. What is competencies-based organization of content? What are its merits and
demerits?
5. What are the major functions of content organization based on social activities
and problems.
G. What is the difference between content organizations based on competenc ies
and practice skills?
7. What are the characteristics of curriculum Organization focussed on indi vidual
needs and interests?
8. As a curriculum developer which approach of content organization would you
adopt for organizing the selected content?

94
 6. SELECTION AND ORGANIZATIO OF .\I ETHOD, '..
Teaching methods constitute a significant pari of the instructional process. 1' t1t
all students learn equally by the same method, by the ,.1111, type of ad i\·it y. or by usin
.\, 111c same media. While students are stimulated to the tho ught hy hnci\ s . ,) thcrs
need : ' 1u;1 discussion to accomplish the same purpose. Different student s alsn need
diffe ren t ;· ,1cs learning activities of for their self-<levelopmcnt. A shy person needs
exper ie nce in ;,,,:1 11p
participation'. A person given to over generalization needs experience in anal yzin g d:ll;\
and drawing accurate inferences from them. This suggests that different mode:-- or
learning are required to provide equal opportunities of learning to all the stud ,: nts
Following are various modes of learning that can be used in structured class situ atio,n
6.l Lecture and Verbal Presentation Method
These are the traditional modes to transmit knowledge. Talk. address, or other
type of verbal presentation to students by a teacher are major characteristics. Students'
activities are restricted to listening, note taking and answering a test. They make
studen ts highly passive . Teacher activity is limited to speaking, reading and illustrating
vim dly . Teaching resources are confined to teacher, chalk board and some visual and
audito ry aids. They are used to present new information or explain events or th ings to
studl'nts. These modes are used to implement all five types of curriculum design
discussed abn\'e. but they are heavily used in the disciplines/subjects organization.
Discussion-questioning Method
Discussions intenningled with the lecture method are widely used in schools. J'l1e
major characteristics of these modes are questio ns or answers 0\ er assigned matt:r i.: i
, ir related topics and discourse among members of the class and th e teacher. largely 0
1. ; i;:: topics under study. Sometimes they also include consideration of other
m,i,;1.T .
introduced by the teacher or students. Students activities vary great ly among membc ,· ,1
the class and from time to time, depending on the topic or subject. Some membe rs 1 : ,1 ,

1· class are quite passive most of the time. Teacher-student interaction is structured
c:..,,· ,: ; t for occasional diversions to other matters. Teacher very much dominates the
classrnnm situation; he talks most of the time. These modes arc used:
1. to help students in organizing knowle dge, developing concepts and gene ra li
zat1, ,n 2, to clarify unde rstanding and improve students' ability to speak on a
subject , and
3. to organize thoughts and to communicate effectively.
These instructional methods may be used in any of the five types of design-;. Bui
they predominate in the disciplines/subjectsorganization.
Practice and Drill Method
When the purpose is to enable students to acquire a skill or a proficiency in
doing time overt act the modes of practice and drill are used extensiv ely. Often it is
intcnni n:!k d with recitation and discussion methods, such as courses in foreign
languages. The m;ijor characteristic of these modes is repeated performance of a
learning act until a lk s ircd level of skill to perfonn an act correctly is attained. Th e
performance may be verbal. :: in speaking a foreign Ja·nguage, written as in spelling,
or manual as in physical cd uc:11a, n.
and typing. Students activitie s include complete student involvement with perfnrn1,1nc,· or
overt acts; some witnessing of demonstrating of the act or listenin g to explanation ,r
what to do. Sometimes students are required to use a machine. such as compute r ,n a
programmed teaching machine. Teache r activity in volves explanatio n or the nature or tllL'
act verbally, visually or both, demonstrating proper ways of doing the act; explainin g to

95
- ·- - - - - -
students usually individually, errors in perfonnance and showing how to correct them;
supervising students during practice period; observing them during their perfonnance
and noting success as basis for further teaching and practice, evaluating perfonnance,
skill and competencies,: The teaching resources include models, equipment video-
tapes, recordings, machine,, and tools, IJJ.8terial needed for the perfonnance,
computers and teaching machines. These modes are used to develop desirable skills to
perfonn an act or to acquire proficiency and to develop an understanding of the
principles underlying the operation of a machine, a tool orobject used in the
performance of the skill.

Viewing, Listening, Answering Method

Use of instructional or "educational technology" in teaching is common in the
schools of the developed countries of or the world. The major characteristics of the
modes connected with educational technology reading, viewing, listening and
observing are used by students individual or in small groups. Machines are used to
present questions and elicit answers. Students' activities range from very passive, as in
viewing television or films or listening to tapes or recording to very active, as in using
teaching machines or equipment for practice, making a tape for recording, or making
field trips to observe and study actual things or situation. Passivity versus activity
varies exceedingly according to kind of resource. Used and the purpose in using
it. Teachers' activity also varies considerably. He usually arranges for use of equipment
and materials; often explains or demonstrates what students should see, or listen to;
helps individual students who have difficulty in using equipment properly or in
selecting or preparing correct answer; evaluates student's competencies especially in
programmed learning activities.
This method of teaching utilizes the following five teaching
resources: L printed books, newspapers, encyclopedias, atlas;
2. visual often with listening-motion pictures, video-tape, television, charts,
graphs, maps, globes, models;
3. auditory recordings, tapes, radio, field trips of all sorts;
4. manipulative-object for handling, sorting and using; and
5. Instructional machines teaching machines, computers; electronically equipped
teaching laboratories, such as for instruction in languages.
6. These modes are used to provide individual instruction and remedial or catch up
work. They are used in the implementation of all types of curriculum design, but
they are specially useful in development of concepts among disadvantaged
children.
Heuristic, Problem-solving and Discovery Method
Heuristic, problem-solving and discovery methods all denote the same method of
teaching in the literature of education. Heuristic teaching refers to styles of teaching
which emphasize the development of self-initiated and self-directed pupil learning,
which stress the pupil's discovering rather than absorbing knowledge; which place the
student in the role of the inquirer; which aim at heightening the relevance of school to
the pupils' life. They are concerned with the emotional and social development of the
pupi! as well
•s with his cognitive growth. ·
The major characteristics of Heuristic/problem-solving/discovery method are
that students are engaged in the processes of problem-solving and rational thinking
under various degrees of teacher supervision. They investigate problems, issues and
conditions; prepare research reports based on empirical data or analysis of the literature
and survey actual situations with conclusions and recommendations. This method
requires extensi ve
96
activities on the part of the students - reading, discussions, data collection, survey and
interviews, reporting and experiments. Often students themselves determine the problems
for a study, the activities in which they would engage themselves. Teacher's role is to
guide the activities of the class room discussion, device, or instruction. The teacher
assumes a second role in planning the work, and the activities of group. He advises and
guides the students in there. Participation in independent study programmes and evaluates
the activities of each members of the group. In this method library resources are
especially useful. The method is used to acquire and refine system of values develop
cognitive knowledge and ability of self direction in continued learning. It is also used to
develop awareness of important social, political and economic problems and issues in a
society, and to develop methods of rational thinking and problem-solving. The method is
best suited for implementing designs organized on the basis of social activities and
problems, process skills and individual needs and interests.
Laboratory and inquiry methods
Laboratory work is a traditional and extensively used method of instruction in the
sciences, but in recent years the nature of such activities has changed considerably with
greater attention being given to the use of scientific method of inquiry as a mode of
learning. Laboratory and inquiry methods are distinct from problem-solving and
discovery method as the former involve direct work in a laboratory on a regular basis or
utilization of an actual situation. The major characteristics of laboratory and inquiry
methods are that students are engaged in experimentation in a laboratory using scientific
method of inquiry. However, students follow a manual or guide in carrying out
investigations, which involve the formulation of a hypothesis or hypotheses, collection of
data and drawing conclusions. Inquiry in the social sciences follows much the same
methodology as discovery, but emphasis is on investigation, data collection and drawing
conclusions. Students are directly involved in investigations and preparation of reports.
The teacher assigns laboratory activities or investigations and guides and supervises the
student activities. He evaluates and grades reports. Fully equipped laboratory, manuals,
charts, official records and instruments needed to collect data outside the school are the
resources of learning through these methods. These methods are used to develop
cognitive knowledge; attitudes; values; skills in rational thinking and interest in scientific
or social researches.
Role Playing, Simulation and Games
Some teachers use role playing, simulation exercises and games as methods of
instruction. These methods introduce an element of reality in teaching and are often
effective in achieving the instructional objectives, in these methods students assume roles
of persons engaged in real life situation, and depict behaviour that they believe should
have taken place in an identical situation. The teacher's role is confined to choosing or
guiding the choice of the contrived situation. He also supervises the action and leads
discussion afterwards. Usually few teaching resources are needed except the materials for
the same. These modes are used to develop values, attitudes, feelings, emotions, insigh t,
and understanding of basic principles and concepts. These methods are useful to develop
skills of speaking and doing something before others. They may be used in any design
but they are especially useful in the process-skills type of curriculum organization.
Instructional methods for Unstructured Situations
The methods of teaching and learning discussed in the foregoing pages can only be
used in a formal class room or other structured situation .But, now let us disc uss the

97
methods which could successfully be used in the unstructured situations also.
Activity
Visit some local school and discuss with senior teachers the different modes oflearning:
a) as given in the unit
b) some other modes identified by them
(c) Playing, Handlings, Manipulating, Acting
This method is used in the early childhood years nursery school, kindergarten,
and early grades. The method involves:
I. playing with toys, blocks, devices, equipments,
2. manipulating articles or discriminating among them on the basis of colour. size,
weight and shape,
3. solving puzzles or making articles.
Normally the whole group is engaged in some sort of activity. Those who are not
doing anything at least watch others who are engaged in some activity. The teacher
chooses and supervises the activity.
(b) Sc/tool-activities Programme
Co-curricular activities fonn an impmtant part of the school's efforts to implement
the curriculum. The school activities programme serves to enrich class teaching. It
facilitates physical and mental growth and development of the student, and provides
opportunities for personal and social adjustment through an interaction with others. A
wide range of these activities are available in secondary schools. They should be planned,
directed and carried out by the students themselves. The teacher represents the
administration in setting and enforcing rules and limits of the activity. He also serves as a
source of ideas and plans for the activities of the group. Any equipment, materials and
supplies needed to carry on the activity serve as teaching resources. The school-activities
progranunes also contribute within the affective domain.
(c) Independent Learning and Self-instruction
Learning of something is an individual matter. A student has his own unique
method of learning. This principle has led to the system of individualized instruction in
the schools also. In recent years independent study has become a very important
dimension of schooling and a readily identified process of instruction. Under this method,
a student proposes to a regular staff member a study project, or production of something
which he or she would like to carry on independent of other class work or in lieu of class
work in a course. If approved by the teacher, the student carries out the activity under
supervision of a staff member. The teacher's job is limited to approving, supervising, and
evaluating the project. Libraries, laboratories or shops are the main resources which a
student uses. It is used for high level of cognitive and affective development of
competencies in specific fields of studies at a high level, self-defectiveness, self-learning.
It may be used in the implementation of any type of curriculum organization.
(d) Community Activities
Co,mnunity activities provide some of the most important opportunities to attain
objectives of education. Student participation in the work and activities of agencies and
organizations functioning in a conununity is the major characteristic of this programme.
Students engage themselves in community activities on personal basis. Teacher activity is
limited to sponsor and plan the programme and supervise the student work. Co1mnunity
activities are used to assist students in making career choices, to develop understanding
of community problems and to develop in them the ability to solve them.

98
 7. BASES FOR SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Within this wide array of teaching methods, teachers are faced with the problem
of selecting the method or methods which are most suited to a curriculum plan. As it is
desirable to use a number of content organizing designs according to the objectives, so
it is in the selection of instructional methods. Some important guidelines for the
selection of instructional methods are given below:
Achievement of Objectives
Achievement of the instructional objectives is the first consideration in planning
for teaching. The objectives postulated for a course, activi_ty, or unit of work should
therefore be the primary factor in planning instruction. A general objective may be
attained by a wide range of teaching methods, but specific objectives for instruction
once detennined narrow the choices considerably.
Principles of Learning
While selecting a method of instruction the teaching should know the theories
and principles of learning which underlie a certain method of instruction. This would
help him adapt the method to the individual needs and methods of learning of a larger
number of students.
Individual Learning Styles
Lee Cronbach and Richard Snow believe that most effective teaming takes
place when the interactive process (teaching) is one that is best suited to the individual
student in terms of his learning style. A learning environment that is "optimal for one
person is not optimal for another". The Rand Corporation study( 197 1 ) supports these
findings by asserting that "teacher, student, instructional method, and perhaps, other
aspects of the educational process interact with each other. Thus a teacher who works
well (is effective) with one type of student using one method might be ineffective when
working with another student having different characteristics, or when using another
method. The effectiveness of a teacher, or method, or whatever varies from one situation
to another".
Self-fulfilling Prophecies and Educational Stratification
Opinion of the teacher about a student's abilities or capabilities based on
perfonnance in the classroom, influence the ways in which the teacher will work with
the student, both with regard to interactive process (teaching) and the content of
instruction. Psychologists believe that children differ in their learning abilities and
processes. On the basis of these differences, educational processes should also be
differentiated. But Cronback and Snow are against this differentiation which is on the
basis of contrived tests, observation or past achievement of school programme and that
which results in educational stratification. As B.F. Skinner stated "we need to find
practices which pennit all teachers to teach well and under which all students learn as
efficiently as their talents pennit".
The only acceptable prophecy that should be self-fulfilling among teachers
today is that every child has precious talents and potentialities that should be developed
to the utmost. The school's responsibility lies in providing the child the opportunities
for such development.

99
 Facilities, Equipment and Resources
Instructional planning is often influenced by the available facilities that maybe
used, and the administrative organization and structure of the school. Whatever restrictive
influence the facilities, equipment and resources may, have on the instructional planning
a teacher should be as imaginative and resourceful as possihle in using methods that
involve student in a highly active role.
Accountability
Teacher , administrators and others employed to provide education have always
been held responsible for quality of their work in as much as curriculum plans related to
accountability
The term accountability means that someone has to report, explain or justify to
someone else. Thus accountability is a master-servant, employee-employer relationship,
that is, some party answering to another party. It involves assessment, appraisal and
evaluation whichever is appropriate. It is part and parcel of the whole systems approach
to educational planning with great emphasis on results, costs of producing these results,
and alternative possibilities weighed on the basis of costs. Lessigner observes that we
judge a school, or ought to judge it, by whetherits students gain certain skills and
knowledge that can be measured against some set of standards or judgment, and by the
cost of producing these gains.

JOO
 8. CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating
decision-making at various stages of curriculum um development. This infonnation may
pertains to the programme as a complete entity or only to some of its components.
Evaluation also implies the selection of criteria, the collection of data, and data analysis.
It includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a programme, product,
procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends standardized tests covering all
means of ascertaining the results of construction.
Meaning and Significance
Evaluation is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and
planning are complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and
continuously. Planning is made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a
separate state, evaluation has its own entity.

The significant function of evaluation is detennining the value of the curriculum

itself. Is the curriculum appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it is
being used? Are the instructional methods selected the best choices in the light of the
objectives sought? Is the content the best that could be selected? Are the materials
recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and the best available for the purpose
envisaged?
Design for Curriculum Evaluation
According to Seriven there are two forms of curriculum evaluation, viz,
formative and summative.
Formative evaluation
It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its purpose is to
contribute to the improvement of the educational programme. The merits of a
programme are evaluated during the process of its development. The evaluation 'results
provide infonnation to the programme developers and enable them to correct flaws
detected in the programme. These evaluation results, remarks Stenhouse , serve as
feedback and guide, influencing the shaping of a curriculum thro ugh the success ive
revisions of developmental phase.
Three types of evidence are used at this stage of the process of curriculum
development:
l. judgmental,
2. observational, and
3. Student learning.
(i) Judgmental Data: First type of evidence invo lves judgmental data. In that
experts, teachers, supervisors, as well as stud ents (who ha ve made use of the
curriculum materials and methods) provide opinions, judgt!ment and reactions to the
curriculum materials. This type of evidence is gathered by ratings, questionnaires,
interviews.

101
(ij) Observational Data: The second type of evidence involves observational
data, which trained or untrained observers systematically gather during teaching-
learning situations in the classroom or elsewhere. This type of evidence is obtained by
direct observations in a free manner.
Observational data are relatively costly to obtain because they require one or
more observers to secure reliable and relatively consistent observations over some period.
Observational data when added to the judgemental data gives a different dimension to
finding solution to some of the problems that emerge from both types of data.
(iii) Student Learning: This type of evidence approaches the curriculum
development. What kind of student learning takes place when the curriculum materials
and methods are used properly. Here the main evidetlce has to do with student learning
that takes place in relation to curriculum. While this may determined by observations of
students, by interviews of students, and by student reports, in most cases it involves the
use of structured or semi-structured tests, oral examinations, or other procedures of
detennining what students can do or feel in relation to particularly kinds of learning

(iv) The best source of evidences for formative evaluation of curriculum seems to be
a sort of combined use of all of them to arrive at valid conclusions. It is better to use one
source for corresponding the findings of the other two than depending upon just one
source of evidences.
Summative Evaluation
In summative :the f/naf effects of a curriculum are evaluated on the basis of its
stated objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed and put into
operation. Through summative evaluation, the overall effectiveness and quality of a new
curriculum improvement and adjustments are devised and introduced in the schools.
Since evaluation results are obtained only at the stage in which prograimne development
has been completed, they do not have any fonnative functions.
Sununative evaluation is based on tests' results, student reactions to the ·
instruction, teachers' views concerning the effectiveness of instruction, follow-up studies
of students who have participated in a programme of instruction, parents' reactions and
such other types of evidence of varying degrees of validity.
The role Of the evaluator in summative evaluation is very different from that of
the fonnative evaluator. In the latter case the necessity for close-cooperation and
interplay between the evaluator and the curriculum developer has been emphasized . In
summative evaluation the evaluator must be independent, uninvolved, disinterested,
committed only to the production of a dispassionate analysis of success and failure. His
task, too, is wider, in that he must not, only evaluate the success of the programme in
achieving its own stated objectives, but must also consider other objectives which
teachers in general might reasonably expect to achieve through such a programme whose
objectives are confined to concept-mastery and understanding must also be evaluated in
terms of achievement of skill in simple computation in the four rules (addition,
subtraction, multiplication. and division), and in knowledge of units of meas urement such
as length, capacity. weight. etc.

102
 Self-assessment Questions (Exercise -No. 3)
1. What is the function of curriculum evaluation?
2. What are the two forms of curriculum evaluation?
3. What is fonnative evaluation?
4. What types of evidence are used for fonnative .evaluation?
5. What is swnmative evaluation?
6. What types of evaluation techniques are used for summative evaluation?
7. What type of evaluation do you, as a teacher/administrator, use for curriculum
development? Do you think your method of evaluation needs changes in the
light of the infonnation provided to you in this unit? Discuss.
8. Encircle the most appropriate answer in the following:
By conceptual framework of curriculum we mean
i) The actual curriculum
.ii) Relationship between various elements of curriculum
iii) Conceptual foundations of curriculum
iv) None of the above.
9. Which of the evidences are used in fonnative evaluation of curriculum?
i) judgemental
ii) observational
iii) student learning
iv) all of the above

Answers to Self-assessment Questions

Q. l -7 please see the relevant portion of the unit.
II
JV

Self-assessment Questions (Exercise No. 4)

l. Why is a conceptual framework essential for curriculum developmen?t Explain.
2. What should be the rationale of curriculum development?
3. Identify elements of curriculum, how are these elements inter-related?
4. What, in your opinion, is the most important stage in curriculum
development? Explain.
5. Discuss the sources through which we derive our education al o bjectives.
6. What are the various approaches to content organization? Which one, do you
think, is best suited forcontent organization and why?
7. Compare disciplines /subjects based organization based orga nization with
competencies based organization.
8. Suppose you are asked to plan a curriculum for soc ial studies for classes IX and
X. Which design of content organization will you prefer for develo ping creative
and critical thinking among the students?
9. .Which instructional method will you use for teachin g the c un-ic ulum mentioned
in question 8'? Discuss its strong as well as weak points.
10. What do you understand by heuristic method? What are its characteris tics and

10 3
 usefulness for instruction?
11. What are the major characteristics of the following teaching methods?
(a) Discussion-questioning approach
(b) Problem-solving approach
(c) Discovery method
(d) Inquiry approach.
12. What are the various bases for selecting an appropriate teaching method?
13. Why is evaluation necessary? How does it help in improvement of curriculum?
14. How is formative evaluation different from summative evaluation?
15. What are the functions of formative evaluation? What types of evidence
are Needed in formative evaluation?
16. Suppose you are required to evaluate a curriculum in vogue for the last two years.
What form of evaluation you will apply?
(l) For answers to essay type S.A.Q's see relevant sections of the unit.
(2) Answers to objective type questions of exercise No. 3 areas 8. (ii) 9. (iv)

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Borich, Gary D., The appraisal of Teaching Concepts and Process, Addison, Wesley
Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1977.

R, Jerome S., The process of Education , Harvard University press, Cambridge,

Massachusetts, 1962. ··: ,. , ,. , ·,:

Ric hard, editor, The Curriculum. Context, Design and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1995.

104
Unit-5

AIMS, GOALS AND

OBJECTIVES OF
EDUCATION

Written by:
Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad Goraha
105
 CONTENTS

lntroduction............................................................................................................107
Objectives................................................................................................................108
l . Conceptualiza tion..............................................................................................109
I. I . T he Significance of Amis, Goals and Objectives.......................................... l 09
The Classification of Aims, Goals and Objedives.............................................110
T he N<1t urc or Aims ...................................................................................110
Exatn ples of A11ns....................................................................................111
1.5 . The N a lti i'(' of Goals .... . ........................ ..... .... ........ . ......... .. .......................... 113
l .(). r::'<a1n ples of Goals............................................................................................113
l. 7. The Natural of Behavio ural Objectives...............................................................114
I .X. Examples of Behav10ural Objectives ...... ........... ..... ........... ... ........... .... ........ .. I l 5
I.9. Distincti ons and Inter- relationships....................... ........................................ l I6
I . IO Self-Assessme nt Questions...................................................................117
2. A brie f Rev icv.1 of the objectives movements in Pakistan ....................................120
120
2.1 . The Origins ····· · ;'"( ·· ....... ......... ............. . ......................................................
. 1 :

Systematic Cotice p'tuaiizations...................................................................123

Taxonom ies of Educa tional Objecti ve...............................................................124
Self-a scssmcnt Quest ions...................................................................................128
3. ;°he Develo pment ofobjective....................................................................................132
3. l. The Main Approaches to Stating Educational O bjectives.................................132
3.2. Writing Behavioural Questions..................................................................... I33
3.3. Self-Assess ment Questions.............................................................................136
4. Critique of models of objectives..................................................................................138
Criticisms of the Objectives Model............................................................138
The Process Model.................................................................................140
The Hu1nanistic Model...........................................................................141
S)lntl1csis............................................................................................. 142
A Proposed Pakistani Model...........................................................................142
Activity...........................................................................................................144
Se!f-asscssmcnt Quest io n.............................................................................144
Bibli\)graphy........................................................................................................145

106
 INTRODUCTION

Education is fundament.illy ::i goal-orie nted activity. An aimle ss ed ucat io n

spells disaste r and plays havoc with the destin y of a nation. Education without aims is
like a ship without a rudder pushed on a perilous sea voyage. Aims provide a focus and
direction to the entire system of educat io n. T hat is why govern ments attach so much
importance to the aims of natio nal education.

The Quaid-i-Azam in his message to the First Educatio nal Conference in 1947,
stated emphatica lly that he wanted 10 es tabl ish a v ia ble. productive and sou nd syste m of
education suited to the needs and requirements of the peo ple of Pakistan, wit h due regard
to Muslim history and ideals. tQuresh i.1975, p.27). It is regrettable to note that
subsequent governments have failed to clearly define and implem ent the aims of
Pakis tani education. Speaking from an ideological standpo int. the story of Pakistan i
educatio n is the story of aimless edu catio n. (Qureshi. 1975 . pp.49 ,60 -61 ,72 ).

An understand ing of the meaning of a ims, goa ls and objectives is essent ial for
curric ulum planner s and teachers. Failure to gain this understanding is likel y to produce a
variety of problems for the various groups paiticipating in educational programmes and
activities. This unit is, ther efo re. a co nce rned with the technical explication of these
terms. It is divided into the follo v.:i ng fo ur part s.

I. Co nceptua lizatio n
2. Objectives movement
3. Develop m ent of o bjective s, and
4. Critique of models of objec tives

i!l7
 OBJECTIVES

Alter studying this unit. you should be able:! to:

I. Classify aims, goals and objectives and understand their significance.
'"J
Show the distinctions as well as the relationship between aims, goals and
ohjc.:ctiws.
3. List the major so urces of aims. goals and ohjedives.
4. InJi\.'.ate the princi pal sources uf current interest in behavioral objectives.
5. Give.: a brie f revit \V of the objectives movement in educatio n.
6. Explain Bloom's krathwol's and Harrow's taxonomies of educational objectives
and mention irnpor!ant points in their favour and against them.
7. D,cs ribe the main approaches and different formats in writing behavioral e
bjc.:ctives.
8. De,dop sMements of behavioral objectives.
9. A11.1!yzc an<l evaluate the principal models of curriculum objectives.
10 De\'\:l:ip a sound rationale for, and sketch an outline of a proposed Pakistani
. modd of edrn.:atiomil ubjectives.

108
 1. CONCEPTUALIZATION
1.1 The Significance of Aims. Goals and Oh_jectives
Aims provicic a syn<,plic vie,v of what w1: cxprct frnm cducatinn :1.;; :1 "hnlc.
Their major function is IP pro\'ickd purpnst: and di rect .inn In the \Vholc l'.duc.itional
system. {National Education Policy. 197Q.p.l). Unless aims ,,re first clearly st ll l' d. no
educational programme can he meaningfully conceived. planned and initi;!lcd. 1k tua
lly aims act as guiding principles and highlight the major emplw cs for central concerns
of any system. Hence. knowledge of aims is ind is pcnsahlc to curriculum planners and ,,ther
related groups.

The end-products of educational systems an:: shaped and moulded hy the c,.:ntral
aims which differ from one national to another. The aim of traditional Muslim education
was to produce pious and practicing Muslims. American education is wedded by and
large to the production of democratic and pragmatic individuals. while the so,·n list
system endeavors to produce true "socialists". Y011 can sec the typical stamp in tht· L'nd
products of the various school systems. And different systems may opernte even \\ ithin
the same country. This is so because aims help lo unify diffrrent educational pwgr:::nmcs
and objectives. Jamia Ashrafia (a religious Mu::;lim Univt:rsity) and Fonrn1n Christian
College , separated only by the Gulbcrg Canal in Lahore, represent two difkrcnt
viewpoints. Each ente11ains a peculiar outlook that is personified in the Jives -:,f the youth
::oder their care. This indicates the powerful role of aim in education. he it F:tstcri, or
Western, public or the privale. This different sets of nim s rcprcs t."nt difli.: t c nt ··1.:11h ' t tr
schemes" and curriculum developers and tt·achcrs should be aler1 to the dioi-:c and
implications of such schemes.

As for the goals of education . they are sharply focused on school-wide

educational outcomes. (Zais. 19 7 6. p ..306). Tl y are derived from aims and indicah: morl'
clearly what the aims actuall y stand for. In fact. they are the signposts on the higll\\'aY <'f"
educational programmes. Goals. as Davies tells us. help currirnhrm planner" focus th ir
attention on the actual dl'sti; ,.ilto n. Unlik e aims. goals rC'ndcr a practical serv ice in
operational zing the entire educational acti1. ity from the dementary to the higher ,tagc.
Their role is crucial (Davies. 1976. p. 14).

But both goals and aims arc not enough in prov idi ng imm..:dia te dir1..'C,til n
ti.w classroom instruction antf eva l uation (81tiom ct/al.. 1071. p.:? I). Ob ,i · : t ives. on
the lld,., r hand. present detailed and ckar specificat io ns of each goal i11, lt rrns of
knO\\·kdgc. :-.1:iils. values. beliefs, idea ls a nd appreciations. Their use lo cumculum
planners. 1<:ach,:1, :md le arners, is all too obvious.

Specific objectives can be of use in many ways. Firstly. the y pnn·iJ · dear guidance
in the selection of content and leaning experie nce . Secondly. they clas,;1 I\' the types of
powers and capac itie s to be dcn..:lo pcd in learner how the conten t is It' 1,c u,;cd and with
what purpose in Yicw. Thirdly. they provide a comnh,n and consistent focus for varied
cu1Ticul ar acti, it ie . 1 lopefu lly. th- mu ltiplic ity of s:11hk cts and nf tc,:l·li ing

109
approaches may be unified through objectives without which they will simply appear to
be discrete and disjointed parts of an education programme. Lastly, they guide us in
evaluating the output by providing a relevant and clear set of criteria (Taba, 1962, pp. 196-
199). Thus aims. goals and objectives render positive service to all concerned. especially to
curriculum planners and teachers.

The Classification of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Generally speaking. a w11 ical hierarchy of three broad categories- aims, goals
and object ives--- is usually mentio ned in books on curric ul um and education. However,
many eminent write rs. particularl y in th..: lield of curriculum. prefer to use pairs of terms
like 'a ims and o jcc t ivc· or' goals and ob,icc ti\ -es·. perhaps, to simplify the process of
objecti\·es formulntion . Hild a taba. Blooom and his associ:ne s, Michea lis. Grossmjan and
Scott may be cited as writers \,·ho exemplify this approach.

Document entit le d '"Goals and Aims to Education" (ministry of Education,

1977.p.2). treated aims as something inte rmediary between goals and objectives. Aims
being mainly concerned ,vith the m, jor stages of educ ition; while the term ' goals ' was used
to refer to overall general s tatem ents or the pmposcs of Pakis tani ed ucation.One the other
hand. most o f the curriculum c:-;pcrts and philosophers accept that aims are more general
than go als. Ivor K.; Davies ( l 976,pp.11 -14), Robert S. Zais (1976,p.305) and man y
other writers forcefully represent the latter view. and it is this approach, whic h consid ers
aims. goals and objectives as a hierarchy, which is adopted in this unit.

The Nature of Aims

Curriculum aims refer to general statements that describe cxpcd cd life outcomes
based on some value scheme borrowed from philosop hy. conscio usly or unconsciously.
Their distinctiv e quality is that they are not directly related to schoo l or classroom
outcomes. " Human Sur,·ival'· . ··sel f-realization' ' and "ethical character" are examples of
a few curriculum aims. Aims arc thu s remote and lo ng-range and have to be converted
into more immedia te and specific school ou tcomes if they are to be realized in actual
practice (Zains, 1976, p. 306).

An aim give shape and direction to a set of more detailed intentions for the
future. They are just a startin g point . and represent an ideal. an aspiratio n and a direction
which ed ucation system shou ld take in general. Thus they act as H guide to action and
provide a genera l frame works for t he ove rall education al process (Davies. 1 9 76. p.11).
Sinc e they are principally concerned ,,·i th lnrge r ends and purposes they act as unifying
threads for different programmes and ac,ti ·it ics, they arc relatively few in number but are
broad in scope and appli cabili ty.

;\ mis arc insp i ratio nal and Yis io nar y in character and arc. therefore. vague and
permane ntl y open-ended ( Richmo nd. 1976. p. 1 75 ). They ha, c to be clearly defined from
;1gc 10 .1gc a" the y take t>n nc,,· meanings. Fnr ..::-;ample. t he conc-:pts nf a "'good life.. (>r
·-.::duca tcd citizens" admit of c,·'l r,il in tcrp dr ations th,11 va ry from age-to- age and from
11ati1rn-to-nation e,·en dur i1i g ! he same p..:rio d. Thus an aim needs 10 b..: cle arly defined,

110
interpreted and explained with reference to the national ideology and socio-pl)! itical
climate obtaining in a country (Sharif, 1964. pp. 40-45). Besides, an aim has tD be
analyzed and broken down into its constitue nt parts for its practical realization and
accomplishment.

In brief. statements of aims _just pnwdc 0vcrall directic •n i1ll /:!l!id:.m: .': tn :
sch0<•l system; but they are not always helpful to teachers in cbs room in:-tna:t,i, n r,r c, al
u;·!io n. They are basically meant to provide directio n to policy-maker :n difi',;n:nt kh' ls
. national, provincial and local. Hence they arc not valid for specific and ,ccncrcte action
(Bloom, 197 l, p.2 l ).

Examples of Aims
Harry S. Broudy classified aims under four categories:
(a) Value pattern
(b) Social organization
(c) Social roles and
(d) Life style.(Zais, 1976. pp.307-308.)

All the categories must be inter-related with each other to produce the desired
results. For instance, it is necessary that aims in other categories should be consistent
with the aims and requirements of the central value patters and display the same spirit.
Any inconsistencies in this regard would be damaging to the dominant value pattern.

(i) Val11e Pattern

This is the general category which actively influences the d 1aracter of aims in
lhe other three categories. Aims in this category represent a philosophical position a J
view pont. If the central aim is the development of lsla1nic character, all other
categorie would be geared to the realizationof this pivotal value.

The students of different educational system bear the stamp uf thei r tw ic<,l valut:
pattern. For example, the prodt:c s of Aligarh, Deoband, Nadvc1 and public schoois in
Pakistan reflect the different value patterns and characte ristics of their institutions . Sir
Syed's main concern was to promote western sciences and help the Muslim youth to get
jobs in the Government. Deoband aimed at the preservation tif a classical religious
orientation, while Nada attempted to modernize religious knowlcdr e and bring 1t ir line
with the new demands of modern times. (Ahmad. I 977, pp. 72-72). These diverse vahic
patterns shaped the institutions and hence the attitudes and behavior of the ir swdcnts

(ii) Sodul Orgm1hatio11

This refers to ..patterned relations of individuals and groups.. (Broom and
Selznic k, 1958.p. 14). The way people behave is largely determined by their relations to
each other and by their membership of different groups. Acwall y social o rgani/ ation is a
network of relation s hip s of ind ividuals and grc,ups that may impede nr dc\\ :k1p :1 ociai
philosophy or view point. No set of aims can prove fruitful until it is intcr\\'uven inw the
entire fabric of social organization.

111

--------
 J\ social organiza tion acts as a social habitat for the development and promotion
of a preferred value pattern whether Islami c, democratic or socialist. Given the above
value pattern. social organization would be focused on Islamic social outcomes such as
unity and social inte,gration. brotherhood, concern for the co llec tive good and a deep
sense of respect for all in dividua ls and woups on the basis of instrinsic personal qualities
rather than surface quaIi fications. i.e. race. creed. colour. status or geographical location.

(iii) Social Roles

J\ socia l role refers to "pattern of behavior associated with a distinctive social
position" such as the position of a mother, teacher. administrator, employer or student
etc. it indicates what a person ought to do in his or her typica l position. Social roles are
complementary as well as complex. (Broom and Selznick, 1968,pp.12-l 3). Aims
spe ifying preferred social roles would offer a particular set of qualities to be developed
in parents. teachers, family members. neighbours, citizens and officials which arc in
consonance with the national ideology. The Prophet of lslam (Peace Be Upon Him) is the
best model for the Muslims_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ The Quran exhorts believ ers to
assimilate this model in to their personality.

In Is lam, several roks arc combined within a s ing le individual and he or she is
expected to behave likewise in a given s itu atio n during peace or war. A ruler is not
simply a head of the state: he is also a guardian of public morality, a friend, neighbor and
a citizen. This is how Islamic values would influence the social role of individuals.

(iv) Lff'e S1yle

This refers to the way in which r,rw li\·e:, one's life . It is the practical
manifest:.ition of one' s preferred value pattern. Ynu can see a varie ty of lif e styles in any
societ y-· for example . that of a bus iness man, a gypsy or a hip py. The Eastern life style
is very different form that in the West. Howe\ er, each ideology attempts to develop, on the
whole. a typical Iifc style •,vith rea sonab le scope for variation and spontaneity within its
cultural framework. In brief, the life style must be in consonance with the spirit of the
central value pntlcm.

Examples <if Aims

State ments of aims mny be sho rt or long but dt"tailed statements arc gene rally
prefe n-c d for curriculum building. The examples that follmv are taken from the Nat
i<1nal Education Polic y (I 979, pp. l-2).

I. T,) foster in the hemi s nnJ minds of the people of Pakistnn in ge ne ral. and the
stud e nt:, in p:1rti cular. a deep and abiding lo yalty lo Islam and a liYing consciousness
of l'vtusl im :\'ationh(>od.

7 To clc \'\:lo p and in culcate in accordance, , ·ith the Qurnn nnd S unnah. the
character. conducl a nd mo ti\'a tio n expected of a true Musli m through effecti ve d
imina,t i 11 1,r gaps and contradictions bct11·cne the protc' ssin g <111d practice of Is lam.

112
 The Nature of Goals
Curriculum goals refer to school outcomes as a whole, and the y are somewhat
removed from immediate classroom assessment (Zais, 1976, p.306). they lie in the
middle of the "aims-object ives" continuam and goals actually represent different aspects
or major constituents of an aim and thus prove helpful in identifying its principa l pa rt s .
They clarify and explain what a particular aim is directed at the intent as well as the
content.
Goals are derived from aims and must be consistent with them. They attempt to
operationalize the thinking represented by an aim, making it relatively clear and practical
(Davies, 1976, p. 14). They are more explicit than aims and thus indicate the broad
pathways to the attainment of over-arching and all-inclusive aims. In short, goals simply
facilitate the achievement of aims.
An aim indic ates the direction, while a goal points to the actual destination.
Rather than being visionary in character, a goal takes on a concrete fonn and becomesthe
focus of an activit y. It serves as a basis for action and helps us in bridging the gap
between the 'ideal' and the 'real'. However, goals are less specific than objectives and
arc no more than inferred descriptions or hypotheses about the things learners will be able
to do at the conclusion of a learning sequence (Davies, 1976 , p. 14.) They do not specif y
the expected behavior of learners with precision.
Several goals may be derived from an aim. These goals are then ordered so that
priorities can be detennined and <1llocated. Some of the goals may be realized at an early
stage in the learning process; others may be taken up in the middle and still others may be
accomplished very late (Davies, 1976, p. 14).
Goals serve two main purposes. Firstly , the y help us put concepts into writing
and indicate what the learners must knov.r at the e nd of a course (tenninal goals).
Secondl,y th ey help the teachers and others co nce rned to bridge the gap be tween an aim
and a specific o bjective (Leonard and Utz, 19 74 , p 8 8 ).

Examples of Goals
An exa mple o f an aim is to develop in students a n understanding of how to write
research pro posa ls in Educa tion. This statement may be broken down into the following five
goals:

I. To acquire a conce pt of research pro posa l and its varian,ts a s see n in historical,
descriptive and experimental e nquiries in educa tion.
2. To apprecia te the value of writing a research prop osal as a basis for cla r if ying
thought s, ana lyzing task, s sy:1thes izing procedures and evaluating possib le
conseq ue nces.
3. To id enti f y an educa tional proble m. appropriate to the interests of the
in vestigator w hic h is capable of investiga tio n by th e me thods proposed.
4. To prcp,m: an approp riate rese arch proposal, a ccording to ge nerally acceptable
sta ndards in ed u·catio nal enquiry.
5. To critica ll y appra ise the proposa l as a means o f determining both its deficiencies
and its s trengths as a pla nnin g doc ument.

113
It is clear from the above that goals form aspects of an aim and are more explicit than
the latter. They however, indicate scope for further clarity and detail i.e behavioural
objectives.

Statements of goals may be long or short. For instance, national progress (as an
aim) may be interpreted in the fonn of goals such as industrial development, agricultural
advancement, political stability, elimination of illiteracy and so on. And quite a different
set of goals may be generated depending upon the vantage point from what a person
looks at the aim.

The nature of Behavioural Objectives

Behavioural objectives go by several names _ specific objectives, perfonnance
objectives and instructional objectives. Increasing interest has been shown in them
during the last two decades. The educational community is, however, divided with a
great many outstanding scholars like Bloom, Tyler, Gagne and Taba considering them a
virtual renaissance, while other prominent figures regard them as tool mechanistic and
dehumanizing. The debate continues but with current rethinking, some sort of
compromise may be reached in the near future.

The current interest in behavioural objectives has arisen from several sources.
Among these are the famous works of educational theorists like Tyler, Bloom, Mager
and krathwohl which lay heavy stress pn the need for accurate assessment and
measurement of learners' knowledge in tenns of observable and specific human
behaviours. Several educational taxanomies have been offered and a considerable
literature is available on the subject. Blooms taxonomy stands out to be the most written
about in the realm of education. Another source is industrial economics with its input-
output models and techniques such as cost benefit analysis, operational research, systems
engineering and job evaluation, all of which require precise, detailed and clear-cut
objectives, prior to the fonnulation of a problem and strategy of attack. These have had a
positive impact on education. Combined with some other national and international
forces, all the above developments have played an important part in popularizing the use
of behavioural objectives.

According to Davies, behavioural objectives are called behavioural because they

are stated in terms of overt human behavior which is both demonstrable and measureable.
They describe in unambiguous tenns the expected behavior of a learner at the end of a
learning experience. Objectives are very specific and highly explicit with no ambiguity
about their meaning, focus and intention. They are short-range, time-bound, quantifiable
and operational in fonn and spirit.

They refer to the most immediate specific outcomes of classroom instruction.

The most important thing to note about the objective is that they act as a clear guide and
provide immediate direction to curric ulum planning, classroom instruction and
evaluation. They are sharply focussed on intended learning outcomes and leave no scope

114
for misinterpretation. Precision, clarity, specificity and quantifiability are the :i ncipal
features of a truly behavioural statement of an objective.

Generally speaking, behavioural objectives are detailed specifications of desired

outcomes at the end of a lesson, teaching unit, tenn, year or progranune. And a large
number of objectives can be developed from a given set of goals, the actual number
depends upon several factors such as purpose, grade level, teacher's convenience and the
generative capacity of the goals.

Examples of Behavioural Objective

Now look at the examples below and consider their adequacy as behavioural
statement:
l. '·to be able to write a summary"
2. "to explain the theory ofrelativity"
3. "to be able to complete a I00 item multiple-choice examination on the topic of
Muslim contribution to Science within one hour , with 70 correct answers as the lowest
limit of acceptable perfonnance".

You will probably have noted that (1) is an example of an incomplete

behavioural objective. It does not mention the related content to be summarized, which
could, for example be an English poem, an historical event or a scientific theory. As
regards (2), both the behaviour and the content are mentioned. However, by far the most
comprehensive behavioural s tat ment is (3) which contains all the necessary elements of
a complete behavioural objective.

Activities
l. Discuss amongst your colleagues the differences amongst aims, goals and
objective with examples.
2. Pick up any three aims of education of each education policy and develop goals
and objectives fonn them.

Distinctions and Inter-relationships

If the title of a book is regarded as an aim. its vario us chapters would be parallel
to goals and the countless facts, ideas, concepts, principles. and generalizations would
resemble objectives. It is obvious that objectives are many and varied and that an aim is
simply inPxhau stibl e. For example. thou sa nds of books have been written on
Education with different formats and approaches ;:ind yet the basic theme cont inues .
This simile may throw some light on the distinctions amongst the terms;a ims '. ' goa ts·.
and ' objectives '.

To summaries what has been said earlier. aims, goals , a nd objective3s represent
different positio ns in descending order. each with a specific ptuvose and role to play.
Aims reflect philosophy, policy and rationale. while goals stand for strategies and
objectives for tactics in the actual classroom situ atio n. Aims represent life outcom es;
goals refer to school o utcom es: and objectives stand for spec ific outcomes of classroom
instructio n. Again, aims arc general in nature, object ives are highly spec ific and goals ,

115
•
which are in an intermediate position have the potential to generate a number of
behavioral objectives.
You should note, however, that aims, goals and objectives are relative terms.
They sometimes overlap and clear distinctions are not always possible. But in any case,
they should be consistent with one another. Also their meanings can change in different
contexts. Within the context of a whole curriculum, the goals for each course included in
the curriculum could be regarded as objectives of that curriculum. The goals of an
instructional unit may become the objectives of a course. Thus the goals objectives
continuum is relative and flexible (Leanard and Utz, 1974,p.88). It is thus sometimes
difficult to differentiate goals from aims. Perhaps that is why many writers use them
interchangeable. Therefore, these terms should be viewed and differentiated in their
interactive perspective, with full awareness of their functional role and potential.
Otherwise, what does Peters mean when the speaks of the aim of lesson as being
concerned with reaching the end of "Exercise 6". (Richmond, 1871,p.189). Now you
may be able to visualize the difficulties entailed in the treatment of these popular terms.

In most cases, Zais points out, the distance between a curriculum objective and a
curriculum goal is great; but between an aim and an objective it is enonnous. Therefore,
the curriculum worker must be vigilant in maintaining congruence in aims through goals
to objectives. He should be able to demonstrate the relationship of the required school
tasks ( goals and objectives) to those of the desired life tasks (aims). But this can be
possible only when he possesses adequate knowledge of the philosophical,
psychological and logical bases of teaching and learning (Zais, 1976,p.307).

However, it must again be recognized that this inter-active relationshi_p is

sometimes very much confusing. At times, they overlap, and it becomes difficult to
differentiate goals from aims and objectives from goal _ so much so that the very
classification becomes doubtful. "at precisely what point in the contimuum", remarks
Zais, "an objective becomes a goal; or a goal an aim, is impossible to specify"
( 1976,p.307). In spite of these difficulties, these broad categories along with their inter
relationships can be of immense help to all concerned.

Self-assessment Questions
I. Write T (True) or F (Fals e) in the space provided against each statement below:
(a) Aims are highly imaginative and visionary by nature.
(b) Curriculum planning involves aims and goals but excludes specific objectives

(c) Goals help us to operationalize education thinking at a higher level.

(d) Aims provide an overall direction to the whole system of education.
(e) Objectives give direct help in classroom instruction.
(f) The role of objectives is to specify human behavior in tenns of knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes.

116
(g) Goals are less explicit than aims.
(h) Goals provide a clearer indication of intended educational outcomes than aims

(i) Goals are directly related to classroom evaluation.

(j) Goals refer to the ultimate ends.
(k) Statements of behavioural objectives are specific and clear.
(1) Goals are more operational in form and spirit than objectives.
Aims, goals and objectives are relative terms.
(m) Instructional objectives are different from behavioural objectives.
(n)

Answer:
I (a) T (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) T
(f) T (g) F (h) T (i) F (j) F
(k) T (l) F (m) T (n) F
II Examine the following groups of Statements and identify whether each statement
is an aim, goal of behavioural objective. Write a (aim), g (goal), o (objective) in
the space provided before each statement.
I. To develop in citizens a deep sense of respect for the constitution. _
2. To make citizens obey rules and regulations in their daily life as enforced
by the state.
3. To enable all groups of people to gain a full understanding of the Constitution.

4. The college students will be able to differentiate between the law and
the Constitution. _
5. To study the implications of the constitution for various sections of the public.

6. To encourage Pakistani students to become enthusiastic about technical

subjects.
7. The Business students will be able to type 50 words per minute with
only one mistake for every 200 words.
8. To expound the view that scientific and technical development is
the key to national progress.
9. To cultivate the spirit of enterprise in the children and youth
in all educational institutions.
10. The Arab students will gain a variety of experiences during their stay in Pakistan.

11. Half of the fifth graders will correctly list the names of the first four Caliphs
Of Islam.
12. In a 30-yard pool without competition, tht! student will swim 60 yards
free style in less than 50 seconds.
13. To develop reflective thinking in philosophy.
14. Eighty per cent of the students on a course in Curriculum Development will be
Able to differentiate between aims, goals and objectives as outlined above.

117
15. Developing Islamic character and abiding love for the principles of Islam.

16. Student s study deeply new movement in the world of Islam.

Answers: 2. g ...
.) . (l
4. 0 5. g
II. I. a e,

6. g
8. a 9
6. 0 (l
e, 10. 0
0 11. 0 12.
0
13. g 14. o 15. a 16. g
III Encircle the most appropriate item under each statement in the following:
1. The nature of aims indicates that they are basically:
a. Operational
b. Practical
C. Philosophical
d. None of the above.
2. Policy-makers at the provincial level are mainly concerned with:
a. Aims
b. Goals
C. Objectives
d. Goals and objectives.
3. To develop good speech habits among learners is a statement that comes
under:
a. Aims
b. Goals
C. Objectives
d. Both a and b.
4. School-wide outcomes may be classified under:
a. Aims
b. Goals
C. Objectives
d. Both a and b.
5. A statement that is partly general and partly concrete and can be further
broken down into its constituent parts belongs to:
a. Aims
b. Goals
C. Objectives
d. Non of the above
6. A statement that does not permit different interpretations falls under:
a. Aims
b Goals
. Objectives
Goals and objectives
d. To gain nrnstcry over a subject is a (n):
7. Aims
a.
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b. Goal
c. Objective
8. To classify rocks and describe them propi:riy is a (n)
a. Aims
b. Goal
c. Objective

Answers:
III. 1. a 2. b. 3. c 4. d
5. b 6. C 7. b 8. C
IV.
1. Write four points on the significance of aims goals and objectives and briefly
describe each one of them.
2. How are objectives useful to planners and teachers? List four points. (Don't
explain.)
3. The end-products of an educational system are shaped by the central aims of
th:cit system. Explain this statement in a paragraph by giving one concrete
example.
4. Briefly describe the nature of aims under four points and given two concrete
examples.
5. Why are aims not valid for guidance in classroom instruction? Explain . a
paragraph.
6. Write a paragraph on the nature and role of goals in education in Pakistan.
7. Write a brief note on the nature of behavioural objectives. Also give two
examples to explain your answer.
8. Write two points of difference between a) aims and goals and (b) between goals
and objectives.
9. Inter-relate aims, goals and objectives in a paragraph.
10. "Aims, goals and objective are relative tenn s". Explain this statement with the
help of two suitable examples.

119
2. A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE OBJECTIVES MOVEMENT
IN EDUCATION

A historical review is always instructive as it enable s the reader to understand

the progressive development of the subject being studied. It is revealing in that it
uncovers realities and can help us avoid future pitfalls.

2.1 The Origins

Generally speaking, the organs of th e movement for explicit objectives can be
traced back to the educational works of Herbert Spencer and Johann Herbert. Spencer
proposed a class ification of human activities as a basis of educational objectives and
developed five major objectives for school c urri cula _ self-pre servation, securing :.'-'
necessities of life, child-bearing, maintenance of soc io -political relationships and leis ure
activities. As for Herbert, he highlighted the significance of a clear statement of aims for
writing a lesson plan and proposed five instructional stages popularly known as the
Herbert a in steps of teaching (Davie s, 19 76, pp.44-45).

Zais contends that behavioural objectives are neither basically new nor are they a
creation of educationists. They rather owe their genesis to the well-known concept of
"Operationalism" in scientific disc iplines (Zais, 1976, p.311). But why stop at
"Operationalism"; why not go further back in the past to uncover the true origins of
behavioural statements.

The truth of the matter is that the spirit (clarity of purpose) and general features
of the behavioural approach were born with the birth of Is lam. If clarity, behavior
specification, action- oriented fonnulation and criterion-rek rencc <l descri ption are
accepted as the hall-marks of behavioural o bjectiv es, then the holy Quran hera ld ed the
beginning of this approach long before the educational writings of Spencer, Bobbit,
Tyler, bloo m and Gagne.

The Quranic approach to behavioural stat ements is unique and distinct ive. The
set of "desired behaviours" is norma lly preceded by a general statement of the goal; and
the short behavioural statements and with judgemental remarks or motivational inputs of
reinforcement or feedback depending upon the situational mood of the verses . The Quran
captures life in its entirety and does not tolera te any dichotomy between the material and
the spiritual and the objective and subjective aspects. Consequently, the Qu ran ic
behavioural statements cover both ove rt @d cowrt behavior. Therefore. they are not
always behavioural in the rigid sense or the term. Rather. in their typical format. the y
present a blend of behaviouristic and hiministic approaches with several new additio ns.
They appeal equally to the mind. heart and spirit; and appear to sati,sf ·111 the dema nds \' r
ht:man nature within the general framew·ork of Is la m. This is · ..: true essence of th..:
Quranic model.

120
 The behavioural statements are generally short and pithy. But there are long
explanatory statements as well. However, these belong to several categories; they are
goal oriented, clarificational, explanatory and evaluative. Central themes like goodness,
success, taqwa (piety), worship, life, faith, man, God and the Hereafter are repeatedly
stated in behavioural terms in their manifold dimensions at different places in different
context. The Quran avoids all possible detailed specifications of a given goal at one and
the same place. Rather it "behaviourises" the concept under treatment on several
occasions to unfold its rich potential in new situations. And in the process of behavior
specification, God relies heavily on the common sense of people to understand the tenns.
This lends freshness, variety and balance to behavioural statements.

Below are given a few examples to substantiate the veracity of our claim. We of
fer a translation along-with the original text from the holy Quran so that you may
appreciate the beauty and style of the Quranic verses and judge the truth for yourselves.

Example No. I:

"The believers must eventually win through these":

I. Who humble themselves in their prayers

2. Who avoid vain talk

3. Who are active in deeds of charity

4. Who abstain from sex except with those joined to them in the marriage bond, or
the (captives) when their right hand processes, for they are free from blame. But
these whose desires exceed those limits are transgressors.
5. Who faithfully observe their trusts and their convents and

6. Who (strictly) guard their prayers. These are the believers who will inherit
Paradise. They will dwell therein forever.

Example No. 2:
"It is not righteousness that• you turn your faces to the East and West; but
righteous is be:
1. Who believes in Allah and the last day and the angles and the scriptures and the
Prophets.
2. Who gives his wealth, for love of Him, to his kinsfolk and to orphans and the
needy and the wayfarer and to those who ask to set slaves free

121
3. Who observe proper worship

4. Who pays the poor-due

5. Who keep their treaty when they make one

6. Who are patient in tribulations and adversity and time of stress

7. Such are they who are sincere.

Such are the God-fearing.
(The Cow: 177)
Example No. 3:
"Be quick in the race for forgiveness from your Lord, and for the Garden whose
width is that of the whole of heavens and of the earth, prepared for the righteous those:
1. Who spend (freely) whether in prosperity or in adversity
2. Who restrain anger
3. Who pardon all men, for God loves those who do good
4. Who having done something to be ashamed of or wronged their own souls,
earnestly bring God to mind and ask for forgiveness for their sins. And who can
forgive sins except God?
5. Who are never obstinate in persisting knowledge in (the wrong) they have done.
6. For such the reward is forgiveness· from their Lord, and a Garden with rivers
flowing underneath, and an eternal dwelling: How excellent a recompense for
those who work and strive"
The Family oflmran: (133-136)

Note the break-up of general statements into several specific objectives. Also
note the use of action verbs, moderate behavior-specification, necessary clarifications,
and both short and long statements of objectives. Other interesting features are the
beautiful general statements at the beginning of each example, and as indicated already,
the judgemental remarks or motivational inputs at the endings.

Further, it must be recognized that the Quran avoids extremes in action verbs and
in behavior specification. However, the Quran is inot a book on curriculum development.
It is, rather, a Book of Guidance which is unique in its fonn, message and approach.
Hence the Quran cannot be expected to confonn to professional fonn ulations
behavioural, humanistic or any other. It simply transcends them. And transcendence, as
Phenix (1974, pp. I I 8-130) appears to suggest is, perhaps, the future hope of educat ion
and the curriculum. In brief, the Holy Quran effectively communicates its message to the
general reader (and not the professional alone) and effective communication is at the
heart of behavioural approach. (Bloom et. All. 1971, p. 36 and Mager 1962, p. 12 ). The
Holy Book incidentally embraces several strands of new approaches such as humanism,

122
behaviourism and spiritualism and reintegrates and refashions them into something
different which beautifully accommodates "specifics" into its larger "holistic frame work",
with a sharp emphasis on the long-range goals of human destiny.

Systematic Conceptualizations
Franklin Bobbit, writing in 1918, highlighted the need for clearly stated
objectives for curriculum building. In a later work, he attempted to derive objectives from
activity analysis. However, Bobbit's main emphasis was on the need for specificity,
simplicity and clarity in objectives formulation (Davies, 1976, pp. 47-48).

In 1924, Werrett Charters put forward his theory of systematic curriculum

design, in which he stressed that the first step in curriculum construction should be the
delineation of its major objectives. This should then be analyzed into ' ideals' and
'activities'. Thus he classified objectives as 'ideal' objectives and 'activity' objectives.
Ideals like "good citizen" by another. However, both should be further broken d own into
manageable working units, and their relationships exemplified by means of an ' analysis
chart'.

Ralph Tyler improved upon the above work by attempting to produce more
systematic and detailed procedure for objectives fonnulation in his small but
revolutionary book Basic Principles ,f Curriculum and Instruction (1969). Among other
things, Tyler proposed a twq-din er:isi nal. n1atrix (behavior plus content) for stating
behavioural objectives. He insisted that objectives should be expressed in terms of both
the kind of behavior to e develop·ed:fo thflEaming experiences through which to att ain
given objectives is highly instructive. (Tyler, 1949, pp. 46-50, 63). However, Tyler was
mainly motivated by the requirements of accurate assessment and evaluation.

Inspired by Tyler's work on testing and evaluation, Benjamin Bloom and his
associates produced an extremely influential book- Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
in 1956 which dealt with the cognitive domain. Coverage of the affecti ve domain was
attempted later by Krathwohl Bloom and Masia in 1964; while Anita harrow (1972)
considered the last domain - the psychomotor. Each of these domains is a large category
under which educational objectives are classified in a hierarchicfal arrangement from
simple, low-level learning to complex high-level leanings. These taxonomies attempted a
highly sophisticated and detailed treatment of educational objectives and have had a great
impact on educational practices at an international level. Their collecti ve influence on
objectives formulation and evaluation has been profound. However, you should also be
aware of the important contribution of other writers like Mager, Gagne, Taba and
McAshan who have contributed immensely to the enrichment and extension of the
behavioural approach.

In concluding this review, one must mention the fact that the behavioural
approach has come under shaqJ criticism from several quarters. Perhaps you have
fonnulated some criticisms yourself. If so, note them down and compare them with the
views expressed in Section 5 where this issue is dealth with in detail.

123 t
 Taxonomies of Educational Objectives
Several taxonomies of educational objectives in have been offered by a number
of writers and teams of experts. The ones presented by Bloom, Krathwohl and Harrow for
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains respectively are very popular and have
been extensively used by curriculum planners, teachers and learners. The taxonomies
represent classifications of objectives in hierarchical order in each domain and thus
provide guidance in curriculum development, in test construction and evaluation and in
teaching and learning.

The taxonomies serve several purposes. They help in specifying aims and goals
in clearer tenns, with the result that they no longer remain vague and hazy. Taxonomies
also serve as tools in test construction and evaluation, and enlighten teachers and
curriculum planners on several possible categories of objectives for different courses,
lessons or tests. Moreover, they can also be helpful in the analysis of tests and
examinations and can aid teachers and learners to focus their attention on the relative
emphasis they have placed on different categories or levels of objectives.

Let us now look more closely at the work done on the three domains - (a)
cognitive, (b) affective, and (c) psychomotor.

(I) The Cognitive Domain

Bloom and associates developed this taxonomy which includes six levels or
categories of objectives ranging from simple to complex cognitive processes. The levels
and their developmental sequence are arbitrary, based on the assumptions of the authors.
The same levels may be defined and interpreted differently by other writers. However,
Bloom's categories are as follows:

(i) Knowledge:
This is the lowest category of objectives in cogmtlve domain dealing with
remembering facts and infonnation. It treats knowledge as product and includes facts,
concepts, principles, generalizations, trends, classifications, theories and structures
(Michaelis et, al., 1975, p. 78). This level does not pre-suppose any understanding and is
corifined simply to the memorization of the elements of knowledge. Corresponding pupil
behaviours include recalling, stating, identifying, listing, describing. An example of an
objective at this level would be: to describe the battle ofBadr.

(ii) Compreltensio11:
This is more complex than the first category. rt involves inte rpretatio n and
explanation of 1,vhat was memorized and stored in the mind; and prediction based on
material [earned earlier. Corresponding pupiI behaviours include paraphrasing,
summanzmg, i!lustrating, interpreting, explaining, interpolating, extrapolating,
prediciting etc.
Examples: To illustrate the concept of Jehad with reference to Muslim conquests
in the early days of Islam. To interpret a population graph.

124
(iii) Application:
· This is the ability to solve new problems using previously learned material,
concepts, laws, principles and theories in new settings. Corresponding pupil behaviours
include solving, modifying, applying, computing, demonstrating, constructing,
performing.

Examples: To apply two concepts of civil liberties by stating how they are
involved in a recent action taken by the court to protect the rights of minority groups.

(iv) Analysis:
This refers to breaking up the whole into its different components, detennining
their relationships, distinguishing relevant from irrelevant features and recognizing the
underlying theory involved. It is a process of reasoning in its highest form.
Corresponding pupU behaviours include distinguishing, discrimination, analyzing,
categorizing.

Examples: To analyze the components of the cognitive domain.

(v) Synthesis:
This refers to the ability to join together different discr ete parts to form a new
and complete whole. Th is is a process of reorganization and rearrangement, culminating
ultimately in something new and fresh. It involves some sort of creative activity,
Corresponding pupil behaviours are designing, creating, composing, fonnulating,
concluding, generalizing. etc.
Example: To draw a generalization from the data collected in an experiment.

(vi) Eva/uatio11:
T his is the ability to make judgements based on a given set of criteria.
Judgements involve a high level of thinking. This is the highest level of cognitive
domain, Corresponding pupil behavio urs include criticizing, justifying, concluding,
evaluating, defending, comparing, contrasting, assessing, etc.

Example: To eva luate the secondary school curriculum in the light of the
national Education Policy.

(II) The Affective Domain

Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia elaborated on this domain which includes five
categories of objectives dealing with values, attitudes, feelings, appreciations and other
affective dimensio ns of learning. The categories are arranged in hie rarchical order
according to the degree of internalization (M ichaelis et, al., 1975 p. 79).

(i) Receiving: This is the lo west level. It refers to awareness or attention on the part
of a lea rner toward the material being presented. It implies that the communicatio n will

125
be attended to. Corresponding pupil behavior includes listening, attending, describing,
identifying.
Example: To demonstrate an interest in music by listening to it.

(ii) Responding:
The category goes beyond awareness and results in some sort of response on
the part of a student, accompanied by a feeling of satisfaction. The student not only
attends but also reacts. Corresponding pupil behaviours include answering, reading,
greeting, perfonning, complying, following.
Example: To enter the playground to play football.

(iii) Valuing:
This suggests conunitment and the worth a student place on a particular object,
material or behavior. Values of students are difficult, but not impossible, to ascertain:
clues to one's values may be obtained from one's behavior. Corresponding pupil
behaviours are inviting, justifying, supporting, advocating, preaching.

Example: To demonstrate a conviction by writing a letter to the editor of a

newspaper on the need to educate the adult population.

(iv) Organization:
This involves conceptualization of values, clarification of relationships among
them and organization of a value system. It involves the ability to bring together
different values and an attempt to produce a coherent value system. Corresponding
pupil behaviours include altering, combining, generalizing, fonnulating, organizing.

Example: To make a judgment on women's freedom in Islam.

(v) Characterization of a value complex:

This is the highest level which is combined with developing a life style that
covers a broad range of activities consistently related with one another. This level may
be achieved only in adulthood and is indicative of one's philosophy of life. Beliefs,
attitudes and ideas are fused into one integrated whole. Corresponding pupil behaviours
include performing, believing, qualifying, questioning, influencing.
Example : To support peace activities in the world.

(Ill) The Psyclzomotor Domai11

Anita Harrow developed this taxonomy dealing with psychomotor activities in 1972. It
includes six levels ranging from the simplest to the most complex motor activities. T hey
are as follows.

(i) Reflex Movements:

There are involuntar y motor responses to stimuli. They are functional at birth and
develop through out life and include , for example, stretching, s tiffe ning, relaxing, etc.

126
(ii) Fundamental Movements:
These refer to inherent body movement patterns, such as walking, running,
jwnping, pushing, pulling, and manipulating objects.

(iii) Perceptual Abilities:

They involve kinesthetic discrimination, visual discrimination, adultery
discrimination and coordination of eye and hand, eye and foot. They help learners to
interpret stimuli in order that they can adjust themselves to their environment.
Corresponding pupil behaviours include bending, bouncing, eating, writing, etc.

Example: To demonstrate the abilities to copy letters of the alphabet.

(iv) Physical Abilities:

They are concerned with the vigour of the person and are, therefore, related to
strength, endurance, flexibility, agility and dexterity, Corresponding pupil behaviours
include enduring strenuous activity, moving quickly and precisely, touching toes,
stopping and starting inunediately.
Example: To demonstrate the ability to carry 120 kilograms.

(v) Skilled Movement:

These refer to efficiently performed complex movements as in games, sports,
dance and the arts. Corresponding pupil behaviours include typing, skating, filling,
.juggling , playing musical instrument.
Example: To demonstrate the ability to juggle with four balls at a time.

(vi) Non Discursive Communication:

This refers to behaviours that are involved in movement communication,
ranging from facial expressions to highly sophisticated communications. Responses in
non discursive communication come more from intuition than from reason. Objectives
at this level are related to posture, gestures, facial expression and interpretive movement
through creative expression.
Example: To move expressively so as to communicate emotions.
Although the three principal domains of educational objectives have been
treated separately, they are fundamentally inter-related to each other. "When a student
reviews a poem he not only uses cognitive analytical skills but also gives his valuing
and organization of values by the selection of certain skills and the insistence upon a set
of criteria in evaluating and ranking the poem and poet". Besides, the differences
between various levels in the domains and the examples of corresponding pupil
behaviours are not inclusive. An overlapping repetition of terms between and across the
domains is possible and real (Leonard and Utz, 1974, p. 83).

In spite of several limit ations, the taxonomic approach is useful in many ways.
As indicated before, it is helpful in planning the curriculu m and in teaching and
eva lu atio n. The vario us domains make us attentive to the different levels or
categories of

127
objectives, some of which might otherwise be ignored in the educative process. These
taxonomies have provided a great impetus to thinking in the field of learning and
education. However, they should be handled intelligently, with due regard to the nature
of the subject, its methodological treatment and other genuine concerns.
(c Activity
-------------------------------.
Go through the curriculwn of different subjects at, Secondary/Intennediate
,) levels and identify the objectives to be achieved under the following domains:
Cognitive domain
Affective domain
Psvchomotor domain

Self-assessment Questions
(I) Re-arrange the following categories of objectives in their proper order from
simple to complex.
a. (i) analysis (ii) application (iii) knowledge (iv) synthesis (v) evaluation (vi)
receiving
b. (i) valuing (ii) organizing (iii) receiving (iv) characterizing (v) responding

(II) For each of the items on the left hand side, choose the objective category on the
right that goes with it, as already mentioned under the three principal domains of
objectives classification. Put the letteron the line.
I. Deals with explanation and a. Skilled move1l\en t .
interpretation b. Knowledge
2. Deals with critical judgment
3·. Deals with the preference of c. Evaluation •
choice
4. Deals with a generalized not a coherent d. Non-discursive
values communication
5. Deals with expert skills
6. Deals with expressive movement
7. Deals with willing response e. Characterization
8. Deals with recalling of facts, principles and f. Comprehension
theories. g. Valuing
h. Responding

(III) Encircle the most appropriate item in the following statements:

1. Workable statements of behavioural objectives have been offered by:
a. Tyler
b. Bloom
c. Harrow
d. Krathwohl
d. All of the above

2. The first modern attempt at the scientific treatment of behavioural

objectives is associated with:
a. Tyler
b. Taba
 128
C.
G
d.
a
e.
g
n
3.
e
a.
M
b.
a
C.
g
d.
e
e.
r
B
4.
a. l
b. o
C. o
d. m
e.
The taxonomy of the cognitive domain was first attempted by:
Taba
5.
a. Bloo
m
b.
Harr
C.
ow
d.
Krath
e.
wohl
None of the above
.t 6•
The true Origin of behavioural statements lies in:
a.
The works of Bobbit and Charaters
b.
The scientific concept of
c.
operationalism The verses of the Holy
d. Quran
e.
The works of Johann
Herbart The works of
7. Herbert Spencer
a. The Quranic behavioural statements are characterized by:
b. Clarity
C. Behavior
d.
specification
e.
Action verbs
f.
Overt as well as covert behaviour
All of the above
(IV
)
The Quranic behavioural statements, as found in different "Suras", are
act
uall
y:
Sho
r icational
t All of
above
L
o From the viewpoint of curriculum building, systematic conceptualizations of
n objectives started with:
g Bob
E bit
x Chart
p ers
l Tyler
a Both a. and
n b.
a Both a. and
t b.
o None of the
r above
y
St , j' the following items very carefully. First, identify the realted domain and
C L .n determine its level. Place A for Affective, C for Cognitive and P for
l p. :homotor domain in the space provided in front of each item. Indicate the
a
r 1
i 2
f 9
 exact level (category of objective) in symbols using the first two letters for
various levels in the congnitive (a'as'for "analysis" and 'ap' for "appl ication")
and the first three letters in both the affective and the psychomotor domains,
e.g. 'race' for "receiving" and 'per' for "perceptual" abilities.

Domain Level Items

1. The pupil writes a Jetter.
2. The pupil writes a creative letter.
3. The pupil likes creative letters.
4. The pupil writes a letter to the editor urging him to fight
the problem of provincialism.
5. The pupil states the causes of the emergence of the
Third World.
6. The pupil distinguishes between matter and energy.
7. The boy shot down a flying pheasant.
8. The girl smiles at the dramatic performance of her
classmate.
9. The teachers condemns malpractices in the examination
hall.
10. The pupil develops his personal philosophy of social
welfare.
II The pupil interprets the meaning of social justice in Islam.
12. The pupil criticizes the method of teaching.
13. The pupils run a 200 meter race.
14. The pupil listens to the viewpoint of others.
15. The pupil uses his knowledge of economics in the
market.
16. The pupil develops a new design of the building after the
study of several designs.

1. a) In what sense is the Quran the first educational document on the

behavioural approach to objectives? Clarify and explain in paragraph.
b) List two distinctive qualities of Quranic behavioural statements and
describe each very briefly.
2. a) Write a Quranic statement of goals along with its corresponding
behavioural objectives.
b) Analyze Quranic behavioural objectives of any statements of goals with
reference to the modem approach; and indicate their peculiar
characteristics as actually found in the statements under study.
3. Indicate the contributions of Bobbit and Charters to the systematic
conceptualization of behavioural objectives. Mention only two points, one for
each.
4. Briefly describe Tyler's thinking concerning behavioural objectives.
5. a) Develop a rationale for the taxonomical treatment of objectives.

130
 b) List all the levels of the cognitive domain, explaining the first and the
last level with the help of one example for each level (in terms of
corresponding pupil behavior only).
6. a) Inter.relate the various levels of the cognitive domain in running
paragraph. --- -
b) Show the difference between the lowest and the highest level of the
affective domain.
7. List the various levels of the psychomotor domain. To which of these levels are
reading and writing related and how? Briefly explain.

Answers:
I a) iii, vi, ii, i, iv, v
b) iii, v, i, ii, iv
II 1. f 2. c 3. g 4. e 5. a 6. d 7. h 8. b
III 1. e 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. e 6. e 7. d
IV. 1.p (per) 2.c (sy) 3.a (vak) 4.a (val) 5.c (kn) 6.c (an) 7.p (ski) 8.p (non) 9.a
(v) 10.a (char) 1l.c (co) 12.c (ev) 13.p (fuh) 14.a (rec) 15.c (ap) 16.c (sy)

131
 2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBJECTIVES

The Main Approaches to Stating Educational Objectives

Objectives can be defined and stated from the standpoint of teacher behavior
content and pupil behavior (Tyler, 1949, pp.44-47) and Bloom, pp.22-24).

(i) The Teacher-centred Approach:

This approach emphasizes teacher behaviours in the statement of objectives, as is
illustrated in the following examples:
To discuss the emergence and achievements of the Third World.
To illustrate the Quranic principles of the rise and fall of nations.
To expound the social theory of Shah Waliullah.
To discuss new teaching approaches.

The above statements indicate what the teacher intends to do, but they do not
reveal what behavioural changes are to be developed among students. Thus such
statements may be helpful to teachers in planning classroom tactics. But it is the change
in learners" (not teachers') behavior that justifies teachers' activity. In this way, this
approach ignores the learner's position. Hence this approach is indirect and subsidiary.

(ii) Content-centred Approach

The second approach to stating educational objectives is content-oriented. The
content or subject-matter to be covered in a course is detailed, as in the _following
examples:
Iqbal's theory of ego
The life and activities of Imam Shami!
Sura Al-hujrat
The contribution of Muslim culture in Spain

The content is reactively clear, but what is not clear is what is to be done with
this content and what behavioural changes in students are desired in relation to the
content. The content which can be maninpulated in several ways is a means to develop
certain intellectual and social skills or processes in the learners. It must be subordinated
to this central purpose. Hence this approach, too is incomplete and inadequate.

(iii) The Behaviour-centred Approach

Some writers over-emphasize the desired pupil behavior to the exclusion of
content. Incomplete formulations such as "to develop creative thinking", " to improve
problem solving skills", and "to develop a spirit of inquiry" are presented as educatio nal
objectives. These statements are too vague and general to provide direction in the actual
classroom situation. They must be properly defined and accompanied by the related
content. Without the specification of content. the selection of suitable materials and
teaching strategies become impossible. This approach is, therefore, also incomple te and
unrealistic.

132
(iv). The Behaviour and Co11tent Approach
After considering the above three possible ways of stating objectives, Tyler
(1949, pp. 47) came up with another model: pupils' behaviour plus content. He advises
us to specify both the kind of behaviour tobe developed in the learner and the content or
area of life in which this behaviour is to operate. Thus, if critical thinking is the desired
pupil behaviour, this must also be accompanied by the related content, for example,
science, history or language.
Writing Behavioural Objectives
Writing behavioural objectivesis a highly technical and complex task. It involves
several aspects such as deciding on the elements of objectives, seeing, taxonomic
relevance, choosing proper language and sequencing. Each of these requires
understanding and experience. Tyler, Mager, Michaelis, MaAshan, Gronlund , Leonard,
Utz and several other writers have developed typical fonns. It is neither possible nor
desirable to survey all these different fonnats. However, a few significant viewpoints are
mentioned for your consideration and use.
Authors differ over the necessary elements of a behavio ural objective. Tyler
proposes two, Mager three, Leonard and Utz four, Kibler and associates five and
Michaelis, Grossman and Scott as many as six elements for really complete behavioural
objectives.
Tyler (1949.p . 46 ) insists that both the intended pupils' behaviour and the related
content or area of life must be included. Mere indica tion of behaviour is not enough; the
content related to that particular behaviour must also be specified.
Example: To illustrate the law of supply and demand.
To develop critical thinking in mathematics.

'Illustrating' and 'developing critical thinking' indica te behaviours, while 'the law of
supply and demand' and 'mathematics' point to the related content. This is the general
pattern that is adopted in most curricular materials.
However, Robert Mager (l 962, p_ 12) mentions three elements of a specific
objective. His ap proach is a lso very popular and has greatly influenced the thinking and
practice of writers and educational practi tioners. The three elements are as follows.
a) The desired tenn inal behaviour that we want the student to perform should be
clea rly specified.
b) T he objective should state the important conditions (materials, procedures,
activities. etc.) under which the students are to perfonn the desire d be havio ur.
c) The criteria o f acceptable performance should he specified.
Howev er, Mager is of the view that all thr ee elements need not necessa rily be
present in each o bjective statement. The central purpose of writing behavio ural obj ective,
he cla rifies, is to conununica te clearly the i nten t of a lesso n cou rse or unit. That' s all of
course, Mage, r lays spec ial stress o n the "doi ng" as pect of behavio ural o bjectives.
"An
objective is useful to the extent tha t it specifies what the learner must be able to do or
per fonn when he is demonstrating the mastery of the objective" (Mager, 1962, P. I 3 ).

133
 Example: The student will list (behaviour) at least three causes of the revival of
Islam (criteria) as given in the class text book (conditions).

It is interesting to note that Leonard and Utz recommend four elements; Kibler,
Barker and Miles, five; elements and Michaelis, Grossman and Scott as many as six
elements for complete performance objectives. These six elements are concerned with
time, person behaviour, object, perfonnance level and conditions. The format is
reproduced below:

a) Time: Indicate the time by which a student should meet the objective, e.g. 'after
completing this lesson' 'at the end of the unit' 'by the end of the year'
b) Who: Note whether alt or only certain students should attain the objective, e.g.,
'students who have complete' '80% of the students' 'all students should.
c) Behaviour: Note the behaviour to be observed, e.g. state,describe, list,
name Arrange
d) Object. Note the criteria of perfonnance that are desired, e.g., 'at least three'. 'l 00%
accuracy
e) Conditions: Indicate related activities or materials that the essential, e.g., ' given a
ruler and pencil; 'using a dictionary; when given three choices' (Michaelis et.al
1975, pp 85-86).
Example: By the end of the term, alI the stucients of the course of Islamic Culture'
will be able to complete a I00 item multiple-choice examination on the topic of Muslim
contributions to science within one hour duration, with 70 correct answers as a lower
limit of acceptable performance.

In this example, the desired behaviour is the completio n of the examination. The
conditions are the 100-item multiple-choice test and the one hour time limit. Muslim
contributions to science represent the object and the criterion is 70 correct answers.
Other elements of this format are obvious.

The above format is exhaustive, covering almost all the possible aspects of an
ideal objective. It must, however, be mentioned that most curricular materials do not
generally contain all these elements. They are mainly confined to the specification of
'behaviour' and'the related 'object' or the content. The most important point in behaviour
specification is effectiveness of conununication. And it is neither necessary nor desirable
to follow completely any one fonnat. These different approaches are simply meant for
general guidance. Therefore Pakistani teachers and planners should feel free in adapting
these approaches to their typical conditions and working environments.

Relevant educational taxonomies may be used for guidance. These will help
considerably in selecting the desired learning level and matching it to the appropriate
word that describes the behaviour. If the teacher wishes a student develo p his or her

134
cognitive powers, he can have a look at various levels of the cognitive domain, select
the suitable level and proceed methodically in objectives formulation. Thus he can get to
know the various aspects of 'cognition', its progressive development and the related
action-verbs pertaining to each level or aspect. This is how taxonomy may be used as a
tool for writing objectives.

The language of objectives should be very simple and clear. Although it looks
plausible that behavioural statements should be stated in a single sentence, it is not
necessary that they should always be in this form. More than one sentence may be used
to write .a behavioural objective (Leonard and Utz, 1962, p.90). Clear, operational and
action verbs should be used and ambiguous verbs avoided, as should, be clear from the
following examples:-
Action Verbs Ambiguous Verb
to define to know
to classify to understand
to analyze to appreciate
to compare. to enlighten
to compute to learn
to list to respect

In addition, behavioral objectives should be properly sequenced in progressive

order to facilitate the achievement of the intended educational goal. Thus, they should
move from simple to complex categories. Sequencing objectives helps teachers to focus
their attention on several dimensions of knowledge, values and skills. They no longer
remain confined to a few limited learning, as is often the case in traditional instruction.
Many new avenues are thrown open to them by way of this analytical approach.

In conclusion, besides the above considerations, several others should also be

kept in view while writing behavioral objectives, e.g., the nature of the subject, the trade
level, teachers' competencies, future learning and the distinction between closed and
open objectives. (An open objective is meant to develop creative behavior, while a
closed objective is designed for repetitive perfonnance).

Self-assessment Questions (Pick out action verbs from the following:)

1. know 9. compare
2. comprehend 10. contrast
3. understand I I. distinguish
4. list 12. write critically

135
 5. state 13. write
6. appreciate 14. speak
7. appreciate 15. describe
8. differentiate 16. Apply

II. (a) For each item on the left, choose the appropriate items on the right and put the
letter in the blank space provided in front of each statement. All items on the left should
be read as: A complete behavioural statement should contain, for example:
(b) Indicate in the blank space, different elements of behavioural objectives
associated with the names of the authors given at the left side. Simply put the letters that
represent elements.
a. time e. product or result
b. person f. conditions
C. behavior g. performance criteria.
d. content or
object

1. Tyler
2. Mager
3. Michaelis and associates

III. Distinguish between correctly and incorrectly stated behavioural objectives in

Accordance with Tyler's fonn. Write "c" for correctly stated and "i" for incorrectly
stated objective.

l. To enable the students to write

2. To develop in students habits of thinking in history.
3. To be able to analyze the factors of production.
4. To beable to write a paragraph in Arabic.
5 To develop effective speech habits among students
6. To be able to appreciate, this poem with great pleasure.
7. To be able to identify letters or alphabet.
8. To prepare a summary of the proceedings of the students' council
9. To be able to distinguish between an assumption and an hypothesis
IO. To write·a creative letter in Urdu in the style of Ghalib without making any ten se
mistakes.

136
1. List the various aspects involved in writing behavioural objectives.
Briefly describe any two of them.
2. Why arc non-action verbs discouraged m writing behavioural
statements? Give one important reason.
3. How are disciplines! a source for deriving curriculum goals and
objectives? Explain with the help of two examples.
4. Write two examples of behavioural objectives for each of the following
authors in their typical format.
a. Tyler b. Mager C. Michelis and associates

Answers

I. 4 5 8 9 10 1l 15 16
II. (a) I d 4. C (b) 1. C andd
2 C 5 b 2 c, f and g
3. a 3. A, b, c, d, f and
g
III 1 I 5. I 9 C

2 C 6. I 10 C

3 C 7. C
4. C 8. C

I
137 -t
 4. A CRITIQUE OF MODELS OF OBJECTIVES

This section attempts to present a critique of behavioural objectives as voiced by

the opponents of this model. The alternative models, "process" and "humanistic" will be
briefly explored and their weaknesses indicated. This will be followed by an outline of a
proposed model suited to Pakistani youth.

Criticism of the Behavioural Objectives Model

The behavioural approach to objectives which has been so much popular,
especially during the mid 1960, has been subjected to criticism from. Several quarters.
Humanists and process-oriented scholars among others are strongly opposed to the
objectives model. The protagonists as well as the opponents both are busy clarify ing their
viewpoints. However, it appears that James Popham's car sticker slogan 'Help stamp out
non-behavioural objectives' has undergone some positive changes. The modified
approach reads 'Help stamp out some non-behavioural objectives'. Let us now review
some of the major points of criticism of the objectives model.

The most important allegation is that it is nakedly dehumanizing as it treats

human behaviour mechanically and fails to take care of the affective side of human life
beliefs, feelings, hopes, attitudes and concerns. Truly human problems like the
development of the self-concept, self-actualization, the development of responsibility and
other such humanistic goals are simply ignored (combs, 1975, p. 124). The human
organism, it is claimed, is not a finished product; hence it is not reducible to a set of
prescribed behaviours. Rather it offers rich possibilities of 'becoming', which should be
the real goal of education. 'What can man become is the most significant question in
curriculum studies (Zais, 1976, p.3 14). The critics repeatedly point out that the subjective
or inner side of human life is more crucial and important than the objective or outer one.
That is why Eisner strongly supports "expressive objectives" which are evocative rather
than prescriptive (Stenhouse, 1975, P· 78).

Another fundamental objection 1s that the mistaken about the nature of

knowledge. It simply capitalizes on the I makes knowledge fragmentary while
knowledge, in fact, is synthetic concerned with integration (Stenhouse, PP. 79- 83). The
behavior deal properly with higher-order tasks such as holistic thinking, intern sand
appreciation of art and literature. It is suitable, it is argued, for .lowest levels of learn ing
and thus trivializes learning and the curriculum. Besides, the approach ignores the 'tacit'
dimension of knowledge, a kind of knowledge which is simply indescribable but real,
lasting and useful (Zais, 1975, PP 313-314 and Davies, 1977, pp 63-64). The relatio nship
between knowledge and behaviour is indirect and complex. Knowledge may find
expression in a variety of behaviours (Simons, 1974,r 379).

Stenhouse points out that the objectives model not only mistakes the nature of
knowledge but also the nature of process of improving educational practice as well.
Since the whole attention is focused on progress rather than diagnosis , and all e fforts are

138
directed towards the clarification of ends and purposes, there 1s little guidance for
teachers to better their teaching practices.

This behavioural approach does not differentiate between training and education
and is mainly confined to the fonner, is another objection voiced by critics. Training
involves specific behaviour, while education involves patterns of generalized behaviour
of a high order. This, it is asserted, renders the behavioural approach irrelevant to the
process of 'education'. Education deals with the total personality of the child and its
aims and goals are different from those of training and instruction. Some behaviourists
attempt to resolve this problem through developing comprehensive lists of specific
behaviour. But since "behavioral pursuits" lay heavy stress on maximum specificity, this
turns curriculum development into an area clustered with millions of specifics which is
obviously unsound and umnanageable. (Zais, 1975, pp. 314-315).

Further, Jackson argues that pre-specification of explicit objectives can adversely

affect the teaching process because the teacher, in that case, may ignore several
instructional opportunities unexpectedly occurring in the classroom. Thus prior
conditioning may blind him to the use of novel, fruitful situations. The realities of the
classroom must be squarely faced. Mere logic will not do, warns Stenhouse (1975,Pr- 73-
74). Furthennore, the pre-specification of ends amounts to clear indoctrination i.e.
knowingly fashioning and moulding the young is a specific direction. That is why
Kliebard equates behavioural teaching with brainwashing and indoctrination. (Stenhouse,
1975, pp· 74, 75, 81).

In addition, it has been suggested that certain areas of knowledge such as fine
arts and the humanities do not easily lend themselves to the behaviouristic approach;
and that it is extremely difficult to identify measurable puple behaviours in' these subject
Robert S. Zais, (1977,PP· 3 15-3 16) = I the dogmatic application of the
principle of operationalism underlying model. He feels that the principle must be
applied liberally and openmindedly and that objectives should not be considered. as
completely independent units or dead ends towards which the action is directed. And
knowledge gained through objectives must not be considered final and completely
dependable. Hence placing full faith in the infallibility of the behavioural model is
unwarranted and unjustifiable.

Yet more practical problems plague the behavioural approach. It is said that
developing behavioural statements is too time-consuming a business for teachers. And
all fonns of behaviour do not easily submit to the precise quantification or accurate
assessment that lies at the heart of this approach. Furthenn ore, teachers feel threatened
because of accountability.

Last but not the least, the objectives approach has been called a "a political
move for the purpose of accountabil ity: hence it is a part of a political dialogue rather
than an educational one concludes Stenhouse (1975,r- 77). Thus it is arg ued that the
issue is a complex one, invol ving several socio-political factors.

139
 I hope that as you have been reading this section, you have fonned opinion of
your own on the validity of these criticism of the behavioural objectives approach. My
view is that the accusations are partly true and partly misplaced. It is true that overt
behaviour is overemphasized at the cost of significant subjective behaviour but it does
not follow that overt ·behaviour should not be studied and developed with clarity,
precision -and accuracy. As regards knowledge, it is, of course, integrative in character
but no individual can digest it in its ideal form. It has to be analyses and presented to
learners in bits as the occasion demands. Thus the fundamental objection of knowledge
fragmentation is misconceived or misunderstood. Analysis should not be equated with
triviality. As for prespecification of clear ends, it is something positive and constructive
that guides and facilitates learning. Clear goals must be preferred to vague undefined
distinctions. However, there should be enough scope for accommodating incidental
learning. Rigidity is surely bad.

Possibly you are still uncertain about where you stand in this controversy. If so,
I hope that the additional infonnation on the process and humanistic models which
follows will help you to clarify your opinions.

The Process Model

Lawrence Stenhouse is one of the chief advocates of the process approach. As
has already been noted, this model is opposed to the objectives model. It emphasized
process rather than product (Stenhouse, 1975, p. 92). It is, therefore, concerned with··
means rather than ends. And since process connotes an on-going activity, the model has
strong leanings towards freedom and spontaneity in teaching and learning o new
uncharted paths of knowledge. The process model is fundamentally open-ended and ·
inquiry-oriented. Actually, it is wedded to the thinking of Bruner; ho lay heavy stress on
"fluid enquiry" and on the "structural components of disciplines".

The advocates of the process approach argue that prior detailed· specifications
of intended human behaviour are neither necessary nor useful. Rather these impose
unnecessary constraints on the learning process, making it dull and mechanical.
Knowledge, they believe, should be 'discovered' and aims and objectives must emerge
from within the content during learning encounters. So aims and objectives should
grow from within as John Dewey (1951, p. 103) had long ago suggested and should not
be imposed from outside.

The concepts of 'structure' and of 'worthwhile activities' underline the process

model. It is believed that it is possible to select curricular content and judge its worth
whileness without reference to objectives. For example, schol ars like Peters and James D.
Raths(l974,p . 375) have proposed criteria of worthwhile activities. It is further
maintained that each discipline or form of knowledge has its own structure which
possesses intrinsic value/ and that each area of study reveals or suggests its own
principles of procedure, concepts and 3'itably be used in content selection, in teaching
and evaluation.

140
 The very form of knowledge suggests. how the content should be treated and
handled. arts possess intrinsic content and suggest their own method of inquiry. Thus
speculation, inquiry, intuition, depth of understanding and open-mindedness are greatly
emphasized in this model. It is a quality-oriented, critical model which is not directed
towards the accurate assessment of anticipated end-products.

What would this process model look like i practice? The Humanities Curriculum
Project in England and the Social Science Curriculum Course - Man: A Course of Study'
- in the U.S.A. may be eited as examples of its implementation. No specific objectives
were formulated in advance. The most valued changes in behaviour were not anticipated
in detail. Rather ambiguities were favoured and-the subjects were taught by the discovery
approach (Stenhouse, 1975, PP· 91-93).

However, these projects entailed a number of difficulties because this model is

not without weaknesses: Stenhouse himself recognizes that it is highly exacting and only
scholarly teachers can handle it properly. And it is more suited to the needs of gifted than
average students. It is a teacher development model with a sharp emphasis on knowledge
and depth of understanding. Thus the learner tends to be relegated to the background.

The process' model, as we know, is based on the idea of the structure of

disciplines. And it is interesting to note that the chief exponents of disciplinary content
have already begun to realise their mistakes. Bruner has revisited his Process
ojEducation and is no longer so enthusiastic about pure academic content. Phenix and
Schwab have also revised their' stance in favour of a multidisciplinary approach .to
curriculum building (Tanner and Tanner, 1975, PP· 413-414, 416). Thus the very
foundation of the process model has been undermined. Now Bruner talks of more
students problems than of structural components. The prophecy of goodlad has come
true.
Besides, does the process model satisfy humanistic concerns? It is purely a
logical model and consequently fails to take care of the affective side of life. Its main
emphasis is on inquiry, knowledge and depth of understanding and these have nothing to
do with sensitivities and hwnaneness.

The Humanistic Model

As for the humanistic model, it is focussed on liberating and actualizing human
potentials. It is characterized by becoming, happiness and search for meaning. (Zais,
1976, p. 3 17). This approach has taken several fonns. The liberal arts curriculum is
perhaps the oldest design. A.S. Meill's Summer-hill School represents one category.
Paulo Freire (1971)
Suggests another and silbennan (1975) sounds somewhat different note. Iven
IIich (1971) goes to the extreme of deschooling society. Anyway, the common thread that
unites these various forms is humaneness.

Synthesis
.The old and new models vary greatly in emphasis, with the fonner stressing the

141
intellect and the latter being mainly feeling-oriented. In fact, no single approach is
adequate .in itself.-The principal models discussed above display weaknesses as wi as
strengths. Each. with its own limited conceptual framework, lacks comprehe nsiveness
and balance. Consequently, each has failed to hilly realize the actual difficulties faced b y
teachers and students.

Detailed pre-specifications of learners behaviour and limiting the entire t eaching

to foreseen ends with no scope for flexibility and humanistic values is a short-sig hted
view of education. On the other hand, aimless activity fed simply on discipline co ntent
with no clear direction stands equally challenged. Reality lies somewhere in bet ween
these approaches. Some sort of workable synthesis is the needs of modern times and there
are indications of such a synthetic approach.

Behaviourism and humanism are getting closer to each other, and a new
synthesis is on the verge of appearing (Ricks, Wandersman and Poppen, 1976, p p. 383,
391). We are now a days constantly reminded of the significance of comprehens ive
approaches, such as the 'life history framework', the 'ecological approach' and
'transcendence'. Following slavishly in the footsteps of any one approach without critical
examination of its worth and suitability is simply suicidal. We must adopt a bold realistic
attitude towards curriculum models. (Robert S. Zais, 1976, p. 316). There is nothing
sacred about them. Zais displays this spirit beautifully when he says "As curr iculum
dogma, both behavioural and non-behavioural objectives deserve rejection" (1 976, p.
316).

The world is moving towards unity, snythesis and integration at all levels,
personal, national and international. Even the physical phenomena are no exception to
this. The recent discovery by the Nobel Prize Winner Dr. Abdus Salam isre, we should
develop a conceptual framework that unifies the various. ls them into an integrated
whole. It must be comprehensive and unify transcendence (Phenic, 1974, PP· 118- 132)
appears to be the future hope of the curriculum education and humanity. The best version
of transcendence islam which is highly comprehensive, balanced and integ rated in
character, encompassing all aspects of human of human life with full scope for future
developments. Actually, Islam is predominantly future-oriented but with full realization
of the present an the past. It starts with the 'real' and moves towards the 'ideal'. It
embraces matter and spirit, the outer and the inner, intellect and ·emotion, knowled ge and
institution, change and perfonnance, the self and then on-self, the present and the future
in its bread sweep with full scope for emerging problems" and crises (Qutub, 196 3, PP· 97 -
98). The Holy Quran is the best manifesto for the general guidance of huma nity,
education and the curriculum.

A Proposed Pakistani Model

The Pakistani model of curriculum objectives should be developed with reference
to our peculiar situation, keeping in view our ideological commitments, teachers'
capabilities, their daily teaching load, the nature and demands of different subjec ts,
humanistic considerations, aesthetic sensitivities and the socio-cultural context in which

142
the educational drama is being staged and acted. Due consideration should be given to
new trends and approaches in the professional field and some of these may be assimilated
into our model after through critical examination and scrutiny.

Since the Quran emphasizes purpose, clarity and effective communication, we

must have clear-cut aims to start with. The fundamental aims will be stable and
permanent while others will change with the march of time. These aims must embrace the
various aspects of human life including emotion and intellect, the behavioural and non
behavioural, the material and spiritual, the process and the product. We should never
allow our vision to be blurred by transient intellectual idiosyncracies tempered with
emotion. Beliefs, values and ideals constitute the core of Islam, and we should not shy
away from our cultural core. A balanced and creative synthesis should be our goal.

Coming to behavioural objectives, I would like to emphasize that the broad

concept of human behaviour, as contained in the Holy Quran and demonstrated earlief in
this section, should be utilised in objectives fonnulation. We need not avoid
operationalism nor should we follow it blindly and push it beyond reasonable limits. In
the same way, humanistic concerns should not be considered taboo. No banishment but
constant dialogue and accommodation should be the motto of a curriculum developer.
However, we must resist the temptation to follow rigidly any one taxonomic approach in
its entirely. An attempt should be made to try to bridge the gap between 'behaviour' and
the 'behaving individual'. Behaviour should be approached in the Quranic perspective,
with ample scope for feeling and sensitivity. We should not sacrifice or distort reality for
the sake of inspired rigid objectivity.

As for the level of specificity of objectives, no hard and fast rules can be
fonnulated. Effective communication appears to be a useful working criterion. Also the
nature and demands of a subject will further detennine the position. In general, however,
over-detailed specification should be avoided, with highly technical and complex fonnats
being used only at critical points in planning, programming and teaching. We should
utilise the principle of operationalism but with sense of preparation and balance.

The Pakistani model thus conceived would not be a prototype of any existing, be
it behavioura,l humanistic or any other. Rather in would transcend·all these approaches in
a peculiar fashion, combining creatively the healthy points to the Islamic framework as
applied in the Pakistani situation.

In brief, the Pakistani model must emerge from the educational soil of Pakistan
with reference to Islam and our typical educational situation. Thus cultural relevance,
comprehensiveness, balance and dynamism are the four cardinal principle s of this
proposed Pakistani model.

In conclusion, we would like to quote of few verses from the poet of the east
which are relevant at this point:

143
 Activities
1. Meet a farmer, a businessman, a labourer, a politician, a student and a
shopkeeper. List their two most significant aims in order of priority. Then
study their comparative positions and reflect on the implications for Pakistani
education.
2. Develop your own list of aims for Pakistani education and discuss it with
your class fellows. On which aims is there agreement or disagreement?
How would you go about resolving any disagreement?

Self-assessment Questions
1. List any six points of criticism of the objectives model and critically
analyze them.
2. Explain how does the process model differ from the objectives model?
3. Explain in what ways the humanistic model is different from the process model?
4. Critically evaluate the proposed Pakistani model of the curriculum,
suggesting modifications where necessary.
5. Develop an outline of your own model of the curriculum, proceded by a
detailed rationale.
6. Study critically the first chapter of the Report of the Conunission on National
Education 1959 (a) Indicate the phrases or statements that are aims, goals and
objectives from a technical viewpoint (b) Outline the rationale given for any
tow aims or goals(c) Give your· own cormnents on
the proposed aims/goals/objectives of education in respect of their
format and adequacy
7. Study the statements of aims in the New Educationally analyze them from a
technical viewpoint and indicate their strengths and weakness (if any).

Answers to self-assessment questions please see the unit.

144
 Bibliography

Ali, Abdullah Yusaf, The Holy Quran, 1-lanfer Publishing Co., New York, 194 6.
Ah mad , Khurshid, Hindustan mein Mussulmanun Ka Niza,n-e- Taleem Mehvar,
1977, pp. 71-92: Education Number, Universityofthc Punjab, Lahore.
Bloom, Benjamin, Hastings S.T.T. and Madaus, G.F. eds.. Handbook on
Formative and Sunimative Evaluation of Student Learning, McGraw Hill Inc. , New
York, 1971.
hur W., "Humanistic Goals of Education" in Humanistic Education Sourcebook
Donald A. Read and Sidney B. Sidney B. Simon, pp. 41-100, Prentice Hall, Inc., lowood
Cliffs, New York, 1975.
Davies, Ivor K., Objectives in Curriculum Design, McGraw Hill Book Co., U.K., 1976.
Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, Macmillan Co. New York, 1961.
oraha, Mushtaq Ahmad,A Study <?fthe Process o{Curriculum Change in
Seconda,y School Science in West Pakistan during 1967-68, unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab, 1972.
Government of Pakistan, Report of the Commission on National Education,
Government of Pakistan Press, Karachi, 1959.
Green, John, A. Teacher Made Tests, Harper and Row, New Yorlr., 2nd Hd.,
1975.
Leonard, Leo D., and Robert T. Utz, B1 ildi11g Skilisfor Competency-Based Teaching,
Harper and Row, New York, 1974.
Mager, Robert F., Preparing Instructional Objecti1•e.,·, Fearson Publishers, Relmnt,
California, 1962.
Michaelis, John U., Social Studies for Children in a Democracy, Prentice-Hall
ln.c, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1976.
Michaelis, John U., G ros sman R.H. and Scott L.F.,New Designs for
Elementary Curriculum and Instruction, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 1975.
National Bureau of Curriculum and Text- Books, Goals and Aims of Education
(First Draft), Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Islamabad, 1973.
Phenix, Philip H., "Transcendence and the Curriculum in Co!, flic ting
Conceptions of Curriculumed. E.W. Eisner and E. Valiance, McCutchan Pub. Corporation,
Berkley, California, I 974.
Qutub, Syed, Social Justice in Islam, translated by Moharn1rn1d Nijatull
ah Siddiqi, Islamic Publications, Lahore, 1963 (3rd Ed.)
Qureshi, I shtiaq Hussian, Education in Paki.1tc111: A11 lnqui,y into Ohje cti ves
and Achievements, Maarif Ltd., Karachi, 1975.
Teaching Without Spec/le Objectives in Emerging Educarimwl and Pollack, _
1111

145
370-377, Little Brown and Co., Boston, 1974.
Richmond, W. Keineth, The School Curriculum, Methuesand Co., London, 1973.
Ricks, David F., Wandersman A. and Poppen P.J. "Humanism and
Behaviourism: Towards New Syntheses" in Humanism and Behaviourism: Dialogue and
Growth, ed. Wandersman, Poppen and Ricks, PP· 383-402, Pergamon Press, Oxford,,
1976.
Sharif, M.M. Islamic and Educational Studies, Institute of Islamic Culture,
Lahore, 1964.
Simons, Herbert D., "Behavioural Objectives: A False Hope for Education" in
Emerging Educational Issues, <PP- 378-385).
Smith, B.O. Stanley W.O. and Shores J.H., Fundame11tal Curriculum
Development, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., New York, 1957.
Stenhouse, Lawrence, An Introduction to Curriculum Research
and Development, Heinneman Educational Books Ltd. London,
1976.
Taba, Hilda, Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice Harcourt, Brace and
World, Inc., New York, 1962.
Tanner, Dan lot and Tanner L.N., Curriculum Development: Theory into
Practice, Macmillan Pub. Co., New York, 1975.
Tyler, Ralph W, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, The University
of Chicago-Press, Chicago, 1949.
Zais, Robert S., Curriculum: Principles and Foundations, Harper and Row Publishers,

146
Unit-6

CONTENT SELECTION AND

ORGANIZATION
PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES

Written by:
Dr. Mushtaq-ur-Rehman Siddiqui

147
 CONTENTS

Introduction....................................................................................................................149
Objectives ....................................................................................................................1. 51
1. The Selection of Curriculwn Content..............................................................152
l. l The need for selection..........................................................................152
1.2 Principles for selecting curriculum content........................................152
l.3 Criteria for content selection................................................................153
2. Procedures for Content Selection......................................................................155
The judgmental procedure...........................................................................155
The experimental .......................................................................................1. 55
The analytical procedure.............................................................................156
The consensual procedure....................................................................157
Activity................................................................................................1.58
Romine's classification.........................................................................158
3. Principles of Curriculum Organization.............................................................161
3.1 Whatis curriculum organization? .......................................................I61
Criteria for effective curriculum organization: continuity, sequence..........161
And integration
Conclusion...................................................................................................162
4. Self- Assessment Questions ............................................................................I63
5. Bibliography......................................................................................................164

148
 INTRODUCTION
Education is generally viewed as a process through which one generation
transmits its acquired knowledge, experiences, competencies, beliefs, traditions and
attitudes to the next generation. In the early ages the major part of this process was
accomplished in the homes and the parents' personal attention was considered to be an
adequate source of education and training of their children. This process of infonnal
education was then expanded from home to the village community. Later on, when
human knowledge and experience increased, fonnal schools and colleges were
established. And now, when there is a rapid increase in knowledge with many branches
of the. curricula, several academic faculties have been established in the universities in
order to provide the requisites knowledge skills and experiences to the students in a
systematic manner.
This shows, that curricular content is expanding constantly, and, as a result,
content selection is becoming a difficult task. It is, therefore, imperative to make an
appropriate selection of content for different levels and stages on the basis of specific
principles and scientific criteria. The following discussion raises the question pertaining
to the principles and criteria to be adopted for content selection.

What is the Curricular Content?

Smith, Stanley and Shores in their book, Fundamentals of Curriculum
Development discussed the issue of curricular content in detail. According to them, "in
the process of teaching, one must teach something to someone, the someone being the
pupil and the something the content. Content might be described as the knowledge skill, '·
attitudes and values to be learned". It includes what men know and believe, but not ·
everything they have created. For example, an institution such as the family-matter but
what is known and believed about the family, and the ideals we hold for family life, are
subject-matter. Similarly, tools and machines are not subject-matter, but knowledge -
about how they are made, their operation, and their uses, is subject-matter that be

included in the curriculum.

Ralph Tyler has, however, differentiated between the terms "learning experience"
and "content". According to him, the term "learning experience" refers to the interaction
between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react.
Leaming takes place through the active behaviour of the student; it is what he does that
he learns, not what the teacher does. It is possible for two students to be in the same class
but it is just possible that they might be having very different teaming experiences. This
definition of experience as involving the interaction of the student and his environment
implies that the student is an active participant. The problem of selecting learning
experiences involves, therefore, dctennining the experiences likely to fulfill given
educational objectives; and also setting up situations which will evoke the kinds of
learning experiences needed.
Levels of Content and their Functions
Hilda Taba has pointed out the following three levels of curricula content,
alongwith their functions:
{I) Specific facts mu/ processes
One can view school subjects as consisting of knowledge on several different
levels. One level is that of specific facts, descriptive ideas at a low level of abstraction

149
and specific' processes and skills. For instance, a description of the branches of
government, of the characteristics of the digestive system, dates of events, and the
computational processes in arithmetic and algebra belong to this category. This kind of
knowledge is described as static. Its mastery does not produce new ideas although
specific facts do constitute the raw material for the development of ideas. All students
must master precisely the same content details; therefore, a careful choice of the details to
study is as important as ever.
(jj) Basic ideas and principles
Basic ideas and principles represent another level of knowledge. For example,
ideas about casual relationships between human culture and the natural environment are
of this sort. Such ideas and principles constitute what currently is referred to as the
'structure' of the subject ideas which describe facts of generality, facts that, once
understood, will explain many specific phenomena.
(ijj) Concepts
The third level of content is composed of what might be called concepts, such as
the concept of democracy or interference, of social change, or that of a "set" in
mathematics. Concepts are complex systems of highly abstract ideas which can be built
contexts. They cannot be isolated into specific units but must be woven into the whole
fabric of the curriculum. Smith, Stanley and Shores also discussed this issue of the nature
of content. According to them, there are two kinds of subject-matter, one descriptive, the
other normative-a distinction which has already been raised in Unit-I A brief account of
the same is, however, given in the following:
(i) Descriptive subjed-matter
Descriptive subject-matter consists of facts and principles. Books and other
instructional materials are heavily loaded with factual content. Courses in history, for
example, consist largely of factual statements about what happened, when and where it
happened, and who was involved in the events. Biology courses contain facts about the
structure of plants and animals, about their classification, and about their functions etc.
Descriptive principles are laws, rules and theories, such as scientific laws and theories. In
general, these principle do not involve values and resemble facts. Just the natural
description of bare principles and facts is called descriptive subject-matter.
(ii) Normative subject-matter
Individuals make moral and aesthetic choices. It consists of the nonns or
standards which represent the value/standards men have built up through generations.
The objectives of education, the social-moral controls of economies, the ideals operating
in and through political-institutions, the legal system, the rules of acceptable family
conduct, the standards for judging the merits of artistic works all these would be
included in such a list of nonnative rules, and it would still be incomplete.

Nonnative content and descriptive content may be fu11her distinguished by

relating them to the kinds of questions that might be asked about an event. What
happened? These questions can be answered only by factual state ments. Why did it
happen ? What would cause it to happen again? These questions require an explanation.
All explanations take the fonn of theories and general ideas, using descriptive principles
rather than facts to provide the answers. Was its occurrence good or bad? Should it have
happened? Should it happen again? Was it beautiful? Answers to these questions require
more aesthetic judgments, and hence involve normative content.

150
 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, youshould be able to:
1. Define the meaning of the term "curriculwn content".
2. Understand the need for content selection and know the different levels of
content and their functions.
3. Understand the principles and criteria for selecting the curriculum content.
4. Know the main procedures for content selection.
5. Understand what is meant by "Curriculum Organization" and be familiar ·ith
criteria for assessing its effectiveness.
6. Examine textbooks and detennine the procedure of content selection used by
the authors.
7. Outline a procedure of content selection in a field of your choice.

151
 1. THE SELECTION OF CURRICULUM
CONTENTPRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA

The Need for Selection

As Romine pointed out, there are many factors which have resulted in an
increased need for the proper selection of curricular material and experiences. For
example. it is impossible for anyone to master all of the accumulation of human culture.
What once were considered important aspects of knowledge for all educated persons are
no longer generally viewed in the same light. Also the concept of education has
broadened and, as the percentage of school-age children in schools increases, there is a
growing need for a careful selection of curricular content, enabling the learners to cope
effectively with the complexities of modem living. Similarly, finding of latest research
studies about the nature of the learner and the education process bear on the selection of
materials and experiences. The stud y of youth provides many clues which are useful, and
an underst anding of the learner is indispe nsable. As changes take place in our concept of
learning, they operate to produce changes in curricular content. Finally, for social
continuity and national integr atio n it is important that the Islamic values and the ideology
of Pakistan arc provided for boys and girls through selected content which prepares them
to be true Pakistan is and competent persons in their respective fields.
Principles for Selecting Curricu)um Content
Within the context ofour socio-cultural framework constitute some of the most
important general princi ples for select content.
(You will notice that some of these is sues have already been raised in Unit-I).
(a) Promoting Islamic Ideology
The content should reflect and promote the Islamic ideology of Pakistan.
{b) Developing Social Understanding
A common body of educative experiences should be selected which develop
social understanding in judging different problems.
(c) Promoting Maximum Personal Development
The learning situations must be related to the unique characteris tics of each
learner. Desirable personality traits and a wide range of special inter est oppor
tunities should be promoted.
(d) Promoting Continuity of Expe rience
This principle ind icates concern for the maturity and learning sequence of each
learner.
(e) Providing for Educatio nal Aim s
The content shou ld reflect the stated aims of the cun"iculum.
(f) Maint ain ing a Balance Among a ll the Goals
This is done through a balanced allocation of time and judic ious requirem ents.
(g) Involving the Pupil in the learning experience s
There should be tlex ibilit y and democratic procedures. Pupil participation and
cooperatio n should be emp hasized.
(h ) Using Effective Learnin g [ -..;periences

152
 The experiences chosen must utilize the most appropriate situations for
promot ing effective learning.
Although the particular learning experiences appropriate for attaining the
objectives will vary with the kind of objectives aimed at, there are certain general
principles which, according. to Ralph Tyler, apply to the selection of learning
experiences, whatever the activities maybe. ·
These general principles ofcontent selection are briefly described as under:
(a) For a given objective to be attained, a student must have experiences that
give him an opportunity to practice the kind of behaviour implied by the
objective. For example, if one of the objectives is to develop skill in
problem-solvin,gthis cannot be attained unless the learning experiences give
the student ample opportunities to solve problems.
(b) The learning experiences must be such that the student obtains satisfaction in
carrying out the kind of behaviour implied by the objectives. For example, in the
case of learning experiences intended to develop skill in solving health
problems, it is important that the experience not only give the student an
opportunity to
solve health problems, but also that effective solution of these problems is
satisfying to him. If the experiences are unsatisfying learning is not likely to
take place.
Cc) The content should be such that reactions desired to be produced are within the
range of possibility for the students. That is to say the experiences should be
appropriate to the student present attainments, his predispositions, and the like.
(d) The proposed content should help in achieving the specified objectives. No part
of the content should prove to be a hinderance in the achievement of an
objective while helping in the achievement of some other. objectives,
Ce ) The content selected should ensure that the same learning experience will usually
bring about several outcomes. For example, while the student is solving field
Problems about health, he is so also acquiring certain infonnation about the
health field. He is also likely to be developing certain attitudes toward the
importance of public health procedures. In addition, he may be developing an
interest in or a dislike for work in the lied of health. Every experience is likely to
result in theachievement of more than one learning objective.
Criteria for Content Selection
It is generally agreed that content selection should be based primarily on the
stated objective changes in objective required changes in the curriculum content it is
therefore, necessary to have valid criteria for content selection, so that the final
evaluation of the curriculum content can be carried out in a proper context. Below, six
standards for content selection are presented in question form:
1. Does the curriculum content reflect the basic principles of Islamic values and
teachings'!
2. Does the content contribute to the growth and development of an Islamic society?

153
 3. Is the content significant to an organized field of knowledge?
4. Does the content stand the test of
survival? 5 . Is the content useful?
6. Is the content interesting to the learner?
Perhaps you can suggest some other criteria. In thinking about this, look
back at the principles •outlined earlier.
In addition to the above, the following four criteria, according to Nichol Is
and Nicholls, are also externally relevant and important:
(j) The Criterion of Validity
It is important that content should be valid, i.e. appropriate for the
achievement of pre-detennined objectives. For example, if an objective is concerned
with the concept of the relationship between man's way of life and his envirorunent,
and the content chosen for the achievement of this objective does not show this
relationship in a form which can be perceived by the pupils, it does not satisfy the
criterion of validity.
Gi) The Criterion of Slgnlftcance
Schools have frequently been showing concern that pupils should learn
large bodies of facts. Yet facts are the least significant or meaningful aspects of
school subjects and are only important insofar as they contribute to basic ideas; facts
would be learned to illustrate these and would be included only insofar as they
contributed to an understanding of these. This would reduce the problem of learning
large amounts of factual information. This is linked with the· question of breadth and
depth in the curriculwn. The breadth of coverage and depth of understanding should
be appropriately balanced while making curricular conten·t selection.
Gii) The Criterion of Interest
To devise a curriculum solely on the basis of pupil interest, as is sometimes the case
in primary schools or with pupils in secondary schools, is likely to be found
restricting. On the other hand, to ignore pupils' interests is to lose a strong
motivational force and to run the risk of little or no learning taking place. However,
it is necessary to apply this criterion with caution.
00 The Criterion ofLearnability
What is included in the curriculum should clearly be learnable ny the pupils;
but criterion of leamability, however, obvious it may be, is not always satisfied. The
main problem is that of the adjustment of material to the abilities of the pupils.
Content must be available in forms which are appropriate to individual pupils'
abilities and existing knowledge. It is also important that what is to be learned makes
a connection with something which the pupils have already learned; and again this
will vary from one pupil to another. This suggests the need for variety in the ways in
which content is made available and in the manner in which pupils are expected to
learn.
Ideally, the content selected should satisfy all the criteria (validity,
significance, interest and leamability); certainly no one criterion should be applied in
isolation nor carried to an extreme, although under some circumstances some criteria
may carry more weight than others.
154
 2. PROCEDURES OF CONTENT SELECTION
This issue has been discussed in detail by Smith, Stanley and Shores.
According to them, the procedures of content selection are (a) judgmental (b)
experimental (c) analytical and (d) consensual.
The Judgmental Proceeds
Selection of subject-matter I the curriculum worker to answer the
following questions:
(i) What social and educational objective should be accepted?
(ii) What is the existing state of affairs in which these objectives are considered
desirable and appropriate, and in which they must be realised?
(iii) What subject matter best satisfies these objectives under the existing conditions?
The most objective, selection of content by this procedure requires that the
interests, knowledge and ideals of the curriculum worker rise above those of special
social vision and freedom from the restricting influences of personal rationalzi ations.
When the curriculum worker is collecting data to help determine objectives, or
when he is using these data to. select content with the judgemental procedure, he is not
expected to make original social and historical investigations. The knowledge he needs
should be drawn from schofarly work in cultural anthropology, sociology, economics,
political science, geography, histqry, p ychology, and philosophy etc.
• • • • l

In addition, the judgemental procedure calls for extensive group discussion and
deliberation, in which gener l points of view and personal and group opinions are
critically evaluated and reconstructed in the process of agreeing upon social ideals lll)d , ,
. goals. Curriculum content chosen on the basis of the prejudices and rationalizations wiU.
not satisfy the conditions of the judgemental procedure. Nor will the selection of such"'.
content improve the curriculum. ·
r -

The judgemental procedure is best demonstrated when the criterion of social

reconstruction is the primary basis of subject-matter selection. This principle makes
social development a primary basis of content selection. It should .not be assumed,
however, that this is merely a matter of personal choice. On the contrary,. the test of the
judgement is the extent to which other persons accepting the same ideals, facing the
same facts and possessing the same social understanding woul<j themselves select the
same subject-matter or agree with its selection. I su ssful implemen tion requires critical,
informed, and judicious persons a .curri t;tt,in'fonnulatoi-1L In the hands of such
people, it
can be one of the most dependable methods Qt' content selection. But the curriculum
worker cannot neglect any of its phases without the risk of serious misjudgment.
The Experimental Procedures .
The experimental procedure of content selection tries to determine by actual
testing whether or not subject-matter sati es a particular criterion. It answers such
questions as: Is the subject-matter interesting? Is the subject-matter suitable for the
adults

155
keeping in view their needs and problems etc. The tryout of the subject-matter must, of
course, be done under prescribed conditions and by techniques that make the procedure
as rigorious as possible. Errors due to personal or group prej Lid ices, misjudgement and
outside conditions are to be reduced to a minimwn. The experimental procedure of
content selection takes the following form:
(a) . Tentatively selecting subject-matter in accordance with a criterion.
(b) Hypothesising that the tentatively selected subject-matter meets conditions of
the criterion (that it is interesting or useful)
(c) Prescribing conditions for the tryout (description of the characteristics of the
children, the teacher, the classroom, the materials to le used and other facts
affecting the experiment).
(d) Checking the results against the hypothesis to find whether or not the subject
matter satisfies the criterion.
This procedure has not yet been used extensively, but its findings have been
generally respected. However. it is open to the objection that all factors cannot be
controlled: and that its findings, therefore, are not entirely dependable. Another
criticism is that the experimental procedures assume an unchanging curriculum in all
the aspects related to the one under investigation. If this is not the case, the
experimenter cannot know whether his results were due to the conditions of the
experiment or to some outside conditions that changed without measurement or control.
However, in spite of all the criticisms this procedure remains one of the most promising
means of selecting the subjccHnatter.
The Analytical Procedure
The analytical procedure is one of the most widely known methods of content
selection. It has been closely identified with the criterion of utility. In general, it
consists of an analysis of the things people do in order to discover the subject-matter
involved in these activities.
There are three fonns of the analytical procedure, each following more or less
the same pattern. Their brief description is as follows:

(i) Activity analysis

The purpose of this analysis is to discover the general activities of people of a
given national group or region. This analysis helps in identifying relevant activities to
be selected for the curriculum.
(ii) Job analysis
This analysis is applied to vocational operations. Todetermine what should be
taught in Professional Preparation of Teachers" course, for example, an analysis of their
work would come the basis of the teacher education programmes.
(iii) Knowled0,:,c anal.vsis
If the problem is to find what elements of written expression are in general use.
one procedure would be to analyse such relevant documentary materials as newspapers.
journals, and library materials. The content to be included in a course on grammar might

156
be detennined by studying the grammatical forms folUld in the correspondence of people
in general or of a selected group. The analytical procedure of content selections therefore
consists of the application of certain techniques of fact-finding to the activities under
investigation.
The analytical procedure can involve the use of the following techniques:
(i) Interviewing
The interviewer requests a person on the job ,or one who performs certain
activities, to name the duties for which he is responsible or the ideas and skills he
employs. From these interviews, a composite list of duties is drawn up.
(ii) Working on the Job
The investigator Works on the job, studying the operations required and making
a list of them.
Gii) Analysis of the Job or Activity by the Worker
A person who has become familiar with ajob or activity is asked to list his duties
or the operations he perfonns.
(iv) Questionnaires
The duties or operations involved in a job or activity are sought by means of an
inquiry blank sent to the workers or persons whose activities are under invest igation.
(v) Documentary Analysis
The investigator makes an analysis of magazines, correspondence. public records
and the like and tabulates the infonnation, skills, or principles found in these documents.
These findings throw light on what will be needed by persons who use these documents
or who are involved in activities from which they results.
(vi) Observing the Performance of People
The curriculum worker, or a group of persons under his direction, observe and
tabulate their observations and findings. This may be concerned with the daily activities
of people or it may involve analysis of individuals or groups in certain specific situations.
The main criticism on the analytical procedure is that it breaks operations, skills,
and knowledge into such small elements that the real.identity of the original process or
knowledge is lost. Although this criticism may be valid when analysis has been carried to
extremes, it can hardly be held to be justifiable in most instances. Analysis is alwa ys
essential, and there is no justification for wholesale criticism on it. The pertinent
questions should always be these: What is the analysis for? ls it sufficient for the
purpose? A second criticism is that the process of analysis yields static result s. An
analysis of present conditions indicates nothing about what they should be. Hence , the
discovery of what is actually done on a job, or the knowledge and skills that people
actually use in their various activities. offers no basis for improving performance.
The Consensual Procedu.re
The consensual procedure is a way of collecting people's opinions about what
they believe the curriculum should be. The results of the consensual procedure are
expressed in tenns of the number of persons. or percentage or persons. of a particular

157
 community or group who believe that such and such should be taught in the schools. The
selection of persons whose opinions are to be sought is the first step. Such perso are
usually selected because they are:
(i) Outstanding leaders in the fields of education industry, business, agriculture,
labour, and in the social life of the community.
(ii) Experts and-specialists such as physicians, engineers, teachers, and artists or
(iii) Representatives of the population of a community or region.
The next phase is the development of method for collecting opinions. Usually a
questionnaire is used. In some cases, interviews or small group conferences are
employed. The final stage of the consensual procedure is the tabulation and interpretation
of the responses. This procedure is perhaps most dependable when it is used along with
the judgemental procedure. But it too is subject to the objection that people's replies are
too often dictated by vested
interests, unexamined prejudices and occupational basis. It is also apparent that this
procedure results not in consensus but in a tabulation of votes.
Activity
Interview some of the members of National Curriculum Committee in a subject and
level of .your choice about the procedures used in content selection.

_. Romine's Classification of Procedures

It is difficult to separate "selection" from organization, particularity at the actual
point of making choices within the overall framework of the curriculum. For that reason,
the procedures dealt with above apply in varying degrees to bomb selection and
organization of curricular experiences, suggesting means of establishing courses and
other aspects of the total curriculum. A number of suggestions may be found in
educational literature dealing with this task of curricular construction. Some-authors
discuss one or more of the procedures in terms of detennining the scope of the
curriculum, others in terms of the selection of curricular materials and experiences. Some
of the procedures are more applicable on a broad basis, while others are more pertinent to
course of study, units, projects and related classroom activities.

Stephen Romine has discussed some procedures which can be used in selecting
and organizing curricular experiences: analysis of text books surveys of opinions, the
study of errors, the study of the curricula, analyses of adult activities, analyses of social
functions, and study and analysis of youth interests and needs. Although some of these
have, to some degree, been discussed under the above four procedures, it would be
interesting to discuss them further.
G) The Textbook Procedure
This self-explanatory procedure is the most commonly em.ployed of all for
selecting and organizing curricular experiences. The content of a course or a curriculum
based on this approach is detennined in large part, if not entirely, by the selected

..,l_
I
158
textbook (or textbooks). Essentially, it assumes that the writers of texts are
sufficiently expert to know what is appropriate for the youth who are to pursue
given curricular experiences and use the textual materials in so doing. While such
persons generally have access to such basic data and do a real service in bringing
together and organizing materials, it is doubt full whether they are capable of
accurately diagnosing pupils background and needs as they are found in the
thousands of classrooms over the nation. Yet in the hands of many teachers, the text
serves as the prescription for all pupils, regardless of individual differences amongst
them.
(ji) The Survey of Opinions Procedure
This procedure has several variations and is spoken of as the consensual or
expert-opinion procedure. Subject-matter committees, for example, make
pronouncements based upon the study and opinions of the members. These
decisions frequently are based upon considerable studies and deliberations and are
worth careful consideration. On other occasions, the recommended ideas or
practices may be nothing more than unstudied opinion. The value of the procedure
is likely to be greatest in restricted areas of the curriculum, as in some special
subject field, or in dealing with special problems. In this procedure live groups of
persons may be involved individually or collectively: (a) experts in a given field,
including teachers, (b) specialists in professional education (c) lay leaders, (d) the
general public and (e) pupils. Opinions may be solicited through the committees
established to study given problems.
(ill) The Study of Errors Procedure
The idea behind this procedure is that of identifying errors and
shortcomings as a basis for incorporation into the curriculum such content as will
assist in removing these weaknesses. This is a form of analysis which concentrates
on incorrect or improper behaviour, judged in tenns of given criteria of values. In
the field of social studies, for example, a study might be directed at determining the
reasons why different racial groups in a community were not getting along well. On
the basis of the findings, a series of curricular experiences should be outlined and
materials selected to help promote better understanding and more cooperative
relationships. In mathematics, a teacher may study pupil performance, determining
weaknesses in several respects. Remedial work may then be implemented. For the
purposes of diagnosis at the beginning of courses, a more extensive analysis may be
made of both the strengths and weaknesses of pupils. This may serve as a partial
basis for structuring the course, particularly with regard to an introductory unit aimed
at developingdesired understandings and basic skills.
(iv) The Study of Other Curricula Procedure
Sometimes identified as the "sciessors and paste" method, this procedure
entails the study of curriculum guides, courses of study and similar materials
prepared by other schools and agencie.sThe general idea is to detennine from such
study what others are doing which may be useful in one's own school situation. In
this way a teacher, or a school, may rely heavily on another for the substance of
curricular content. A teacher,may, for example·, simpleslook. over a course of study in
science which is used in another school and adopt it exactly as it is for use inhis own
class. This danger must be avoided if the procedure is to serve any good purpose. In
Pakistan we have prescribed content, a teacher may, however.
159
come to know about methods of teaching as prescribed in other schools.
(v) The Analysis of Adult Activities Procedure
Activity analysis in not a new procedure, but it still has value in dealing
with curricular content. Broadly conceived it involves the study of life activities
citizenship, vocations, and so to discover significant activities concerning which
youth should be taught to be proficient. It ismore commonly recognized and
utilized, however, in relation to vocational education, wherein analysis is directed
towards the identification of specific skills. Once such identification has been
accomplished, curricular experiences are set up to teach the skill involved.
(vi) The Social Functions Procedure
Related to the activity analysis approach, but-broader in point of view, is
what may be called the social functions procedure. This procedure has its basis in
the concept of education·as social process, and, as a primary step, involves an
analysis of the social functions which adult citizens should be capable of
perfonning. Because it requires a broad grasp of the total environment and deals
with, larger areas of living. This approach is more applicable.to such larger areas of
the curriculum as, for example, the whole social studies programme. It may,
however, lead to more detailed selection and organization as an outgrowth of the
larger planning which is done initially. This procedure entails comprehensive study
of social, political, economic, and related conditions, influences, and trends and
these may be approached through surveys, study of literature, research and other such
methods. A general appraisal of the total situation, the forces and factors influencing
it, and what it all means in tenns of the social functions and the school is essential.
(vii) The Youth Interests and Needs Procedure
Certain similarities exist between the social functions procedure and that of
youth interests and needs. The fonner takes its scope from the functions of adult-
living, ordinarily classified into a number of large areas of persistent life problems.
Its sequence preferably is based upon the background, maturity, interests and needs
of boys and girls, although it may be chronological and logical. The youth interests
and needs procedure' involves consideraiton of persistent problems too, but both its
scope and sequence are based up<;>n youth. It involves the personal and social
functions of boys and girls rather than of adults. It does not avoid preparing for
adult living: in fact, it contributes much to this. But its primary focus is on the here-
and-now, young today and the things which concern them.

160
 3. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION

The principles suggested for use in selecting educational content are also useful
in considering organization and may be modified slightly to become more applicable for
such a purpose. The pattern of the curriculum with its sub-divisions should be planned
and structured with due regard to the bases which have been suggested as underlying the
operation of the school the purposes of education, the needs and abilities of the learners
and the educative process.
(a) Provide for scope and sequence with flexibility
(b) Provide a conunon body of educative experiences, plus those which are essential
in meeting special interests and needs.
(c) Be consonant with the manner in which learning talces place.
(d) Implement the attainment of stated objectives, and encourage the evaluation of
pupil growth and development in tenns of these objectives.
(e) Give consideration to the individual learners, and involve them in cooperative
curriculum planning an active learning ventures.
(t) Relate to the total educational picture in away so as to affect favorably the
learning climate in the school and in the community.
What is Curriculum Organization?
According to Ralph Tyler, important changes in human behaviour are not
produced overnight. No learning experience has a very profound influence upon the
learner. Changes in ways of thinking, in fundamental habits, in major operating concepts,
educational experiences in attitudes, in abiding interests and the like develop slowly. It is
only after months and years that we are able to see major educational objectives taking
marked concrete shape. In some respects, produce their effects in the way water dripping
upon a stone wears it away. In a day or a week or month there is no appreciable change in
the stone, but over a period of years definite erosion is noted. Correspondingly, by the
cumulation of educational experiences profound changes are brought about in the learner.
In order for educational experiences to produce cumulative effects, they must be
organized to reinforce each other. Organization is thus seen as an important aspect of
curriculum development because it greatly influences the efficiency of instruction and the
degree to which major educational changes are brought about in the learners.
Criteria for Effective Curriculum Organization: Continuity, Sequence
and Integration
As discussed by Tyler in Basic Principles of Curriculum and -Instruction, there
are three major criteria to be met in building an effectively organized group of. learning
experiences. These are continuity, sequence and integration. A summary of Tyler's
discussion is given below:
(i) Continuity
This refers to the vertical reiteration of major curriculum elements. For c· ,1, 1.. . if
in social studies" the development of skills in reading social studies mater: · 1s :,n
imp01tant objective, it is necessary to see that there is a recurring and Cttr · ·,1ii1; •
opportunity for these skills to be practiced and developed. This means that overtim, i , ·
same kinds of skills will be brought into continuing operation. in similar fashion. if an

161
objective in science is to develop a meaningful concept of energy, it is important that this
concept be dealt with again and again in various parts of the science course. Continuity is
thus-seen to be a major factor in effective vertical organization of curricular contents.
(ii) Sequence
This is related to continuity but goes beyond it. It is possible for a major
curriculum element to occur again and against but merely at the same level, so that there
is no progressive, development of understanding or skill or attitude. Sequence as a
criterion emphasizes the importance of having each successive experience .built upon the
preceding one, but goes more broadly and deeply into the matters involved. For example,
sequence in the development-of reading skill in social studies would involve the
provision of increasingly more complex social studies material, increased breadth in the
operation of the skill involved in reading these materials, and increased depth of analysis
so that the sixth-grade social studies programmes would not simply reiterate the reading
skill involved in the fifth-grade but would go into them more broadly and deeply.
Correspondingly, sequential development of a. concept of energy in the natural science
would require that each successive treatment of energy would' help the "energy".
Sequence emphasizes not duplication but higher levels of treatment with each successive
learning experience.
(iii) Integration
This refer to the horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences. The
organization of these experiences should be such that they help the student increasingly
to get a unified view and to unify his behaviour in relation to .the elements being dealt
with. For example, in developing skill in handling quantitative problems in arithmetic, it
is also important to consider the ways in which these skills can be effectively utilized in
social stu4ies, in science, in business and other fields so that ttiey are not developed
simply as isolated behaviours to be used in a single course, but are increasingly part of
the total capacities of the student to use in the varied situations of his daily life.
Correspondingly, in developing concepts in the social studies, it is important to see, how
these ideas can be relat d to work going on in other subject fields so that increasingly
there is unity in the students outlook, skills, attitudes and the like.
Conclusion
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that the most important criterion
point for the selection of curriculum content is the Islamic society, which puts equal
emphasis upon the materialistic and spiritual development of the individual and society.
Furthennore, the content should be selected and presented in such a wify that a
balance between 'permanence' and 'change' is established. In other words, we have to
conserve the pennanent perennial values and also adopt innovations and change. A
balanced curriculum would, therefore, be one which takes care of the needs and interests
of the individuals as well as society. Further, the selection of such content should satisfy
the criteria of validity, significance, interest, d learn ability.

In unit-4, you studied in detail aims, go ls and objeptives and the importance of
stating these dearly as a first step in curriculum planning devaluation was stressed. In
this unit, we have considered the next stage the selection of curriculum content. It is now
time to look at the evaluation of the curriculum which is covered in unit-6.

162
 4. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
I. Describe the meaning of 'curriculum content'.
2. Why must we select the content?
3. Describe important levels of content and their functions.
4. What are the important general principles for selecting curricular content as
well as learning experiences?
5. Elaborate ori the following criteria orcontent selection:
(a) the criterion of validity
(b) the criterion of significance
(c) the criterion of interest
(d) the criterion ofleamability.

6. For assessing the validity and significance of the content, a number of

criteria of content selection have been discussed by Romine in the book,
Building the. High School Curriculum. Discuss each criterion.

7. Smith, Stanley, and Shores have discussed different procedures for content
selection. What one of them do you like to be adopted in Pakistan and
why? Explain.
8. What do you mean by the term 'curriculum organization'?
9. Explain the11rinciples of curriculwn organization
10. Ralph Tyler.jn his famous book Bqsic.Principlesof Curriculum and Instruction
emphasized the following criteria for effective curriculum organization:
(a) the continuity criterion
(b) the sequence criterion
(c) the integration criterion.
Discuss each and secondary school curriculum in Pakistan under these criteria.
11. Assume that you area member of a committee to revise the curriculum in a
field of your choice. Outline a procedure of content selection which you
would recommend to the committee. What difficulties would you anticipate
in following this procedure?
12. Identify true/false of the following statements:
(a) According to Ralph Tyler, "learning experience refers to the interaction
between the learner and external conditions in the environment. T/f
(b) The static type of knowledge refers to third level of contents. TIT
(c} Newton's laws of motion refer to the normative subjective matter. Tl
(d) 'interviewing' is included in the analytical procedure of content
Selection. T/f
Answers:
For answers to the SAQ's I to II consult relevant section of the unit.
Answers to Question 12
a. True. b. C. False
d. True False
163 C.
False
 S. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hooper, R. (ed.) The Curriculum: Context, Design and Development, The Open
University Press, London, 1975, p.505.

Hussain, Afzal, Fann-e-Taleem-o-Tarbiat, Islamic Publication. Lahore, 1970, p.616.

Maudoodi, abulala, Taleemat, Islamic Publications, Lahore June, 1977.

Nicholls, A. U., Nicholls, H., Developing a Cu"iculum. A Practical Guide, George

AUen and Unwin, London, 1978, p.122.

Rom ine, S.A., Building the High School Curriculum, The Ronald Press Company,
New Yorlc, 1954, p.520.

Saylor and Alexander, Planning Curriculum for Schools, Holt. Rinehart and Winston.
Inc., New York. 1974, p.404.

Shone, H.G., Cu"iculum Change-I A National Education Association

Publication. Washington Smith, Stanley and Shores, Funaal Development,
Harcourt, Brace, and -

World. Inc., New York. I Taba, H., Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice,
Harcourt, Brace and World Chicage, p.526.

Tanner and Tanner, Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice, Collier

Macmillan Publishers, London. 1975, p.734.

Tyler, R.W., Basic Principles of Curriculum and instruction, The University of Chicago
Press, Chicage, 1949, p.128.

164
Unit-7

EVALUATION OF CURRICULUM

Written by:
Dr. Mushtaq-or-Rehman Siddiqui

165
CONTENTS
 Page
Introduction...................................................................................................................167
Objectives......................................................................................................................168
1. The Aims of Curriculum Evaluation................................................................169
1.2 Self-assessment questions: Exercise No. 1.........................................170
2. Educational Goals And Curriculum Objectives...............................................171
2.I Development of Educational Goals...............................................171
2.2 Role of Educational Measurement indefining goals ...................... t71 2.3
Considerations in Selecting Goals...............................................172
Educational Objectives and their Taxonomies.............................................172
The cognitive Domain.................................................................172
The Affective Domain........................................................................173
. f-7 The Psychomotor Domain...................................................................173
Educational Objectives: A Position Statement........................................173
Self-assessment Questions: Exercise No. 2.......................................173
3. Designing Evaluation Studies..........................................................................174
Steps in the Evaluation Process...................................................................174
Methods ofCurriculwn Evaluation............................................175
3.3 Activities .................................'....................................................175
Problems of Research Design in Curriculum Evaluation............................175
Course Improvement through Evaluation...........................................177
Conclusion....................................................................................178
Self-assessment Questions: Exercise No. 3........................................178
Answers to the Self-assessment Questions: Exercises 1-3.................179
·4. BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................180

166
 INTRODUCTION

Broadly speaking the tenn evaluation refers to the process undenaken to

ascertain as to what extent the aims and objectives of a particular programme in
education have been achieved. And if the objectives have not been achieved, what
have been the possible hurdles in achieving the desired objectives. Before we
discuss the concept of evaluation with reference to curriculum, it seems
appropriate to briefly describe the difference between evaluation and measurement.

Evaluation of the curriculum of any specific course deals with all the
educational outcomes related to it, whereas measurement deals specifically with
those characteristics that can be easily quantified. In evaluation such techniques may
have to be evolved as may help the educators to analyses and assess the merits and
shortcomings of any curriculum. Further, any problems involved in
implementing a curriculum successfully have to be identified and resolved in
order to achieve its educational objectives.

.. The procedures of.evaluation involve certain steps which should, however,

be flexible . enough to be adjusted as per exigencies arising from time to time.
These procedu. res are useful in guiding the thinking of those who are carrying
out the eyal ation. The steps which have to be evolved by careful and intensive
analysis of the types .i:>f° the tasks involved. While the strategy for curriculum
evaluation should be a,dju tea according to the particular problems and situations
under consideratino, certain models which will be described in this unit can play a
very important part in the process. C iculwn evaluation should not only be a means
judging educational effectiveness, but also if applied critically and intelligently,
should lead to useful decisions that can serve as a powerful force to improve the
educational process as well.

167
 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should beable to:

1. Mention the main purposes of curriculum evaluation and the extent to which an
evaluation can be made.
2. Analyze the goals and objectives of educational programmes for relating them
to the evaluation.
3. Design strategies and methods for the evaluation of specific educational
programmes in accordance with the needs of the situations.
4. Suggest means of improving educational curricula and processes in the light of
the evaluation of the programmes.

168
1. THE AIMS OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION
When curricular innovations are introduced, it is an important task of educators
to detennine their effectiveness. An assessment of any new progranune has to be made to
find out if the desired outcomes are being achieved; and to what extent, if at all, it results
in significantly better learning than the existing programme. The use of evaluation
techniques should enable curriculum workers to make steady progress in improving the
curriculum.

The major aims of curriculum evaluation may thus be summarized as follows:

(a) to determine the outcomes of a programme;
(b) to help in deciding whether to accept .or reject a programme;
(c) to ascertain the need for the revision of the course content;
(d) to help in further development of the curriculwn materials for continuities
Improvement. Curriculum so that necessary changes can be made m the
instructional programme.

In testing and measurement, greater emphasis is placed upon those

characteristics that are easy to quantify and thus important outcomes such as problem
solving, creativity, critical thinking, work habits, and cultural appreciation!, tend to be
neglected. Uncritical use of testing and heavy reliance on test results have caused a
widespread spurious sense of certainty about educational accomplishments. Evaluation,
however, is aimed at measuring all the educational outcomes, not just those which lend
themselves easily to quantification.

The purposes of evaluation for curriculum innovations include the collection of

infonnation to be used as:
(a) feedback to the innovators for further revision of materials and methods;
(b) input for decision-making in the course;
(c) empirical data on behaviour changes under curriculum treatment.

Professional educators who implement the curricula should be held

accountable for successful achievement of educational outcomes. This involves:
(a) developing improved, more comprehensive measurements of pupil performance,
(b) making analysis of the contributions made to the pupils' performance by
educators, administrators, planners, institutions and other agencies in the
educational process.

Curriculum evaluation. which should assess all aspects of thi: programme. should
give a clear picture of the educational processes and products that should not only have

169
'
 Consideration in Selecting Goals
The criteria for the goals of education should be developed in relation to:
(j) the values of the society as a whole and of individual members;
(ii) the historical background of the society;
(iii) the potential urge of the society to move fo1Ward and progress;
(iv) the present standards and abilities of the students; and hence the possibility of
achieving the goals;
(v) the educational philosophies of the institutions and the extent of teachability of
the subject-matter under study;
(vi) different theories ofl earning;
(vii) the riteasurability of the goals, if and when achieved. A goal, the achievement
of which, is not measurable is a vague goals.

Educational Objectives and their Taxonomies

As you will recall from unit-4, objectives are more precise than goals. Broad
goals are analysed and made more specific and useful. as building blocks for instruction.

Although you have read about taxonomies already in unit-4, perhaps it would
be worth repeating the basic points again. A taxonomy is a classification scheme and a
relatively concise model for the analysis of educational objectives.

· You will recall that the taxonomy de others in USA was divided into three domains:
(i) The Cognitive Domain, dealing with thinking, knowing and problem solving.
(ii) The Affective Domain, including the objectives dealing with attitudes, values,
interests, appreciations and socio-emotional adjustment.
(iii) The Psychomotor Domain, covering the objectives dealing with manual and
motor skills i.e. the activities to be perfonned as a result of bodily movements.

The Cognitive Doman

The cognitive domain is divided into:
(i) The acquisition of knowledge.
(ii) The development of intellectual skills and abilities necessary to use knowledge.

More specifically, you may remember that Bloom's categories were as follows:
(i) Knowledge, recalling facts, concepts, trends generalizations, principles, etc.
(ii) Comprehension, understanding, translation, interpretation, and extrapolation.
(iii) Application, using abstractions in particular concrete situations.
(iv) Analysis, breaking down for clarity of thinking of elements, relationships
and organizational principles.
(v) Synthesis, producing a unique communication by reorganizing and rearranging
the facts.
(vi) Evaluat ion, judging in terms of (i} internal evidence (logical) and (ii) external
evidence (consistency of facts developed).

172
 The Affective Domain
As you have already read in this unit as well as in unit-4, the affective domain is
concerned with values, interests and emotions etc. This domain has got the following
categories: -
(i) Receiving (attending), awareness, willingness and-selected attention.
(ii) Responding, acquiescence, willingness and satisfaction in response.
(iii) Valuing reference for a value and commitment.
(iv) Organization as a value and organization of a value-system.
(v) Characterization of a value complex as a generalization.

The Psychomotor Domain

This domain includes the following
(i) Reflex movements: Functions at birth like stretching, stiffening, relaxing.
(ii) Fundamental movements such as walking, running, jumping, Pulling, pushing
etc.
(iii) Perceptual abilities visual and auditory discrimination, bending, bouncing,
eating, writing etc.
(iv) Physical abilities: Such as strenuous activity, moving quickly and wisely,
touching toes, stopping and starting immediately etc.
(v) Skilled movements: They include typing, skating, filing, juggling, playing
musical instruments.
(vi) Non-discursive communication: It includes behaviour ranging from facial
expressions to highly sophisticated communications.

Educational Objectives: A Position Statement

(i) The objectives should, usually, be apparent to educators and learners.
(ii) A sound educational system provides for occasional reassignment of immediate
objectives to take advantage of special opportunities, that occurs.
(iii) Global objectives provide little guidance to teaching and evaluation and specific
objectives most often ignore vast concerns.

Self-assessment Questions: Exercise No. 2

l. Explain the value of a systematic statement of objectives of an educational
progamme for valid evaluation.
2. Why are the goals of the educational process mostly stated in non-functional
terms?
3. How are tests related to the objectives of education?
4. What are the main related, variables in the development of criteria for the goals
of education?
5. Define and explain the different categories falling under the cognitive domain
of educational objectives.
6. How is the affective domain of educational objectives related to curriculum
evaluation'?

173
 can be measured and their effect on performance studied; or innovative material
might be used with teacher training.
(b) Statistics could be used to suggest the process of learning as related to
curriculum elements. The investigation could look for trends, ups-and-downs.
(c) Clinical studies can be done on developmentalpsychology problems.
(d) The curriculum variable could be redefined at the point of its effect, the
interaction between the teachers and students. Observations of the process and
interviews could be recorded for an assessmentof teachers' attitudes.

Comparison of paralled experimental and control groups may not be

meaningful as this approach assumes that all the relevant variables (except the
curriculum variable) have been constant. But in such complex situations, this may be
difficult to achieve. Instead of taking the groups simultaneously, evaluation using
longitudinal studies would consider the curriculum as a process, a succession of events
changing systematically over-time.

In evaluation, behavioural definitions of the objectives are demanded from the

course designers. Evaluators tend to equate behaviour with items in the cognitive
processes. However, achievement tests may be sufficient to assess the objectives of the
c urriculum. The study of such typical perfonnance variables as attitudes, learning and
teaching the development of instruments for measuring such variables are among the
major problems of evaluation studies. Also the new curricula are subject oriented and
the evaluators' behavior concept is often rejected by the subject disciplines and the
process of teaching has to be examined; and all those concerned with education should
contribute
. not.only to the improvement of a particular subject in particular circumstances but also
the understandingof the process of teaching and learning.

The purpose of evaluation is to detennine the success or failure of any

programme in achieving its objectives. In attempting to evaluate a programme, a record
has to be maintained for investigation regarding:
(i) The objectives of the programme.
(ii) The environment provided.
(ill) The transactions between the teachersand students.
(iv) The students' progress.
(v) The side-effects of other variables.
(vi) The merits and short-comings seen from divergent viewpoints.

Depending on the interests/i ntents of evalu ators in the concerned field and
considering the entity, standards and anticipated decisions, some major antecedents
variables, transactio11s bet Nee n and outcomes are listed below:
(i). Antecedents
Student characteristics
Teacher characteristic
s Curricular content
C urricular co1 ·ex t

176
 Instructional materials
Physical plant
School organization
Community context

Gi) Transactions
Communication flow
Time allocation
Sequence of events
Reinforcement·schedule
Social climate

(iii) Outcomes'
Student achievement
Student attitudes
Student motor skills
Effect on teachers
Institutional effects

Such a description as given above helps to identify the many characteristics of

programme to be evaluated. The evaluator must choose the variables to be described and
judged according to his interest and talent. As for the sources of information they may be
described as teachers, administrators, parents and so on. The evaluator has to choose the
relevant variables by using.
(i) Intents
(ii) Observations
(iii) Standards
(vi) Judgements

To be more specific:
(i) The intents are indicated by the different goals of the people involved.
(ii) The observations refer to the perceptions of what actually happens during the
implementation of the programme.
(iii) The standards depend upon the opinions of experts as to what should happen.
(iv) The judgements reflect the feelings of the people about aspects of the situation.

3.5 Course Improvement Through Evaluation

In order to find out ways of improving a course to enhance learning, its
effectiveness must be assessed. Data collection should include infonnation which will
help in evaluating the difficult area of the affective outcomes of the newly developed
curriculum. The most useful evaluation information is that which allows for adjustment
and modification in the developmental stages of the curriculum, rather than simp ly
examining, the end-products only. This, of course, would be a deviation from the
traditional testing approach.

177
 4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lewy, Arich, Handbook of Curriculum Evaluation (UNESCO), Longman Inc., New

York, 1977.

Barro, Stephen M., "An Approach to Development Accountr )ility, Measures for the
Public Schools," Phi Delta Kappan, 196 205: 52, December, 1970.

Cronbach, Lee J., "The Discovery and Development of Educational Goals",1966

Invitational Conference on Testing Problems, Educational Testing Service, Princeton,
N.J. 1224, 1967.

Forehand, Garlie A., "The Hole of the Evaluator in Curriculum Research", the Journal
of Educational Measurement, 199 204.3, 1966. ·

Krathwohl, David R., "Stating Objectives Approximately for Programme for Curriculum
and for Instructional Materials Development", Journal of Teacher Education, 83-92:16,
March, / 965.

Light, R.J., and Smith, P.V., "Choosing a Future Strategy for Designing and Evaluating
New Programme", Harward Educational Review, l 28: 40, Winter 1970.

Lindval, C.M. and Cox, R.C., "The Role of Education in Programme for Individualized
Instruction:, in Educational Evaluation, New Roles, New Means, edited by. R.W. Tyler,
Sixty-eighth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, University
of Chicage Press, Chicage, 156-188, 1966.

Mayhew, Lewis B., "Measurement of Non-cogon Evaluation in Social Studies, Thirty

fifth Studies, 1965.

Metfessel, Neston S., "instrumentation of Bloom' of Educational Objectives",

Psychology in the schools, 227 231 6, 1969.

Metfessel, Newton S., and Michael William B., "A Multicriticism Evaluation Model,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 193 /-43: .27, 1967.

Payne, David A., C11rric11/11m Evaluation, D.C. Heath and Company, Massachusetts,
1974

180
Unit- 8

CURRICULUM AND DEVELOPMENT

Written by:
Mr. Abdullah Khadim Hussain

181
 In the rural areas, people are continuously confronted with survival problems of
food, clothing and shelter. The basic amenities of sanitation, health, education and other
social welfare services are, at best, marginal and at worst almost non-existent in the rural
areas. Most often educational facilities either are not available or, if available, they are so
poor and depressing that a child would nonnally feel extremely uncomfortable. For
instance, there are hardly any buildings and furniture and most often the children have to
squat on the floor in the open, exposed to the vagaries of weather, or are huddled in
darkrooms. There are no toilets and facilities/opportunities for games or recreation are
non-existent and children suffer from malnutrition and hence severe diseases. In the cold
and hot season, families are exposed to the treacheries of weather owing to poor
accommodation and insufficient clothing combined with poor nutrition. In a number of
villages and backward areas even drinking water is not available, it is a common sight in
the villages that animals and human beings use the same pond for drinking water.
Similarly, in the areas, where it is extremely cold, such as the northern areas of Gilgit
and Baltistan, animals and human beings are huddled together in the same room in the
night to protect themselves from the severe cold.

In a situation like this where the majority of the population is confronted with
basic survival problems, the urgent will have a tendency to take precedence over the
important and the priorities would tend to tilt in favour of survival. Education, therefore,
in a society like this, must contribute towards facing survival problems and improving
the· life style of the people.

Need and Relevance

Whatever development may have taken place in the country, whatever may.have
been the increase in the national income or export outputs etc., there has not been any
significant improvement in the life styles of the common man, particularly, in the rural
areas. If at all economic development took place, its effects did not percolate to the lives
of the ignorant, down-trodden masses. This is not peculiar to Pakistan; in fact, the
situation is strikingly similar in most of the developing countries of the world.

There has, therefore, been a growing interest in Pakistan as well as other developing
countries of the Asian, African and Latin American regions to link education with
development. As the need of such an effort increased, the consciousness Sharpened and
gained momentum. Consequently, several development-oriented programmes appeared.
The Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development in I974. Similar
programmes for Arab States, Africa and Latin America also started subsequent ly.. It is
also relevant to mention that while the effort is aimed at development, the focus is on the
poor down-trodden people particularly in the rural areas and deprived population groups.

The pressing problem of education for community development has led educators
and development planners to a serious re-thinkin g on the whole question of development,
and its relations hip wit h educat ion in the , \ sian reg io n.
Education in Pakistan's Context

In Pakistan, basically the entire problems stem from the fact that during the days
of foreign rule, the colonialists devised an educational system which would, on the one
hand, reduce the productivity of the locals and thus enhance their dependence on foreign
sources and, on the other, produce people who would have a respect for the foreign
culture and way of life and would make a positive contribution toward its perpetuation
and continuance.

Thus with the imposition of this system on us, education, which was in the
hands of foreigners, lost its contact and linkage with the masses and the socio-economic
context in which they lived. The content of education became a source of cultural
alienation so that its recipients became strangers to their own society and lost touch with
their needs. They were ignorant of the problems faced by the masses. Education became
counter productive, theoretical and academic with no roots in the conununity. So in the
Pakistan context while it is recognized, that to be able to read and write, to collect social
and scientific information are goals worth, pursuing, theoretical education for its own
sake becomes. a questionable Endeavour, an effort out of place and meaningless. Let us
take an imaginary situation which is exaggerated only to bring into shalll focus the need
for relating education to community development. This is It

Imagine a far-flung area in rural setting situated in the mountains. The areas is
by and large, barren and, therefore, the population is very thinly scattered. Most of the
inhabitants depend for their livelihood upon cattle grazing and reading. Water is
source·of water is a couple of kilometers away. During the winter, cold is very severe
mos t oft n well below freezing point at night. At night, the winds howl and groan.
Occasiona lly, one could hear the cry of jackals. Around that place, there are scattered
fields where some com and wheat is grown there is no rain, the land remains barren.

In an area like this imagine a small hut which accommodates a family of five
children, mother and father. During winter, at night the cattle also live inside the hut. On
a winter night the cold is severe. The winds are howling. Outside it is all dark. Inside the
hut there is complete dark. One of the five children of the family is suffering from high
fever and is coughing continuously. Every time there is a fit of cough; one has the
feeling that the child 's breathin g is going to be choked to a point that he may expire.
The breathing of the child is irregular and spasmodic. It groans and whistles. Because of
the fever and cough, the child has not taken anything for the last two days. In any case,
there is not very much with the family that the child could eat. The mother of the child
has not slept for a few nights because she has been sitting night after night ho ld ing the
child in her lap. The child's lips are dry and parched and there
is no water to moisten them. The occasional tear that trickles down the mother's eye,
moistens the child's lips.

In the absence of any treatment or medicine, the 1nother is giving the child emotional
Support to recover and is praying to God for help. T he father is taking care of the other

185
children who are uncomfortably huddled in one tom blanket. There is nothing that the
parents can do to save the child who is involved in a life and death struggle for the last
24 hours. The parents and other children are anxiously watching the struggle, but are
helpless. The family is surrounded with hunger, poverty, ignorance and with the shadow
of death, looming large on it. There is complete darkness all round the darkness of the
night and the darkness of Ignorance.

If you are thinking of educating this family, a number of possible questions arise.
Some of them are as follows:
(i) What kind of education would one like to give to the children of this family?
(ii) Would one like to say to the parents, when they are confronted with a
situation like this, that they should send their children to the school?
(iii) How would one convince the parents of these children to send them to school?
(iv) What modifications would one like to bring about in the educational
programmes to make them respond to the needs of a conununity of this kind?
(v) How would one sell educational programmes to members of a community
like this?

In trying to find tentative answers to the above questions, perhaps it is possible to

understand at the conceptual level the pressing need for relating school curriculum to
community development.

Activity !
Propose a set of useful and productive activities for primar y school village with
such families that solves their problems and promotes their economic well-being.

186
 OBJECTIVE'S

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the progressive linkage of education with economic development with

reference to National Education Policies in Pakistan.
2. Give a general view of education and development projects and approaches in the
Asian region.
3. Describe' the various aspects of the complex nature of community development.
4. Identify the problems of the community particularly in rural areas and the role of
education in solving those problems.
5. Design educational programmes which are relevant to the surroundings.
6. Draw the implications of development particularly in respect of new roles and
responsibilities of teachers.
7. Assess and evaluate the role of the existing curricula in practical problems and
Critically review the implementation of educational programmes.

187
 1. EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT
TRENDS
Educational policy makers and planners have been sensitive to this problem,
though not to the extent that it deserved. Even in the initial stages, although, at the policy
level the expression of this particular role and dimension of education is distinct, yet at
the implementation level, owing to paucity of resources, it did not get the priority it
deserved. However, one may accept the excuse of shortages of resources and the failure
may be referred to the major implementing agency. What is your opinion?

After the independence of Pakistan, the first Education Conference at Karachi took
Policy statement for education, is reproduced below.

"You know that the importance of education and the right cannot be over
emphasized. Under foreign rule for over a century, sufficient attention has not
been paid to the education of our people and if we are to make real, speedy and
substantial progress, we must earnestly tackle this question and bring our
educational policy and prograrrune to the genius of our people, consonant with
our history and culture and having regard to the modem conditions and vast
developments that have taken place all over the world.

There is no doubt that the future of our state will and must depend upon the type
of education we give to our children and the v.;ay in which we bring them up as
future citizens of Pakistan. Education does not merely mean academic education.
There is immediate and urgent need for giving scientific and technical education
to our people in order to build up our future economic life and to see that our
people take to science, conunerce, trade and particularly well planned industries.
We should not forget that we have to compete with the world which is moving
very fast in this direction". (Extracts from National Educational Conference,
1947 proceedings of the Pakistan Educational Conference, Ministry of Education
(Interior Division, r. 6).

I .1 Activity-2
Draw implications of the Quaid - i-A zam's message for developing secondary
school curriculum for Pakistan.

In the following pages we review the development oriented concepts found in

different statements. policies on education formulated and announced in Pakistan from
time to time.

1.2 The Inaugural Address of Dr. Fazalur Rehman

Dr. Fazalur Rehman, the then Education Minister, addressing the Ed uca tio n
Conference. 1947, said:

188
 "Our existing educational system, as originally conceived by Macaulay, was
intended to serve a narrow, utilitarian purpose and its growth has been larg ely a
matter of artificial improvisation. It has been rightly condemned for the lack of
realism and its inability to adjust itself to the needs of a rapidly changing society,
its over-literary bias and its utterly uninspiring, soulless character, For a succinct
but brief summing up of the aims of education in a demol:ratic society , one
cannot do better than quote a living authority on education. "Education", he says,
"is a vast continent and it will make far clearer thinking if we divide it into three
provinces.., corresponding to the three main needs of human life. make a living.
All men need to make a living not a bare one, but the best that conditions allow.
All men live in a society. all men have a personality to develop and the power of
living will or ill. For all these education must provide and it must therefore
include a vocational element, in social, or as the Greeks would have called it, a
political element, and a spiritual element. Men must learn to earn a living, to be
good members of a society, to understand the meaning of the phrase "the good
life", and help them to achieve these three ends. It must do this not for a limited
class but for every citizen, though it will do it in different ways for different
people.

In mentioning the third element of education, namely, vocational education. be

understood. to minimize its importance; in as such as it For the material existence of
society, it must receive first consideration in any plan of educational reconstruction. In
the last analysis, however, all the three elements spiritual, social and vocational must
cohere and fonn an integral whole for thus alone can we achieve a complete fusion
between the spirit and substance of education".

1.3 National Commission on Education 1959

From here we jump over to the observation of the National Commission on
Education. We lay stress throughout our report on the concept of education as a public
investment in economic development. This argument, we are convinced, is academically
sound and we could cite many examples of public figures and economic specialists in
North America, Europe, and the Soviet Union who subscribe to this view. The history of
the economic development of these countries begins with the education of their citizens,
and the remarkable progress they have made in developing their national wealth is
largely accounted for by the efforts they have made in educating their citizens at all
levels. The advantages of technological progress have been publicly recognized in
Pakistan and incorporated in various developm ent plans of previous governments. We
are convinced that one of the missing elements which has partially accounted for our
failure to accomplish these plans has been the insufficient attention paid to the training
of scientific personnel and the large body of technicians and vocatio nally skilled
workers necessary for the practical application of the advanced work of the scientist and
engineer. We believe that we shall continue to fall short of our development goals until
full provision has been made for the training of skilled personnel at all levels. The
reading of our chapters on engineering, technica l and vocatio nal, commercial, and
secondary education will s how not only bow provis ion for the training in these fie lds
ca n be made but also what are the different categor ies of personnel needed in our
conditions and what are the

189
special qualities that they should possess. We believe that, in particular, there is need for
the training of a leadership group in engineering, the skills of government and
commercial development. This group should possess imagination, high professional
ability. and a detennination to use local resources and not remain dependent on the skills
and material imported from outside. We stress throughout our report that one of our
greatest national assets is our manpower but that this asset can only become the creator
of national wealth when its energies have been released and enriched with the skills and
training necessary in a complex modem society.

We have given special emphasis on the need for scientists, engineers, and
technicians because we believe that this has been our greatest weakness and the greatest
failing of our education system. However, in Pakistan there is, if anything, a more
pressing need for the development of agriculture and the utilization of the products of
our soil. Our present methods are in the main primitive and have led to more than one
food crisis for our people; in addition, they provide little scope for the whole range of
industrial use of agricultural products which modem science has made available.
(Extracts from the "Report of the C01runission National Education" Ministry of
Education, January-August, 1959, 11-12).

1.4 The New Education Policy 1969

The entire educational strncture has to be reorganized and reoriented according
to new demands and requirements. The New Education Policy (1969) rightly pointed out
the colossal wastage of national t'esou rces in the field of education. Referring to the twin
purpose of elimination of unemployment among the educated youth and the redesigning
of education, the policy states:

"If this problem is to be tackled, it will be necessary to completely

reorganize the educational system at the secondary level. At present,
education at this level is designed not so much as a terminal stage but as
a preparation for entry to college and later to university. As such, there is
preponderance of academic learning and not enough attention is paid to
vocational and technical training at this stage. No more than 4% of the
total enrolment at the secondary stage is in vocational and technical
subjects. This sit uation must be reversed. A massive shift towards
vocationally and technically oriented education is required if the
secondary stage of education is to stop wasting resources in producing
unemplo yable manpower which continues to overcrowd the already
meagre college and university facilities and swell the ranks of the
educated unemployed , while development needs of the technically
trained manpower remain unfulfilled."

Elabo rating the technical component the policy further states:

"The educational s ystem should aim at providing vocational training to

at least 60 % of the students le aving the elementary school between the
ages

190
 of 13 and 15 so that, they can acquire useful skills which would enable
them to earn their living. In rural areas, an attempt should be made to
make vocational education agriculture-oriented. Commercial subjects,
book-keeping, legal drafting, typing and shorthand, etc. should
introduced into the school curricula at this stage. To encourage the
vocational and technical education, the system should provide for
recognition of accomplishment by introducing the diploma and degrees
such as Metric (Tech.), Inter (Tech.) and B. S. (Tech.) in well defined
technologies like printing, wood-work, plumbing, tailoring etc. which
would add to the dignity of labour. In this way, it is hoped that the
educational system will be able to serve better the development needs of
the society and, at the same time, lead to a reduction of the problem of
educated unemployed."

1.5 The Education Policy 1972-80

The Education Policy 1972-80 envisaged to make elementary education
productive and useful. It clearly states:

"The system of elementary education will be so designed that the

knowledge and skills imparted, attitudes implanted, and the learning
methods employed will ensure that those not proceeding to secondary
education can be usefully absorbed in the economy of the local
community.
For those leaving school after class Vlll, special courses of training in
the skills of their vocational interest will be provided in the schools
workshops. It is essential that children who drop out after class VIII
should carry with them enough skills to return to their local or ancestral
vocation as better, fanners or craftsmen...."

Regarding the integration of general and technical education, the 1972-80 policy
further added:

"The integration of general and technical education will equip secondary

and college students for gainful employment, including self-employment,
in industry, agriculture, business, home economics and education in
addition to providing them a programme of general education. The areas
of vocational occupational studies for which facilities will be developed
include: electronics; auto-electricity; population; vegetable fanning;
sericulture; crop and livestock production; shorihand; typewriting,
insurance and estate brooking; clearing, forwarding and shipping
practices; home management; cooking and baking; first aid and home
nursing; food production and preservation; etc.
Education will be introduced as an elective subject at the matriculation ,
intermediate and degree levels. In this way, a major pa1i of the vocatio
nal training of teachers will be conducted in institutions".

191
1.6 The National Education Policy, 1978
Watch carefully the renewed emphasis on technical played in the National
Education Policy of 1978:
"In spite of several efforts in the past the technical and vocational education is still not
job-oriented. Moreover, there are hardly any arrangements for identifying the needs and
providing training to 80% rural population and to make them more productive in order to
strengthen this large Sector of our economy. In order to imp rove technical and vocational
education, it has been decided to introduce production-oriented curriculwn related to the
market requirements in all technical and vocational insti tutes. Advisory committees
having representatives of trade and industry will be constituted t_o keep the training
responsive to the changing market requirements.

All the tec hnical and vocational institutions will be encouraged by generating
funds for supplementing their resources by producing saleable goods during training.
Small production units will be established with technical and vocational institutes under a
phased programme. Evening progranunes will be introduced in technical and vocational
institutes for the benefit of the community, wherever needed. Separate vocational schools
for dropouts of the school system will also be established. Equipment needed for various
levels of technical and vocational institutes will be standardised. A mechanism for
standardizing, testing and certification of technical and vocational skills required through
formal, non- fonn al, or traditional system of training in consultation with trade, industry
and other users of the output of these institutions will be introduced.

Practical on-the-job supervised training for Diploma and B. Tech. students will
be made compulsory and suitable legislation for providing this training in industrial
organizations and undertakings will be enacted. In order to provide close liaison with
industry the teachers of polytechnics and technical colleges will be encouraged to provide
consultancy and advisory services to the industry. Personnel from industry would also be
invited to advise these institutions on production methods. A teacher training college for
the training of teachers of technical and vocational institutes will be established at
national level."

I.7 Activity-3
Analyses the policy declarations regarding work-oriented and development
related education from 1947 onward to the present education policy with a view to
pinpoint the cause for repeated statements of the same type. Also identify the factors
responsible for the successive failure of various education policies with special reference
to technical and vocational education

New Education Policy 1978

The New Education Polic, y as referred to above states that it is the declared
objective to further consolidate, strengthen and improve the agro-technical programmes
sta rted under the 1972 -80 policy and to introduce similar programmes of indigenous skill
training in the rural areas namely the village workshop schoo ls etc.

192
1.9 Problems and Issues
There is a variety of reservations that could be expressed about these
programmes'. Some of them are as follows:

(a) programmes required certain physical facilities, equipment and trained For
providing physical facilities and equipment, finances were not made available
as one would expect in a country like Pakistan, the resources are limited.
Moreover, there has been and still is an acute shortage of teachers in technical
subjects.
(b) The introduction of skill training as a separate cluster of curricular activities
gives the impression that only these activities relate to development whereas the
rest of the curriculum does not. This is a serious problem which brings a number
of distortions in our educational system.

(c) The technical training programmes were organized in a manner that they were
seen as an activity in itself, the final object and outcome of which was success
or failure in examinations. No linkage was established between this programme
and community requirements which could have inducted the students and
teachers into community development programmes. Perhaps this was the
greatest weakness of the programme.

As a matter of fact if education is to be something directly relevant and

meaningful to the learner and to the community to which, he or she belongs, the entire
educational package has to be related to the improvement of the quality of life. In a poor
country where there is hunger, poverty and deprivation education has no chances of
acceptance. continuance and growth unless it addresses itself to these problems.

The implication of this approach to curriculum issues is that community

members and teachers should have the right to frame a curriculum related to local needs
as seen and felt by them. In the context of the Pakistani situation, however, we are
confronted with a dilemma. Whether it is possible to make a choice from a variety of
curriculum offerings, in Pakistan curriculum, syllabi, textbooks and standards of
education are on the current list of federal subjects. The implication of this is that, if and
when, the federal government decides to legislate on the subject of curriculum and
syllabi, the federal legislation would take precedence over provincial laws in this
respect. in the present situation. the Government of Pakistan has brought out a federal
legislation which empowers it tb prepare the schemes of studies and prescribe courses.
of studies and syllabi from class I to XII all over Pakistan. Although schemes of studies
and curricula for various levels and subjects are developed with the participation of
teachers, parents and various provincial agencies, the net result is that the schemes of
studies and the curricula. textbooks, etc. approved and prescribed by the Federal
Government, have to be followed by all and no courses of studies can be taught without
the consent of the Federal Minister of Education.

One of the m,tjor handicaps in the proper implementation of this approach is the
attitudes, skills and competencies of teachers who are to be the agents of change. This

193
again Js a concern shared by most countries of the region where rural transformation is
becoming a high priority.

There have been a series of seminars, workshops and conferences on the

education and training of teachers to enable them to fulfill their new role. Some extracts
of the reports of these seminars, workshops etc. are included in this unit.

One of the major reforms in the teacher education curricula in Pakistan is the
introduction of "Community Development" as a compulsory subject. There are also
regular in-service training programmes for agro-technical teachers at various teacher
training centers.

It is the intention of this unit to revive and re-vitalize this concept of

community development in the curricular offerings of education in Pakistan. This
would help to create effective linkages between problems of the community and
prospects of the solution on the one hand and the educational programme on the other.
The practical exercises that follow will help the learners to have an in-depth experience
of this approach, to clarify concepts and to find some practical propositions that would
relate education to community development.

194
 2. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS-I
1. In order to know a community and its problems it is necessary that basic
information about the community in relevant fields is available. You may, therefore,
choose a rural community or a poor urban community nearby and design a
comprehensive survey of the community. If the survey attempts to identify the major
problems confronted and possible solutions through implementation of educational
programmes, it should be divided into two parts, some of the possible points on which
information given below:

(a) Problems - Areas:

(I) Size of population
(ii) Population structure and growth rate
(iii) Size of family
(iv) Per capita income
(v) Housing
(vi) Sanitation ·water
(vii) Food and
nutrition (viii) Education
(ix) Communication - road, railway, air, telephone, telegraph, post
(x) Recreational facilities - games, cinemas, parks etc.
(xi) Any other problems.

(b) Potentials:
(i) Size of trained manpower: agriculture, industry, health educati o n
(ii) Raw materials available
(iii) Avenues of enhancing production
(iv) Avenues/possibi lities of improving facilities of health, nutrition,
education, recreation.

2. Select any particular level of education (primary, middle, secondary and higher
secondary education) and study its scheme of studies and the goals and aims applicable
to that level of educatio n. Then select a subject area, study its curriculum and
textbooksand identify how at various levels, practical exercises can be devised which
would relate to practical prblems confronted by the community.

3. Prepare a brief report based on the findings of surveys and studies involved in
exercises I a nd 2. It may be pointed out for your guidance that the report would by and
large cover the following points:
(a) Rationale of conducting the exercise
(b) Aims and objectives
(c) Design of the surve y and instruments
(d) Major findings
(e) Review of curricula studied
(f) Methodology followed in selection of appropriate units
(g) Method ology in selection of student population
(h) Ways of contact with conununity members, teachers and students
(i) Evaluation of the exercise ands
(j) Synthesis of experiences game,

195
 3. EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ASIAN REGION

In some Asian countries, the dual urban/rural economy often reflects various
degrees of modernization or adherence to traditional ways of living. This dichotomy is a
consequence of an imbalance in socio-economic development, suggesting that national
policies need clearer definition and continuity and perhaps re-evaluation of priorities.
The problem is compounded by the migration of people from rural to the urban areas,
aggravating unemployment in the latter.

Demographic factors exacerbate the situation, magnifying the problem of

development in to crisis proportions. Most of the countries in the area have a runway
population growth and a high dependency ratio. The result of a population structure
is that overwhelminglyyoung, over 50% belong to the group aged 21 years or below,
which is concentrated with low productivity. As a further consequence of uneven,
slow economic programme and excessive population growth, there are severe
shortages of food, social services, water supply, and qualified manpower, as well as
inadequacies in infrastructure all of which are essential to national development
(Referenc e: Teacher Education and Curriculum for Development, APEID- UNESCO, Re
gional Office, Bangkok, 1975, pp. 3-5.)

Educators are confronted with the problems of formulating and implementing

educational' policies, programmes and practices consistent with developm ental goals.
Inequalities in educational opportunity, lack of relevance in cun-icul a to functio nal
needs, irrelevance of educational programmes to social as well as individual
requirements demand immediate rectification. It is in this context that educators from
Asian countries deliberate on how to promote rural transformation, how to improve
health and nutrition and how to foster employment skills through education in their
respective countries.

The emphasis on rural transfonnation derives from the fact that the majority of
the people in these countries live in rural areas. While producing food for the urban
sector, they are simultaneouslyexploited by being deprived of the minimum conditions
for decent living. The modern buildings and conveniences of the Asian city contrast with
the austere conditions of the countryside, despite the natural beauty. The problems of
rural development are so diversified and complex that only a multi-faceted attack is
likely to help resolve them. Therefore, a coordinated, institutional and concerted approach
is more likely to has maximum impact than a fragmented one. Through the schools and
other agencies engaged in non-fonnal training, education can contribute sign ificantly to
rural development . particular, school teachers and community trainers should realise that
a large part of the work of promoting social change is the crucial one of educating rural
people-c hildren, youth aril adults - to identify their most pressing problems and actively
participate in resolving them This cannot be over-emphasize, for ultim ately it is the will
and motivation of the rural people to help themselves that will stimulate and sus tain rural
development.

196
'
 The rationale for considering health and nutrition as urgent areas of concern is
self-evident. Only healthy and adequately fed people can provide the manpower base
necessary for socio-economic growth. Although there are current projects in many
countries designed to improve health and diet, malnutrition continues to plague the
people of the region. Despite recent technological advantages in this field, total food
production has consistently been outpaced by a geometric population increase. The
limited resources and personnel at each country's disposal should be harnessed towards
drawing up a clear and continuous programme to provide people of the region with
proper food and the knowledge of proper nutritional habits. With respect to health in
many countries in Asia, a large number of sick people die without receiving medical
attention. What is needed is a health-care system that is adapted to neglected rural and
deprived urban areas, there is urgent need for a core of health and nutrition education at
the basic level, linked to national and nutrition education at the basic level, linked to
national and local efforts to establish adequate health and nutrition standards.

The conventional conception of employable skills refers to those that prepare

the learner directly for employment. It has been proposed that its meaning should be
extended to include other simple skills that enhance an individual's capacity to function
as a productive member of the community. Acquisition of simple elementary skills
.vhich are needed in homes, schools and community, and can be taught by these
agencies, will strengthen the individual's capacity to be an active and productive
member of his community.

An international workshop made it explicit that the relevance of curricular

offerings to individual, corrununity and societal needs becomes a major consideration
for assessing their worth. The participants expressed the view that the task of curriculum
development in the area of rural transfonnation, health and nutrition, and employable
skills entailed the collective and continuing effort of teachers, educators, specialists and
representatives of the community. Questions of relevant content and sound pedagogical
strategy must be decided. before suitable curricular programmes can be fonnulated. The
important point is that the purpose of curriculum development should be kept in mind:
meeting the needs of learners; and national development. This apparent duality of
objectives should not be misinterpreted: they are mutually reinforcing because an
individual who learns something valuable and useful for himself is at the same time a
useful member of the community.

In the matter of teacher education, the workshop stressed the need for changes
in teal-her education programmes to reflect the emerging trends in teacher training
curricula. The workshop also emphasized that even if teacher education progra1mnes
are modified to prepare teachers for greater involvement in national development it is
equally necess ary to restructure curricula in the schools for the same purpose.

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 4. ANALYSIS AND COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CURRENT
PROJECTS AND PLANS
A major shift in school curriculum is under-way in many countries of the region
in response to the need to accelerate the pace of development through education, and
also to make education more relevant to the learners and the society.

In the Republic of Korea and India, a multi-media approach is being developed

for selected curriculum units related to national development. In order that the school
curriculum can become more relevant to social and development needs, flexibility in
curriculum development is being introduced. In the Republic of Korea, a modular
approach has been suggested; and in India cuniculwn cells are being set up both at the
centre and in the various states of the country so as to allow for continuous renovation of
curricula. An experiment is 'under-way with multi-media instructional materials and
particularly with satellite instructional television for the rural areas and backward
sections of the community.

Sri Lanka, which had a highly academic-oriented curriculum, has brought about
major changes and evolved curricula for the primary and lower secondary stages which
are oriented towards national development. All pupils, from grades 1-IX age 6-14, will
follow a common curriculum designed to provide a broad general education which also
includes the development of employable skills amongst the students so that they may
serve the community in a much better way. The main aim of the new curriculwn is to
reduce the gap between education and the employment opportunities (including self
employment) available in the community. Pakistan and Indonesia have similar drives.

Already, major programmes have been developed in some countries of the

region n an attempt to contribute to rural transformation by utilizing the resources in the
community and the school, with the teacher playing a key role in developing
knowledge, skills and attitudes to help the community to overcome difficulties, and
carry forward the task of development.

In Bangladesh, the Camellia Project has pursued a functional, action-oriented

approach in mobilizing rural people. It develops and supports local institutions in order
to involve local lead ers and their constituents. Curricula for teachers are the outcome of
action research in the villages and are based on the needs of the village into fanner
members involvement and participation, accentuated through local rural leadership, g
ives it the potential. for acceptance, service and survival.

In Morang, a lakes ide town in the Philippines, development activities such as

small-sca le industries profitably engaged in by the people and the school children, the
operation of a summer folk. School to train out-of-school youth and adults in vario us
useful trades, demonstrate the dynamic and mutually beneficial relationship between the
school and the community.

In Nepal, the compulsory introduction of one year of National Development

198
Service for all graduate students of the Tribhuvan University and all Master's degree from
any foreign university, is intended to give impetus to rural development as well as make
the graduate students reality-oriented.

In Sri Lanka, the education component of employable skills is concerned with

knowledge and skills for productive activity. Since a forwards one of the main strategies
that must be adopted for rural transformation, the identification of knowledge and skills
needed by fanners and the generation of learning experiences to meet these knowledge
and skills requirements must take priority in occupational skills education.

In Indonesia, various programmes have been launched in an effort to imp rove the
living conditions of the people in the rural areas. These programmes focus on agri culture,
Health, nutrition, as well as education. Most of these programmes are nationally financed
and conducted.

In addition, the Indonesian Govenunent, as a matter of principle, has encouraged

projects for rural transformation: a certain amount of subsidy (approximately us'$ 500 in
1975) is given to each village every year, to support local initiatives for impro ving
irrigation, sanitation and communication.

In some countries, work has been done in developing curricular units in health
and nutrition. The attempts have largely been to develop a coordination of education with
various other agencies concerned with health and nutrition, and to utilize the community
workers and teachers through a training system in providing the knowledge and habits
required for better health and nutrition.. ·

In the Philippines, the Philippine Nutrition Programme which has established its
priority project of Operation Timbag (Operation Weight) makes the teacher-coordinator
play an important role as a community worker working hand-in-hand with the Barangay
(village) network. Through this network, the teacher-coordinator is able to grasp the
actual health/ nutrition needs of the families in the community.

In Singapore, the thrust is one of a multi-media approach conducted jointly by

the Ministries of Health, Education and Culture. Action-campaigns involving all three
ministries are fre uently mounted.

This is an area where many countries have broken away from the traditional
concept of general education in schools and are moving towards functional basic
education. Many school curricula have been changed in some countries to include units
on specific skills which may be used later on by the pupils for either self-employmen t or
employment in agriculture and industry. The approach taken is that of development of
modular units and, in some cases, of multi-media training packages.The new directions of
educational development are directly linked to functional education programmes at the
next level of education.

4.1 Activity-4
Indicate the development-oriented innovation that impressed you the most from
amongst the ones mentioned above. Give reasons for your choice.

199
5. EDUCATIOIN AND PRODUCTIVE SKILL DEVELOPMENT
IN ASIAN REGION

Concept and objectives of skill education.

As interpreted by the participants of a meeting convened under APEID, the tenn

'concept' used in the synthesis embraces three important elements, namely:
(i) how skill development is defined
(ii) on what basis it should be developed
(iii) on what principles the design should be based.

The objectives refer to a certain type and level of competence the learner is
expected to achieve.

Concept of skill development

It is generally agreed that education in school and out-of-school cannot be
purposeful, meaningful, productive, if it does not have close linkages with national
developmental programmes. In this regard, educational programme for skill development
in both formal and non-fonnal settings should be organized to support the achievement of
the above objectives.

The following generalization shows some common elements of the concept of

skill education by the participating countries:
( i) Skill education as part of the general education prograrrune is not meant to be a
purely manual work. They shouldinculcate positive attitudes towards the world
of work of work and dignity of labour.
(ii) Skill education programme should be related to other subject areas.
(iii) Skill education programme on the basic needs and problems of individuals
and society.
(It is prudent to design these programmes in consultation with corrununity members:)

Objectives
The analysis of the objectives developed by the various countries indicates that
most countries share common objectives while there are objectives specific to particular
countries. They are as follows:

Common Objectives
(a) To acquaint le arners with the world of work. This objective is important in the
sense that it is meant to develop in the learners knowledge about varieties and character
istics of occupational areas in the society.

Knowledge on these various occupational areas shall place the learners in a

better position to identify the kind of work which they would like to participate in upon
completion of their education.

200
 This objective could be categorized under the cognitive domain of the
taxonomy of educational objectives.
(b) To provide learners with productive skills relevant to the needs of individuals and
society.

This objective means that skill education should provide opportunities for the
learners to actually _practise and perfonn the skills learned in schools as well as in other
fonns of educational organization.
This objective could be categorized under psycho-motor domain in the taxonomy of
educational objectives.

(c) To develop desire to be useful members of the society.

This objective implies that mastering skills relevant to the needs of the society
as such is not enough without the desire/willingness of the individuals to really
participate in the development of the society as useful members. To develop this desire
within the individuals, the programmes should be structured to motivate the learners to
develop their interest in practicing the skills for the welfare of the society.

This objective could be categorized under the category of affective domain in

the taxonomy of educational objectives which is often neglected in the implementation
of educational programmes.

(d) To inculcate positive attitudes and motivation toward the world of work, self-
reliance, toleranc, e cooperation, sympathy, and helpfulness.
This objective also falls under the affective domain of educational objectives which
constitute major components of the goals of skill development.
The nature of this objective strengthens the idea of making full education more
educative, socially useful and productive.

Objectives Specific to Particular Countries

(a) Lead learners to increasingly participate in productive work as they proceed from
one stage of education to another.

The idea implied in this objective is that, skill education should be imparted in
sequential order to enable the learners to grasp, reproduce, and imme diately apply the
skills they have learned in real life situation. In this way learners may earn while they
learn.

(b) Prepare learners for further studies in tec hnical and vocational This is one of the
objectives advocated by some co untries of s of general education, particularly in the
lower secondary school level. The objective is especially useful for learners who are
going in vocational and technical schools instead of in academic schools.

201
 Issues and problems
(a) There are two schools of thought concerning the development of productive skills.
One is. for the purpose of immediate use, i.e. to enable the learner to employ his skills for
everyday living and to enable him to participate in useful socialite activities. Another
school of thought is to prepare the learners for further learning in vocational and technical
institutions as well as for entering vocation after leaving the school.. Those who advocate
the first viewpoint regard the immediate use of immediate use of skills developed • as
well as the service to the community as important. They believe that at this stage of
education (general education level) specialization in a certain vocation should not be
emphasized. It is only the basic skills that would be needed, and what is more important
is the development of desirable attitudes towards work and good working habits which
could be used in the present as well as future life of the learners.

The second school of thought, however, advocates that for most developing
countries most student will leave the general schools either for further studies or for
work. Under this condition it would be advisable that the education programmes for
skill development be directed towards the students' needs. This does not mean that the
skills learned cannot be of immediate use. With intensive training the learners' should
be in a position to do even better in providing service to the conununity. Participants of
the meeting were of the opinion that each viewpoint has its own merit and there should
be more research studies on the strengths and weaknesses of both practices.

(b) One view regards fonnal school as merely a learning agency, whereas the other
regards fonnal school as a place for earning while learning under certain specific
situations. There is a general understand that fonnal school which are run by the
government and other organizations are meant for bringing behavioral changes among
learners.
However, certain schools which small fanns, workshops, etc. provide skill
education to the learners and try to produce goods or services which are saleable. The
goods so produced are sold among students, teaching community or in the neigh
boarhound. Money so received is paid for the inputs and major portion is used for
developmental activities and a very small portion is distributed among students as an
incentive. In this way, needy students are helped by the institution and the activity itself
would motivate them to participate more and more during leisure hours in order to earn
more to help themselves and their families.
The above two practices as viewed by the participants are not in conflict with
each other. If conditions pennit, the second practice could be adopted to facilitate
learning of the students. What one should be aware of is that the school should not be
used as a place for profit nwkin g or for exploiting the students.

Problems and Suggested Solutions

Although almost all developing countries agree that the training and socially
use ful productive work should be imparted to learners at all le vels of education to prepare
them for the world of work, in practice it is not fully recognized that skill education is to
develop in the learners a positive attitude towards need-based activities in the

202
community. Hence, it is felt that in most developing countries skill education has
low priority. It is realized that without sufficient social, administrative and financial
support, it would be impossible to implement skill education properly. For this
reason, two basic strategies need to be employed:
(a) To conduct research and development activities to develop models of
efficient and effective skill education programmes as an integral part of
general education, and
(b) To alert the government through inter-agency activities about the importance
of skill education as a part of general education.

Approaches to Skill Education

All over the world both fonnal and non-formal approaches are being used.
Formal approach, in this context, refers to an approach used in implementing skill
education in the regular school system such as primary school, secondary school,
vocational school, etc. Non-formal approach means an approach in implementing
skill education for those who are not in regular school system.

(i) Formal Approach

Each country has its own programmes of skills education which are being
imple-, mented through formal approach. This type of approach has a unique
characteristic for each country depending on its condition and situation.

(a) Programme
Although each country has its own specific social needs, it appears that home
econmo ics, agriculture, wood and metal work, technical skills, arts and crafts arid .
services are the common programmes. However, instructional materials may vary,
depending upon the specific needs of each country.

(b) Nature of the Programme

Generally, skill education does not aim at developing manual skills only, but
also at other forms of developmen, trelating to cognitive and affective domains. The
stress is, of course,given to skill development. In developing the skills some
countries aim at direct production, but soil sic skills.

Cc) Target Group

Countries, such as Indonesia and India, offer productive skills programmes in
all grades. Other countries,suchas Afghanistan offer these programmes only in grades
7 and 8, and Malaysia starts at the lower secondary level. Some aspects of home-
economics such as cooking and dress making, for other some are intended for girls, in
some other countries are meant for both boysand girls.

(d) Time
Although the time allocation for productive skill varies from country to
country and from grade to grade, the range generally is from 2 to 8 periods a week.

203
(e) Administration of the Programme
Every country which provides skill education for all children offers both
compulsory and elective subjects in general and vocational schools.
Analysis of the approaches being used in the Asian region.
First Approach:
Providing education in skills as a required subject for all students at the first
level; and as required and elective at the second levd of education.

Examples: India provides skill education related to food, shelter, clothing,

health, culture, recreation, conununity work and social service. At the secondary level,
the programme is similar, but greater emphasis is placed on practice. In Sri Lanka,
children are taught simple manual skills such as floor cleaning dish-washing, growing
flowers and vegetables, and some other handicraft work at the primary stage. Secondary
schools have elective courses in a number of practical subjects such as wood work, metal
work, electric, wiring and mat Weaving. In the initial grade of secondary schools, pro
vocational studies programmes provide an opportunity for students to survey the jobs in
the community and to practices skills using community facilities as training bases.

Second Approach:
Second approach is similar to the first, but differ in objectives of training.
Programmes in the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam and Bangladesh and some in the
Philippines and Thailand, can be cited as examples of this approach. In the Socialist
Republic of Viet Nam, the young generation is trained to be new-type workers and
masters of society. Training in manual work is designed to contribute to the cultural and
economic development of the locality where the school is situated. Two types of courses
are offered: compulsory courses on techniques and management of economy, and
optional or elective courses which answer to the needs and conditions of individual
schools. The activities are divided, by objectives, into four categories:
(i) meeting the needs of the school through productive work;
(ii) solving community development problems through productive work;
(iii) engaging in work of public utility;
(iv) Using production based training in 'productive skills.
More complex work-skills are attempted at the second than at the first level
education.

In Bangladesh, work experien ce is provided Jt the primary level. Under the

guidance of their teachers, the students organize their own cooperative societies and raise
funds for some income-earning activities within the school system. These include:
gardening, poultry-raising, book-binding, group fanning and making simple furniture. At
the secondary level, re offered for imparting \ ,Jcati,lllal tratmng in such :ireas as
agriculture, commerce, home-economics.

ln the Philippines, the Baya111han Sci1ulll Prc1gramrne ,, irh its self-susta i ned
school vocational developmem programme m ()uinlligan Village. Palawan Is land,
provide skills trammg by integrating academic ubjects with practical work and by
organizing programmes for students to earn while they learn. Rice fields, vegetable
plantations. rice mills, carpentry shops and cooperative stores are used as work-study bases.

In Thailand, several projects using work experience for developing skills are
being conducted in many schools in the north east. These projects cover chicken
raising, food preservation. building-rep air. mat weaving, growing peppers, growing
mushrooms, pottery-making and handicraft.

Third Approach:
Under this approach are offered three types of programmes, namely, core
programmes, elective programmes. This is practised in Indonesia, the aims being to
develop attitude and general capabilities of the students to cope with practical problems
and to equip them with functional skills required by th-e world of work. The agro
programmes are taken by all students at all grade levels. The elective programmes are
given to tudents in grades X and XL whereas the tenninal programmes are intended for
students \vho do not plan to pursue further studies at a higher level.

Fourth Approach:
This approach deals with providing skills training for developing personality and
character as well as for preparing students for higher technic al studies and for
employment. This approach is used in Malaysia where skill education can be categorized
into levels and areas as follows:
(a) Pre-vocational studies at lower secondary school level. the objective of which is to
expose students to the skills they will need in their everyday ii fe. and to create in
them positive attitude towards. and interest in technical and vocatio nal studies.
(b) Technical studies in upper secondary technical schools, wherein students study one
or two technical subj ects from severa l offerings in the areas of engineerina,
agriculture and commerce. The objective is to prepare students for higher technical
stu dies.
(c) Vocational studies in upper secondary vocational schools. which prepare students
for engineerin g trades or agriculture. commerce or home science. The objective,
here. is to equip learners wit!i emp lo yable skills.

(ii) on-formal Approach

(a) Programme of Study
Countries report that non-fomial education is developed on the basis of the needs of the
society. Since each countty has it s own way of life according to its own tradition and
culture. the contents of the programmes cannot be the same for all countries. The areas of
study organized for non- formal s ystem are almos t the same as those of the fonnal system.
The difference is in the se lectio n of specific aspects from the area of study to cover the
s pecific needs of the society. For example. Afghanistan has developed programmes on
agriculture (bee breeding. silk worm cultivat ion) and art and craft (ceramics. carpet and
rug production): Sri Lanka has de\'eloped programmes on tech nical skills (electric wiring,
music al ins truments). art and craft (book-binding. printing. and wood carving): India has

205
 , ,
,l
developed programmes on agriculture, home-economics, metal and wood work, technical
s lls, and Indonesia has developed programmes on home economics, agriculture,
wood and metal work, technical skills, and art and craft.

(b) Nature of Study

Non-fonnal approach in skill education as mentioned above is directed to the
people outside the regular school system. The emphasis would be on the
training of productive skills, but the type of specific skills needed by each
participating country are not the same. For some countries such as India, Viet
Nam and Indonesia, there is a tendency to put emphasis on agriculture in line
with the economic structure of the country.

(c) Target Group

Unlike the fonnal education system consists of students of the same age
and educational background, the participants in the. non-fonnal productive skill
training, consist of mostly those who are not in school. Therefore, they vary in age,
educational background and possibiy in socio-economic status. However, some
countries organize their educational background. India classifies its programme into
four categories, i.e. programme for illiterates, for primary level, for secondary level
and for senior secondary level.

Activlty-5
Develop two designs of skill education; one for the formal education
programme, the other for the non-fonnal education programme for your own di!:;trict.

206
 6. EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Most Asian countries have a large concentration of rural population. While

urbanization is increasing at an accelerating rate, the rural population remains
numerically dominant and is expected to remain so even for the next few decades.
Considering these realities, many countries in the Asian region, in their strategy to
attain national development goals, are e and more on their efforts on development in
rural areas By the way, what observation?

It is widely accepted now that the concept of rural development and the role
of education as a component of rural development were not given serious attention
during the early post·war period in the world in general and in the Asian region in
particular.

Rural development is now being interpreted as a strategy designed to improve

the economic and social life of the rural poor. It involves extending the benefits of
development to those who seek a livelihood in rural areas. The economic' dimension
of rural development envisages economic uplift: the reduction of poverty so that rural
poor get adequate food, clothing and shelter. The social dimension underlines the
provision of health and educational services. It also aims at the development of the
individual and rural society in a socio psychological context. Educational and political
considerations are two additional elements. In the former, facilities for education are
provided for the educational growth of the rural people. In the latter, the political
dimension of rural development will enable the rural poor to participate intelligently
and freely on the basis of their own aspirations, indigenous culture and creativity in
the political life of the community and in the programmes designed Lo sbnpc their
comm.unity, thereby contributing their share to the overall programme of national
development.

Since rural development is intended to reduce poverty, programmes have been

- designed to increase production and to raise productivity. As agriculture is the main
occupation in rural areas, it has received priority in such programmes. In view of
increasing population and the limited production of edibles etc. through cultivable
land, the main effort is to raise the productivity of land through the adoption of a
variety of measures such as 'improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and methods of
farming. Thus the improvement of agriculture and the provision of relevant services
in that area form the first and most impo11ant elements in rural development.

(R1::krence: "Preparing Teachers Ji)!' Education in Rural Development", a handbook,

APEID, UNESCO, Regional Office. Bangkok, 1977, pp.3-8)

Small·scale industries, particularly agro-bnsed industries, ure the focus of Lhe

second significant clement. Fmm mechanization. nmil electrification and improved
transport facilities have created opportunities for employment in such occupations.

Another important progrumme is the provision of e Hie icnt liet1lth services.

Pove11y leads to malnutlition und ill health. Ill healtl1, in tum. rcsulL,; inn low pm<.luction cupad ty.
207
 Increased production does not, however, guarantee fair distribution. The forces
working in a rural community are such that the advantages of the programme or rural
development may not reach the rural poor for whom the programme is mainly intended.
Agricultural production may increase, and still the rural poor may not get the food; health
service may be provided, and still the poor may not benefit; educational facilities may be
established, and yet the poor may not be able to send their children to these schools. In
order that this does not continue, there is a growing recognition· in Asian countries that
sustained rural development is not merely enhancement in production, but a fundamental
change in values, objectives and the very philosophy of development. This awareness has
led to a' growing emphasis on the human factor in development. New strategies of
development, therefore, seek to develop human being in the collective sense, so as to re
ordinate them, make them, self-reliant and able to participate in the political processes of
the nation. All the elements of rural development imply extension of education and its
transformation o tit it serves as an important component of the aforesaid programmes.

To sum up, the innovative programmes of rural development in Asia attend to

economic development in the social and cultural context that is, including both economic
and socio-psychological elements, which interact organically with each other. Thus
development is conceived as a multivariate, qualitative and quantitative change which
change with result in the growth of the individual, in a collective sprit among people, in
creativity, in inventiveness, in the proliferation of a problem-solving to life, and
ultimately in faith in the collective pot 1Hial of the. Problem in this manner is to specify,
in some detail, the goals to which educa tio nal poiices programmes and activities are to
be directed.

6.1 Education in and for Rural Development

It is desirable to distinguish between two sets of educational activities,
differentiated by their main objectives and target groups, and categorized those as
'education in rural development' and 'education for rural development'.

(i) Education in Rural Development

The focus of activities is On the curriculum of a school as a social agency for
imparting knowled ge, sk ills and values, through in-school and out-of-school activities
and experiences. In most countries, curricula are changed to incorporate such elements in
the educational programme.
Two approaches are being followed in rela ting school curriculum to education
in rural development:
(a) the elements of rural development are neatly and thoroughly integrated into the
school curriculum in such a way that education in rural development becomes
the school curriculum;
(b) the usual academic curric ulum is 'retained and activities related to rural
development are assigned to extra-curric ular affairs

Rural development activities in the countries of the region are being entwined in
the curricular. co-curricular and extra-curricu lar acti vities.

208
 An examination of official documents of the countries in Asia reveals that the
envelopment are sought through health and nutrition, education and programmes in the
school curricula. Included also in their curricula are such crops, replenishing forests,
control of insect posts, creative work (Bangladesh,)work experience - vocationalization
and social reconstruction (India), the development applied skills, fisheries, fanning,
livestock raising (Indonesia), industrial area, agriculture science Malaysia), compulsory
pre-vocational and vocational subjects (Nepal and Republic of Korea), participation in
community projects, soil and water conservation, health,' nutrition, food production,
afforestation, population control (Philippines), developing skills relevant to productive
opportunities in the rural sector, participation in the solution of rural problems, changing
attitudes towards manual work, collective level, viewing change as necessary for the
regeneration of rural society, and identification of the pressing problems of rural society
(Sri Lanka).

Teachers working in rural schools are often ill-equipped for the tasks they are
expected to carry out. One of the reasons for this is the uninterrupted migration ofbetter
qualified teachers to urban areas; another is the continued isolation of rural teachers
from the cultural interaction characteristics of the urban environment. Considering these
realities, attempts are being made by most countries in the region, through training
programmes to keep the village teachersabreast of the latest innovations in education as
well as in rural technology and to help build their professional consciousness in support
of rural development.

Progranunes have been devised in some countries to revitalize their village

schools through contact with agricultu,re health and cooperative-movement workers who
are raising the quality and relevancy of the school curriculwn through talks and exhibition.
For the teachers such contacts have become an opJX)rtwtity for in-service growth.

Apart from these contacts, the printed materials, which the conununity workers
have been using, are found to be of great educational value for both in-and out-of-
school programmes. Moreover, the community resources which can be identified
through the involvement of the school in the community development programmesand
in the revised curricula of such schools are being harnessed for the school programmes
of work experience, development of employable skills and health/nutrition.

In some countries the use of mass media -radio, television, newspapers - as

an instructional means of education has also been exploited for education in rural
development. Satellite instructional television progra1mnes to provide education and
training in agricultural education, population education and science education are
also being used in some countries.

Programmes for preparing teachers for education in rural areas can capitalize on
such experiences.

209
(ii) Education for Rural Development
The focus of the activities is on the development of rural communities.
According to traditional concepts, education had little or no role in such programmes.
It is now recognized that education can be simply restrictedto schooling or
viewedas a time-bound process, but instead must be equated broadly with learning
regardless of where, how and when that takes place. Under this new concept,
education-has been categorized as informal, formal and non-formal education.
Whereas the process of informal education is relatively unorganized and
unsystematic, the latter two categories of education, i.e. formal and non-fonnal
education, are relatively organized activities.
Education for rural developmen,t i.e. education linked with programmes of rural
development, is provided mainly through infonnal and non-formal modes, even
though linkages are established with the formal education system.

In such programmes, there are four categories of people engaged in education

in rural areas. They are:

(a) people involved in various agricultural and extension service type of activities,
such as agricultural-extension workers, health-education service workers,
cooperative society organizers, family-planning workers,
(b) those including fanners and skilled craftsmen, concerned particularly with
the education and training of out-of-school youth,
(c) workers engaged in all levels of adult education and community
development including religious leader.s
(d) Personnel working in the fonnal schools.

All categories, of education and all kinds of educators have important

contributions to make in rural development programmes and are, therefore, taken into
account in evaluating and .promoting education for rural development.

Self-management of the programmes of cooperation among different

communities in exchanging experiences are two prominent approaches followed in
some of the recent plans for rural development. Self-management involves
communities participating, along with development agencies and such institutions as
those for health, agriculture and industry, in planning and conducting surveys to
identify the community needs and the resources, including human resources, available
in those co1mnunities or in the developmental progra1mnes for the communities.
Such collaboration on the part of communities is one way to make them acutely
conscious of their problems and of their power over ·proccsscsfor solving them,
in addition to inculcating in them the skills required in unde1t aking such surveys.
The development of the programmes, likewise. helps them in learning new skills in
cultivating an awareness of the need for ncquiring other types of skills in order to
tackle the implementation and evaluation of such programmes by the community
with ample practice in the use of skills and in further strengthening their
competencies and enha11cing their self-reliance.
210
 In several countries, programmes for rural development also provide for
cooperation among communities in order to exchange experiences and for the key
personnel of less-successful communities to study and discuss the experiences of
more successful communities. In some of the recent programmes, facilities for mutual
training are also provided so that the quality and effectiveness of community action are
improved. The strategies of this type also enable the communities and the personnel
involved in the programmes of several development agencies to develop better
understanding of each other. Also, this helps the communities in their utilizing the
services of the development agencies established for them and in directing them so
that their activities are utilized in accordance with the priorities and nonns
established by the communities.

Community leaders, the personnel of the development agencies and the

policy marker which have operated in a hierarchical set-up in the past (with the policy-
makers at communities at the top the personnel of the development agencies at the
intermediate level, and the communities at the bottom as the recipients of advice
and aid, and sub servivient to the it easy to perfonn new roles that the
democratization ;of the conununity development processes demand. The success
of such programmes is, therefore, hampered, unless efforts are made by the
various cooperating groups to achieve better understanding of their new roles and
relationships. The opportunities to reflect on the experiences and to develop the
skills for performing the new roles are therefore now being increasingly provided.

The rural institutions, apart from their responsibility for educating children
in rural development, are also directly involved in programmes for rural development.
The question which is now being asked to several countries is whether the pre-service
and in service training programmes for teachers of such schools take into account the
new roles that the teachers have to perform as members of inter-agency teams in
collaboration with the communities. There are several approaches which have recently
been either designed or used in order to improve the situation.

211
 7. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

I. Write brief notes on the following socio-economic changes faced by the

developing countries:
(a) philosophy of consumerism
(b) integrated rural development
(c) unplanned urbanization
(d) life-long education.
2. Briefly describe the major problems faced by rural areas and suggest their
solutions in the context of Paksitan.
3. What are the essential elements to be covered in a realistic progranune of rural
development.
4. Compare the fonnal and non-formal approaches to skill education and find out
their feasibility for adoption in Pakistan.
5. Write a brief note on each of the following progranunes of productive skills
prevalent in the Asian region:
(a School Cooperative Societies in Bangladesh
(b Manual work in Viet Nam
(c SSSS (Self-Sustained School System) of Philippines
(d Skill training programmes of Malaysia.
6. What is the difference between education, in. and for, rural development?
7. What communication skills are essential for teachers engaged in a progranune of
education for rural development? Explain with examples.
8. What are the essential aspects of the programrn' prepared by APEID to integrate
education and work in the countries of the Asian region?
9. Tick True/False against the statements given below:
(a) The Quaid-i-Azam's message to the First Education Conference,
1947 provides guidelines for us for preparing educational policies. T/F
(b) The 1972-80 policy is quite silent about skill education. T/F
(c) The vocational education can prove to be useful even if it is not need-based.
TIF
(d) The Camellia Project (Bangladesh) has pursued a functional, action
oriented approach in mobilizing rural people. T/F
(e) There are two types of approaches to skill education: infonnal and non-
formal. T/F

7.1 ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSMENTS QUESTIONS.

(a) For answers to questions I to 8 consult relevant portions of the units
(b) Questions .No. 9
(a) T. (b) F
(c) F. (d) T
(c) F.

212
Unit-9

COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE OF
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Written by:
Mrs. Aisha Akbar
213
 CONTENTS
Introduction ................ ..... .................... ............................ ......... .................... ,...216
Objectives.................................................................................................................217
1. Curriculum Development in the United State of Amerca..............................218
lntroduction..............................................................................218
Educational System..................................................................218
Curriculwn................................................................................218
2. Curriculum Development in The United Kingdon.........................................220
· · 2.1............................................................................................................Introduction
220
Educational System...................................................................220
Curriculum................................................................................220
3. Curriculwn Development in Canada..............................................................222
3.I Introduction................................................. .......... ............ ,.............222
3.2 Educational System.............. ..........,....................................................222
3.3 Curriculum............................................................................................222
4. Curriculwn Development in Russia...............................................................224
Introduction..............................................................................224
Educational System and Curriculum........................................224
5. Curriculum Development injapan.................,.........................................226
lntroduction................................................................................226
Educational System..................................................................226
Curriculuin................................................................................226
6. Curriculum Development in the Peoples Republic of China.........................228
Introduction...............................................................................228
Educational System..................................................................228
Curriculum................................................................................228
7. Curriculum Development in Thailand...........................................................230
lntroduction................................................................................230
Educational System and Curriculum........................................230
8. Curriculum Development in Malaysia....................... .................... .......... ....
23l 8.1
Introduction.....................................................................................................231
8.2 Educational System and Curriculum....................................................231
9. Curriculum Development in Saudi Arabia.....................................................234
Introduct ion...............................................................................234
Educational System and Curriculum........................................235
IO. Curriculum Development in Pakistan.............................................................238

214
 Introduction............................................................................................... 238
Curriculwn Development and Revision and Refonns.................241
Process of Curriculum Development..........................................241
10.4 Textbooks .......................................................................................2..42
10.5 Production of Textbooks.............................................................243
11. Sumtnary Tables..................................................................................244
11.1 Self-assessment Questions..............................................................2..4.7
11.2 Answers to Self-assessment Questions.............................................2..47
11.3 Bibliography............................................................................... 248

215
 INTRODUCTION
Educational planners and administrators as well as students of education in every
nation need to know about education, its organization and management in countries other
than their own. It is beyond any shadow of doubt that the future of not only a nation, but
of the civilization depends on the purpose, kind and quality of education provided to its
members as well as on developments that will affect education and will be affected by
education for the succeeding generations all over the world.

Different nations adopt different methods to meet the educational challenges of

today. The study of educational system and curriculum development in other countries
provides an important key to the understanding and interpretation of major national and
international issues, trends and problems. It can also bring to light the potential strengths
and weaknesses in the educational system of the country under study.

This unit provides infonnation on education systems and curriculum developments

in countries which represent different stages of development, different philosophies and
have different ways of dealing with educational issues. The unit aims at offering insigh
into forms of upbringing, schooling and enlightening in countries other than ours. A
comparative study of the curriculum is all the more important as curriculum is at the very
heart of educational endeavour and deserves careful attention.

In the subsequent sections, educational systems and curricula of the following

countries have been reviewed:
I. USA.
2. U.K.
3. Canada
4. Rusa
5. Japan 6. Peoples Republic of China
7. Thailand
8. Malaysia
9. Saudi Arabia 10. Pakistan

Having studied the process of curriculum development in the above mentioned

countries, you are expected to draw infer ences and compare and contrast different
features of this activity with reference to Pakistan and other countries. Let us now
proceed further to study the practic e s of curriculum development in these countries one
by one.

216
 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be, able to:

l. Describe the process ofcurriculum development in selected countries of the world.

2. Identify the differences as well as similarities in the systems of curriculum of
the sample countries.
3. Discuss the approaches to curriculum development adopted in the sample
countries.
4. Compare and contrast the process of curriculum development in Pakistan with
some other counties.
5. Recommend suitability of various ideas and processes of curriculum
development for adoption in our own situation.

217
 1. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Introduction
Rich in Land, population and natural resources and highly developed technologi
cally, the people of USA enjoy a high standard of living and lead the nations of the
world south. The indigenous population consists of Indians and migrants from Britain,
Gennany, Scandinavia, southern and eastern Europe, and central and south America
besides the descendants of slaves imported from Africa during colonial and post-
colonial years. The combination of geographical and demographic characteristics
results in great diversity from one section of the country to the other. Systems and
structures of education are also quite diverse in different parts of the country.

Educational System
Each state provides a system of free public school, covering kindergarten plus 12
years. Though laws vary among the states, schooling is compulsory from the age of 6
or 7 years to 16. There are several structural patterns in use depending on the location;
kindergarten plus elementary grades l-8 followed by four years of high school;
kindergarten plus six grades of elementary schools followed by a three year junior high
school and three year senior high school (sometimes combined into a six year high
school, or a relatively new development kindergarten plus four or five grades of
elementary schools, a four-year middle school and four-year high school. All patterns
lead to a high school graduation at the age of 17 to 18 years.

Historically, education has been considered a state and local responsibility but
the Federal Government has been involved at all levels since 1972. Federal
Government supports school launch education for Indians, finances education for
veterans and rent loans. The Federal Department of Education headed by a Secretary of
cabinet rank is responsible for executing government policy.

In various states generally a Board of Education compnsmg selected/and or

appointed members fonn policy and detenn ines the budget. The state department of
education headed
by a chief administrative officer is responsible for providing education at all levels,
curricu lum development, teacher certification and school financesetc.

Curriculum
A a rule, the practical responsibility for running the schools is in the hands of
smaller un its such as countries and districts and 1, 8 200 local districts run the daily
administration. The strong tradition of local autonomy and the pluralistic nature of
society influence cuJTiculu m. There is no officia l national curriculum. State department
of education prescribes curriculum with varying degrees of specificity leaving scope for
local and individual variations. Subject specialists. school administrators, and teachers
are involved in the process of curriculum development based on research and

218
investigation. The major subjects taught at all levels of the school systems are English
langwtge, Mathematics, Social Studies, Science, Music, Arts, and Physical Education.

The advances in technologies have resulted in the introduction of new teaching

methodologies such as teach teaching, progranuned in instruction, language laboratories
and computer aided instruction. The current social concerns have made their way into
the curricula, especially at secondary level in the fonn of new subjects such as Ethics
studies, Consumer and Environmental Education and Drug and Alcohol Abuse
Instruction. Policies concerning promotion from one grade to the next depend on the
state or district decisions: A student at secondary level is required to repeat a grade after
unsatisfactory performance but promotion at elementary level is automatic. Acquisition
of a high school
diploma does not always require a formal examination but attendance and a satisfactory
school record of achievement are considered sufficient for this purpose. In the absence
of any national public examination system, the standard of education varies in different
states. Recently there have been moves to set state criteria for high school diploma
generally in the form of minimum competency requirements.

Activity
Have a discussion with your colleagues as to how social concerns and advances
in technology have affected curriculum development in USA. Also discuss the
applicability of the forces in the context of Pakistan.

219
 2. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Introduction
The United Kingdom is located on a number of Islands on the western edge of the
European continental shelf. Immigrants from all over the world had important
consequences for the educational systems prevalent in the U.K. Ethnic minorities are
concentrated in certain larger urban areas, especially, London and require from system
in these areas, recognition of their special needs, particularly, in respect of language and
cultural differences.

Educational System
Education in the U.K. is said to be national system, locally administered. A large
part of the day-to-day running is in the hands oflocal education authorities (LEA).

Attendance of school is compulsory for children of 5-16 or 18, years divided into
two or three tiers. The two tier system comprises primary schools age (5-11) except in
Scotland where transfer is usually at 12 instead of 11, sometimes subdivided into infant'·
(5-7) andjunior (7-11) school and selective or nonselective secondary school (ages 11-16
or 18). The three tier system consists of first schools (ages S to 8 or 9); middle schools
(ages 8-12 or 9-13); and upper schools usually nonselective (ages 12 or 13 to 16 or 18).
The two tier system is most common; the three-tier system is to be found only in England
catering for 15 per cent of all pupils. Children over the age of compulsory school
education (16} may continue in the same institution such as a sixth form college, tertiary
college, college of further education or technical college.

Education for school learn<"rs is divided into two categories: non-advanced

further education (NFE) which consists of courses provided upto the standard of the
General Certificate of Education. (GCE) and Advanced (A) and higher education which
consists of courses above this level provided in universities, autonomous institution s and
by colleges maintained by LEAs.

Curriculum
Previously there was no nationally determined curriculum but examination boards
which controlled the General Certificate of Education exerted something of a unifying
influence on what was taught in schools. Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools were
responsible to the Secretary of State for Education. They investigated and reported on all
aspects of education including the curriculum. The government, however, introduced a
national curriculum in 1989. The curriculum prescribes a core of three principal subjects
Mathematics, Science and Language and childrens attainment in these subjects is to be
tested at age 7, 11 and 14. Other foundation subjects include History, Geogr aphy, Art
and Music. In Addition, the Education Refonns Act (1988) includes the provision for
religious education for all pupils. A modern foreign language is also applicable for
secondary schools.

220
 Progress through school depends chiefly on age ratio than attainment. There is no
grade system and a majority of children move through system with other children of
the same age. Teachers nevertheless use a variety of ways to test pupils' progress.

Until 1988, secondary school pupils could attempt examination in various

subjects leading, to the Certificate in Secondary Education (CSE) or a more demanding
General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (0 Level). In 1988, these two systems
were abolished and replaced by the General Certificate of Secondary Education
(GCSE). The examination is organized by five independent groups in England, and
Wales and one in Northern Ireland. Scotland has undertaken a separate but similar
reform.

The GCE Advanced level (A level) is normally taken by student in upto three or
four subjects, two years after GCE O level and is the standard for entrance to higher
education and professional training.

However, in connection with the newly introduced national curriculum, the

government is proposing to introduce nationwide assessment for all pupils of 7, 11,14
and 16 years of age.

Activity
Discuss with your colleagues the salient features off curriculum introduced in UK in
1989.

221
 3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA
Introduction
Geographically Canada is the second largest country in the world next only to
Soviet Union. By population it is among the smallest with its 24 million people of
different colours, creeds and languages with two predominant languages English and
French, traced back to its colonial beginning.

Education System
There is officially, no Canadian educational system and by law education is a
provincial responsibility. Thus Canada has twelve educational systems. Though
systems in different provinces have much in conunon, yet each has its unique features
stenuning from tradition and aspirations of the people in each province, and from
differences in economy, geography and size of population. Educational systems in
English speaking provinces have been influenced by Scottish traditions, while in
France are followed in French speaking province of Quebec. One thing, however, is
conunon that Canada is now two-third urban and new, and constantly improving
technologies have brought the country close to being able to offer equality in
educational opportunities to all citizens. There are elementary schools, secondary
schools, special schools, private schools, co1mnunity colleges and universities. The
beginning age for school varies across the country. Elementary school is for children
aged 5 or 8 to 11 or 13 with secondary schools providing programmes for 12 or 14
years old. The elementary school is usually designed to provide basic learning in
reading, writing, computation, science, social studies, music and art. Emphasis is also
being put on Canadian studies.

Secondary schools are of different types, though most are 'Composite Schools and
offer a wide range of academic, business and technical courses. Some vocational occupa
tional schoolsare also available for non-academically oriented students. These schools lead
directly to the world of work while graduation from a composite school leads to
employment in a community college or university.

Curriculum
There is no unifonn curriculum in Canada and even within provinces there are
many differences among school systems. The Ministry of Education is responsible for
prescribing courses of study. The Ministry declares subjects which are to be
compulsory. Usually education department issues guidelines outlining the course
content and then it is the responsibility of the supervising officer of a school to see
that these guidelines are interpreted and implemented within the philosophy and
rational of

222
the approach outlined therein. School staffs are encouraged to take active part in
designing the course. A new course is usually introduced in one or a few schools and
then school boards seek ministerial approval for its province-wide application.
Discovery method, Team Teaching and new technology are in wide use. Lecture
method is also used by some teachers.

Until 1960, a student had to pass a set of departmental exams to graduate from a
secondary school. This system was strongly criticized on the basis that less capable
students would cram and pass the exams and that teachers would concentrate on the
areas important for the exams only. In most cases, it is now the principal and
classroom teacher who determine whether or not a student will graduate on the basis of
overall school performance and school tests and exams. ·

Activity
Compare Canadian composite school with comprehensive schools in Pakistan.

223
 4. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA

Introduction
The system of education in Russia dates back to I920. It has since then been
continuously developed and improved to keep pace with the economic and cultural
growth of the country. All education is controlled by the state and is characterized by
equality and continuity between all types of educational institutions. Education is
universal, free, secular and is conducted in native tongues with the freedom of choice in
language of learning.

Educational System and Curriculum

The system of public education in Russia includes pre-school institutions (Kinder
gartens and nursery schools), schools providing general education, vocational schools,
specialized secondary schools and higher educational institutions. The pre-school
institu tions are of two types, nursery schools enrolling children from 2 months to 3
years and kindergartens enrolling children from three to seven years of age. Activities at
these institutions include games, study, entertainment, elementary work, and all aspects
ofphysical iral, aesthetic and academic education. The state kindergarten syllabus
specifies as to what children have to learn about the environment, arithmetic, drawing,
modelling, sewing and dancing. Reading and writing became a part of the syllabus only
in 1970. The language used is the respective regional language and the main task of
kndergarten is to care for children's health and physical development. This is ensured by
an appropriate schedule, a planned diet, child care, physical exercises and medical
supervision.

The next stage is eight-year school, Primary education wh.ch is compulsory for all
Children is a part of eight-year school. The duration of primary education out of eight is
three years. All subjects are taught with more emphasis on native language and
Mathematics. Other subjects include Music,- Art and Physical Education. Systematic
courses in the native language, Literature, Mathematics, History and foreign language are
introduced in fonn 4. Biology and Geography are added in form 5, physics in fonn 6 and
Chemistry in form 7.

The next stage after eight-year schools is secondary education for two years. For
this level, there are secondary schools, vocational schools and specialized secondary
schools.

Subjects taught in the first year in secondary schools include Literature, History,
Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Foreign Language and Economic Geography. In fonn,
IO, more subjects such as Astronomy, General Biology, and Social Sciences are added.

Labour education is conducted throughout the whole period of secondary

schooling. rn fon11 1 to 3, children acquire work-skills with par
0
.:ard board and other
.. ,

materia ls. They study needle work and grow flowers and plants. Lessons in fonns 4 to 8

224
are conducted in wood-work and metal-work, in domestic science workshop and in the
educational/experimental plots belonging to the school. Attention is also paid to
vocational training in the senior forms of secondary school.

After fonn 8, some pupils also work in industry or agriculture but all of them must
receive secondary education. For this purpose, evening secondary schools provide
courses for the continuation of secondary education. Study in these schools lasts for one
year more than the day secondary schools.

Vocational schools prepare skilled workers for different sectors of national

economy and the system is continuously revised according to the needs of the national
economy.

The courses offered in these schools are of 3 to 4 years duration.

Technical schools train specialists with middle level qualifications for different sectors
of the economy. The tenn of study in these schools after eight year school is 3 to 4 years
and after secondary schoql two to two-and-half years.

There are specialized secondary schools for those who did not complete
secondary education to give them sound knowledge and skill. Students in these schools
study the inter-related cycles of subjects i.e. General Education, General Technical and
Special Cycles. Graduates have a right to enter any higher educational institution and
variety of jobs in different sectors of economy. ·

Higher education is provided in univers1t1es and other institutes (Pedagogy,

Economics, Polytechnic, Agriculture, Theatre, and others). Higher education is
accessible to everyone irrespective of sex, race, social origin or status. A specific set of
subjects involving a combination of education and practical work, resulting in the
acquisition of modern scientific knowledge are chosen. The programme includes
obligatory subjects which fonn the basis of special training and optional subjects to
enable students to study special fields in depth in order to learn the latest scientific and
technical developments. Optional subjects are available in wide range. In Physics alone
there are more than 100 courses. The main teaching method at this stage is lectures,
seminars, laboratory work. practical work and course and laboratory projects.

Activity
List the major characteristics of Russian educational system.

225
 5. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN
Introduction
Japan consists of mainly 4000 large and small islands covering an area of
378000 kilometers out of which only I 2 percent can be inhabited. In 1984, total
population was 120 million and those up to 14 years of age formed 22 percent of the
population.

Educational System
The aim or education in Japan, according to the fundamental law of education,
is that it shall aim at the full development of student' personality, at rearing a people
sound in mind and body, who love truth and justice, esteem individual values,
respect labour, have a deep sense of responsibility and are imbued with an
independent spirit as the builders of a peaceful state and society.

Schooling in Japan emphasize the development of basic abilities in young

people rather than set of specified vocational skills on the assumption that they shall
be prepared to cope flexibly with rapid progress in science and technology and with
rapid changes in society.

The education system of Japan consists of the following four states:

(i) Kindergarten and Nursery-Kindergarten is an educational institution under the
Ministry of Education for children aged three to five years, while nursery
school is regarded as a social welfare institution under the Ministry of Health
and Social Welfare for children upto five years of ag.o.
' ·
(ii) Elementary Education-childern of six years of age attend elementary
schools which is compulsory for all and lasts for six years.

(iii) Secondary Education-Lower secondary school is compulsory for three years.

After compulsory schooling, three to four years upper-secondary education is
provided. Admission is given on successfully passing the entrance examination.

(iv) Higher Education - after upper secondary school, students proceed to Daigaku
University, or Tauki-Daigaku (Junior Colleges) after passing an entrance
examina tion. University courses are of four years duration while junior college
is of three years' duration.

Curriculum
The school curriculum is prescribed by the Ministry of Education bu_t schools are
required to prepare their own detailed instructional programmes on the basis of the
courses of study and guidelines provided by the Ministry. A course is revised
approximately after ten years. Teachers guide books for each grade. and subject are
prepared by Curriculum Specialists in the Ministry with the assistance of teachers.
Following are the det ails of curriculum for all levels:

226
(i) Kindergarten and Nursery: Both types of institutions provide the same sort of
activities to the children based on the principle of teaching through games.

(ii} Elementary: The subjects taught in elementary school include Japanese languages,
Social Studies, Arithmetic, General Science, Music, Art, handicraft and physical
education. Moral education is also compulsory. Some private institutions replace
moral education with religious educ tion. Promotion from one grade to the next is
automatic.

(iii} Lower Secondary: In lower secondary schools, in addition to the subjects taught
at the elementary level, pre-vocational education subjects are also taught. A
foreign language is one of the elective subjects but almost all schools teach
English as a foreign language.

(iv) Upper Seconda,y: In upper secondary schools, in addition to the general

education courses, technical and vocational education courses such as business
education and industrial education are taught.

At all levels of the school system, tests of various types are used to judge whether
a student should be promoted to a higher grade. In elementary schools, the decision
about. promoting pupils is based on i.ntemally administered tests. If students have not
attended more than half the number of school days or if their subject matter achievement
is unsatisfactory or if they have a record of misbehaviour, they are required to repeat a
grade. · ·

Activity
Discuss the merits of Kindergarten/Nursery and Elementary Education is Japan.

227
 6. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE
PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA
Introduction
China is the most thickly populated country of the world with more than 1,008
million people according to the last census. Out of these 200 million live in cities and
the rest live in rural areas. China has a territory of about 96 million square kilometres
including remote mountainous areas, forest zones and pastoral areas.

Educational System
Shortly after the founding of people's Republic of China in 1949, it was
stipulated that education should serve economic reconstruction and the schools should
be accessible to workers and peasants. The policy on education is 'to enable everyone
who receives education to develop morally, intellectually and physically and become a
worker with both socialist consciousness and culture'. There are various types of
schools such as full-time schools, part-study/part-work schools and spare-time schools.
In China education begin with pre-school education for children over three years.

Primary schools enrol children at the age of seven years. The length of schooling
for most primary schools is five years while schools in large cities have a six-year
schooling. A general secondary school is divided into junior stage and senior stage, the
former lasting for three years and the later for two to three years. Secondary
specialized schools admit junior secondary school graduates and this stage lasts for
four years. Vocational schools and polytechnics enroll junior graduates and offer a
three year course. Undergraduate programmes in colleges and universities generally
require four to five years, while medical colleges require six years. Short cycle
professional training colleges offer two to three year courses. Postgraduate studies
may be undertaken at two levels, leading to the award of a master's degree (two to
three year programme) or a Doctor's degree (another two to three years progranunes
after the master's degree). Adult education is provided to workers, peasants and
soldiers over 15 years of age with the priority given to the young and middle-age.d
Curriculum
Education is under the general guidance of Conununist Party and administrated
by the government at different levels. Teaching programmes including curriculum and
a number of teaching hours for primary and secondary schools are formulated and
promulgated by the Ministry of Education, while for higher education institutions, the
Ministry defines the guiding principles of teaching progr mmes. Unified standard
textbooks are prepared by the Ministry of Ed_ucation for primary and secondary
schools, while supplementary or native teaching materials are prepared by the

228
provinces, municipalities and local school systems. For higher education the Ministry
develops unified textbooks for common core courses and specialized foundation
courses while the universities can compiie some of their own courses.
The courses include teaching in Marxist theories, and ideological and moral
education. The principles of integrating theory and practice is emphasized at every
level. Teaching methods include lectures, group discussion, lab experiments and field
studies. Productive work is an integral part of all teaching progranunes.

Activity
Discuss with your friends the aims of education in China.

229
 7. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND
Introduction
Thailand formally known as Siam is a tropical South East Asian country. As one
of the few developing countries, never to have been colonolized, the education system of
Thailand is free of foreign domination and language of instruction at every level is Thai.

Thailand has a stratified occupational and social class structure. Traditionally,

high social prestige is attached to government employment and thus schooling has
been seen as a major answer to social monility.

Educational Systems and Curriculum

A new 6-3-3 structure of education was introduced in 1978. The private sector and
local communities are encouraged to set up kindergartns and early childhood centres to
serve children throughout the country. Only I.7 per cent of all pre-school centres are run
by the Ministry of Education for demonstration and experimental purposes.

Primary education is free and provided universallyby the government. The respon
sibility for the development of curriculum at this stage lies with the Ministry of
Education. Primary education has an integrated curriculum comprising four learning
areas, basic skills (literacy, numeracy, communication skills and abilities relevant to
future occupational roles). Emphasis is also put on character development.
Secondary curriculum covers five broad fields: languages, Science and Mathemat
ics, Scoal Science, Character Development and Work Education. A wide range of
exploratory pre-vocational subjects is also available. Credit system is used to facilifate
flexibility in teaching learning process. The Educational Technique Department with the
assistance of cooperating agencies is responsible for the production and improvement of
learning materials, such as lesson plans, textbooks, supplementaryreading material, and
teachers guides. Short tenn training programmes are launched to train in-service teachers
for efficient implementation of curriculum. Methods of teaching are generally suggested
in syllabus and teachers are encouraged to keep abreast with educational changes and
teaching methods. Traditionally, Thailand's examination and promotion system was
highly structured with major emphasis on end-of-year examination to determine
promotion to the next grade with examination at grades 4,7, lO and 12 administered
externally by districts, provinces, regions, and the Ministry of Education. Entrance to
grade l l and joint university examination were highly selective. But curriculum reform
brought changes in examination system also, and grade . 11 and 12 end-of-year
examinations were abolished in 1975-76 and 1976-77. The new system emphasizes
internal assessment and reduces emphasis on end-of-year examination. In primary
schools reforms have increased emphasis on the day-to-day accomplishment of specific
behavioural objectives. This has improved the promotion rates and has made educational
system more efficient.With respect to entrance examinations to upper secondary schools
and universities, the traditional achievem ent tests have been revised and regional
universities have also established specific quotas to ensure more even representation of
students from the major regionalareas.

Activity
Highlight the function s-of Educational Technique Department.

230
 8. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

Introduction
Malaysia occupies two distinct geographical areas, Peninsular Malaysia,
comprising the Malaya Peninsula to the south of the Isthmus of Kra, and East Malaysia
(the states of Sabah and Sarawak), consisting of the north and western regions of the
Island of Borneo. Both parts are separated by about 644 kilometres (400 miles) of the
South China Sea. The total land area of Malaysia is about 336, 700 square kilometres
(130,000 square miles), of which Peninsular Malaysia occupies 134,680, square
kilometre and East Malaysia 202,020 square kilometres.

Western influence came with the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and
later by the Dutch in 1642. Britain's connection with Peninsular Malaysia began with the
establishment of trading settlement in Penang in 1786, in Singapore in 1819, and in
Malacca in 1824. British influence and authority over North Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak)
were established almost concurrently with British expansion in the Malay Peninsula.

In 1955, Malaya achieved self-government, gaining independence in 1957 and

adopting a system of constitutional monarchy with a popularly elected government. The
Federation of Malaysia, with Sabah and Sarawak, was formed in 1963. The expansion of
the tin industry brought in large number of Chinese, and the growth of the rubber industry
resulted in an influx of Indian immigrants. These events gave rise to the existing plural
society comprising the three major ethnic groups i.e. Malaysian, Chinese, and Indians.

The population of Malaysia in 1980 was estimated at 14.3 million with a yearly
increase of 2.8 per cent.

Agriculture remains a major occupation and accounts for the highest percentage of the
labour force.

Malaysia is now an elective constitutional monarchy. The Federal government has

authority over external affairs, defence, internal security, justice (except 'Islamic and
native law), federal citizenship, finance, commerce, industry, c01mnunications, education
and other related matters.

Educational System and Curriculum

Fonnal education in Malaysia begins at age six in the primary schools and has a
6+3+2+2+2 system of primary, secondary (lower and upper), and postseco ndary
education.

At the primary level, there are three media of instruction, Bahasa Mala ysia,
Chinese, and Tamil. In all schools, and at all levels, English is taught as a compulsory
second language. Promotion at the primary and lower-secondary levels is automatic. In
1980, 2,006,748 children attended primary schools, more than 93 per cent of the
population cohort between the ages of6and 11. lt is expected that about 90 per cent of

231
the cohort will progress from standard 6 of primary to form I of lower-secondary
education.

All primary schools, irrespective of the medium of instruction, use a common

syllabus to ensure that all pupils follow a course whose content reflects a Malaysian
outlook. Each school conducts its own evaluation of pupils. Tests are administered
regularly, whether weekly, monthly, or at term end. In addition, centralized assessments
are conducted yearly for all pupils in standard 5. This national assessment is used to
determine the level of pupil achievement and the remedial activities required before the
pupils enter secondary schools. At the lower-secondary level (fonns l-3), pupils undergo
automatic promotion through the three levels.

Thus a child has a minimum schooling of nine years. Pupils in standard 6 in the
Chinese - or Tamil-medium schools have an additional year in the 'remove class' before
proceeding to form 1 of lower-secondary school. In the remove class, pupils are expected
to acquire proficiency in Bahasa Malaysia.

The lower-secondary level offers a comprehensive type of education. In addition to

academic subjects, studies of a prevocational nature such as industrial arts, home science,
agricultural sciences and commercial studies are included. All pupils are required to take
at least one of the prevocational subjects, the main aim being to expose them to some
practical studies. At the end of form 3, pupils sit for the Lower Certificate of Education
Examination. On the basis of resu Its in this examination, pupils are selected to proceed to
the upper-secondary level and are channelled into various streams, such as science, arts.,
technical and vocational.

At the upper-secondary level (form 4-5), education consists of academic (arts or

science), technical and vocational streams. At the end of the second year, pupils in the
academic and technical streams sit for the Malaysian Certificate of Education, or Sijil
Pelajaran Malaysian examination (in English and .Bahasa Malaysia respectively), and
pupils in the vocational stream sit for the Malaysian vocational certificate of education.
These examinations provide entry qualifications for posts in the public and private
sectors. The tests are also utilized as a basis for selection into the post secondary level
(form 6) or for entry to the various courses at the tertiary level.

At the pre-university level (form 6-lower and upper), education is streamed into
science and arts. Pupils are selected on the basis of their perfonnance in the Malaysian
Certificate of Education or Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia examinations. At the end of the
second year, the students sit for the Higher School Certificate or Sijil Tinggi
Persekolahan in English or Bahasa Malaysia respectively. The results in this examination
detennine student entrance into the local as well as accredited foreign universities and
colleges. it is also a qualification for appointment to certain jobs in the government and
the private sector.

All out-of-school training progranunes are run independently of the fonnal school
system. However, the curricula of all programmes complement the vocational and
technical subjects offered in the schools.

232
 The agencies responsible for out-of-school trammg programmes include the
Board of National Unity of the Prime Minister's Department, the Agriculture and
Corrununity Developing Division, the Veterinary and Fisheries Department of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Department, the Manpower Department of the
Ministry of Culture, Youth, and Sports, the Ministry of Welfare Services, the Department
of Prisons of the Ministry of Home Affairs, and the Department of Infonnation. The
programmes they provide are mainly concerned with the dev1opment of technical skills
either on the job or in preparation for employment Links are maintained with the
Ministry of Education through the participation of officers and teachers brought in from
time to time to assist in the preparation of curriculum and to conduct specific portions of
the training programme.

In an effort to provide maximum opportunities for the rural population, the

Malay and Rural Development Agency (MARA) and the Community Development
Division of the Ministry of Agriculture have developed training programmes geared
mainly towards rural youths. Prior to January 1973, curriculum development was
coordinated by the curriculum section of the Educational Planning and Research
Division of the Ministry of Education. Curriculum Development was subject based
consisting mainly of the preparation of subject syllabi, the development of teacher
guides and teacher retraining programmes, and the supervision of textbook production
either by the Dewan Bahasa clan Pustaka (the language and literazy agency, a statutory
body of the ministry) or by authors in the private sector.

The Curriculum Development Centre, which was established in 19/3, was

assigned the responsibility of helping to raise the standard of education on the basis of
national aspirations. The centre plays an important role in the development of a national
cu rriculum. It continuously evaluates schools curricula, develops curriculum related
models, and disseminates curricula by refraining primary and secondary school
teachers through in-service courses.

The Cabinet Conunittee Report (Ministry of Education 1979) recommended

two major curricular innovations within the school system: (a)i review of the primary
school curriculum with a focus on the basic subjects; and (b) a general education
programme for the secondary level.

The new primary school curriculum was implemented under a phased

programme. In 1982, 302; primary schools began the prograrrune in standard l, and in
1983, the programmes was implemented in standard, in all schools. By 1988, all
primary schools, at all grades, began to use the curriculum.

Activity
Discuss the curriculum development arrangements in the education system of
Malaysia.

233
 9. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA
Introduction
Saudi Arabia covers most of western comer of the Arabian Peninsula, which
occupies the south western comer of Asia. Of the Peninsula's total land area of about 3
million square kilometers, Saudi Arabia comprises nearly 2,200,000 square kilometers
(849,420 square miles). The country is bounded by the Arabian Persian Gulf, Qatar and
the United Arab Emirates to the east: Oman, the Yemen Arab Republic, and the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen to the south, the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aqaba to the west, and by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north.

Historically, the country's harsh environment, resulted in a low population density.

During the l9:30s the population was estimated at 1.5 to 2 million people. The increase
in oil income, especially during the l960s and 1970s and the subsequent improvements
in income, nutrition, and health care, have resulted in a reduction of the rate of infant
mortality, a rise in life expectancy, and almost the elimination of emigration. Today the
country has a population of about 3 to 5 million. With an annual birth rate of 49 per
thousand and a death rate of 19 per thousand with about 45 per cent of the population
being less than 15 years old, the native population can be expected to be around 6
million in the year 2000,. Besides the native population, however, an estimated 1.5 to 2
million foreigners live in the country, constituting more than half the labour force.

The oil industry and development related works and projects have resulted in the
rapid urbanization of the peasant and nomadic population. In 1970, some 20 per cent of
the population was estimated to be living in metropolitan areas (towns of more than
100,000 people); 20 percent in small towns; and 60 percent in rural areas.
Corresponding percentages for 1980 were 42, 12, and 46 per cent, respectively. (South
Arabia, Ministry of Planning 1980 p.56). The nomadic (Bedouin) population is
gradually decreasing. It is now estimated to be about 3 to 6 per cent of the total native
population.

The oil income has incre ased. This income increase·has resulted in fundamental
demographic, social, and economic changes such as rapid urbanization of most of the
population, an almost total dependence on oil-based income, diminution of the value of
most fonns of traditional production (e.g. agriculture, herding, and fishing) and an
unprecedented rise in the importance of the government's role as receiver of national
income, provider of social services, and planner and administrator of national
development. The first five-year development plan was initiated in 1970, second in 1975,
and a third in 1980. The major goals of the latter have been; (a) to diversify the economic
basic by encouraging development in agriculture, mining, and industry; (b) to provide
sufficient medical, education and social services to the population; and (c) to increase the
number of and skills of the Saudi lubour force. Within the national development -effort,
the edllcntionnl system is charged with tlU'ee objectives: (a) to provide nt lenst
busic l!ducntion for ull citizens: (b) 10 provide students with the skills thnt nrc
required by the changing needs of the l!coiwmy: nnd (c) to educate the students
in the beliefs, pmctices, 1rnd vnlucs of the lslnmic cl1llure.

2.'14
 Educational System and Currkulum
The Supreme Council of Education has the role of coordinating the educational
efforts in Saudi Arabia. Under its authority are four major educational bodies whose.
varying sizes and continuous independence from each other, reflect. the efforts of the
cultural and socio-economic factors mentioned above. Each of these bodies will he
briefly described as follows.

Firstly, the Ministry of Education was established in 1954 to replace the Director
General of Education which had been in charge of the educational efforts since 1926.
Prior to 1926, the educational effort was mostly limited to the Qoranic schools which
taught the fundamentals of religion, literacy and arithmetic. Trades and crafts were learnt
through apprenticeship. Scholarship had an almost exclusively religious nature and
talented students also obtained further training in Arabic and the Sharia (Islamic Law)
by attending more specialized lectures from established authorities in the subject.

Attempts to introduce more secular topics were started in the late I 800s by
Moslem philanthropists from other lands. A few partly secular schools were established
in al-1-Iijaz, the western province of Arabia. In 1926, when the Directorate General of
Education was established, the country had about 12 such schools with a total enrolment
of about 709 pupils.

Nearly 25 years later, in 1950-51, the country had 325 government schools and
40 private schools, with a total enrolment of about 42,000 students.
The rise in school enrolment reflected the changes in the socio-economicconditions of
the country. These changes have continued to take place at an accelerated pace and in .
197879, nearly 25 years after its establishment, the Ministry of Education operated 6,560
schools with a total enrolment of 758,614 male students at predominantly the elementary,
intennediate and secondary stages. This number accounted for nearly 57 per-cent of the
total student body in the country.

Secondly, the General Administration of Girls Education (GAGE) was established

in 1960. Objections from concerned parents and Ulama (religious savants) to girls school,
based on the fear that such modem schools might have undesirable effects on girls,
delayed the establishment of these schools, by the government, until 1960. Girls's schools
were put under the Ulama's own administratio n and were thus independent of the
Ministry of Education. In the first year, the GAGE opened 16 schools . Less than 20 years
later, in 1979, the GAGE operated 2,644 schools, mostly elementar y, intennediate, and
secondary, with a total enrolment of 425,042 (female) stud e nts. These students make up
32 per cent of total student body in the country (Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Education,
Centre for Statistical Data, 1980).

Thirdly. there ilt'e other government 1.•ducntional o rga11iz:11i,111, 111 I l)71J-80.

almost 6 per ccmt of nll students in Snudi Arabin wen: enrolled in cdu\.'.,Hi1111.1I in lit 1tions
that did not come under either the Ministry of Education 0 1· the CiAUE. These instituti
ons were

235
operated by the Ministryof Higher Education or the Ministries of Defence, Health,
Social Affairs, Communications or one of the other government agencies which offer
specialized kinds of instruction.

Fourthly, private schools are the oldest type of schools in modern Saudi Arabia.
Prior to the availability of government schools, well-off families used to send their
children to private schools in neighbouring countries or to the few private schools that
existed inside Saudi Arabia. In 1950-51, private schools constituted about 11 per cent of
all schools in the country (40 out of 365). In 1979-80, they made up about 4.3 per cent
of all schools (433 out of 10,018). The decline in the share of private schools in the
educational efforts reflected the tremendous increase in the number of government
schools. Never-the- less, there has been an actual increase of 393 private schools since
1950-51. The increase in these schools reflects two developments in the socio-economic
conditions of Saudi society, namely (a) the rise in the number of working mothers who
send their small children to day-care centres and kindergartens, which make up nearly
one-third of all private sell the size of the upper-middle and middle classes some of
whose members often choose to send their children to privately run schools where the
quality of instruction is thought to be usually better than that in the public schools. In
1979-80, there were 65,635, students enrolled in private schools in the country (41,154
boys and 24,481 girls) accounting for nearly 5 per cent of the total student body.

While the organizations that administer formal education in Saudi Arabia are
various and independent of each other, the basic plan of their programmes is almost
identical. There is-elementary school of six years that begins after the child has reached
the age of six. The next stage is the intermediate or middle stage which lasts for three
years. The third stage is the secondary stage which also lasts for three years. Students
who go on to college, spend an average of four years for obtaining a bachelor's degree
in the social sciences or arts or an average of five years for obtaining a bachelor's degree
in the exact sciences.

With little prior expertise in modern education, the educational system in Saudi
Arabia basically adopted. the Egyptian school curricula, adding a heavier, emphasis on
religious subjects. The curricula of both girls and boys schools are identical except that
girls schools otter classes in home management, cooking, and sewing which boys
schools do not offer. There in a heavier emphasis in boys schools on physical education
than there is in girls schools. Private schools are supervised by the Ministry of
Education or the GAGE and their curricula are basically identical to those of the public
schools.

Both the Ministry of Education and the GAGE have a curriculum department
although little has changed in their educational programmes since their inception. Both
organizations hire the authors of the required textbooks, . print the books and distribute
them among their schools. Thus there is a unifonn c rriculum in the country. The
general composition of this curriculum shows that great time is allocat ed to religious
subjects in the first grade. As the students go in higher class, the emphasis decreases
accordingly. On

236
the contrary, English is not taught at the initial grades, while it is given due importance in
higher grades.

Implementation of the curriculum is ensured through a variety of means such as

the school principal and visits by inspectors from the district office, as well as by a
system of final examination which covers all the material that is supposed to be taught
in a particular semester.

Teaching methods differ from subject to subject. Teachers of religious subjects

emphasize memorization of religious texts and rarely use any teaching aids other than
the blackboard. Teachers of Arabic use the blackboard and also require a fair amount of
text memorization. Teachers of science subjects use laboratories when they are available
in their schools. Most school laboratories, however, are deficient either in equipment or
in qualified personnel, or in both. Language laboratories exit in some elite schools for
teaching English.

Arabic is the language of instruction throughout the elementary, intennediate, and

secondary levels. At the college level Arabic is the medium in the arts, humanities, and
social science. English is me medium at instruction in engineering, medicine, and the
natural sciences. College level textbooks in Arabic and college instructors who have to
use Arabic often type up their own notes and use them as basic required texts. The result
is shallowness in educational standards in some college departments.

From grade 1 to 12, the school year is divided into two semesters. The required
instructional material for a year is divided into two halves. At the end of each semester,
there is an examination that covers one half. The student's marks in two semesters are
added up to make u . his or her mark for the whole year. ff the final mark is below a
certain percentage, sually 50 per cent the student fails in that subject and sits in
another: examination in the subject at the end of the summer recess.

If the student fails again to attain the required minimum marks, he or she has then
·to repeat the whole year, retaking all subjects of that year including those already
passed. Success in passing examinations thus constitutes the only criterion for
promotion from one year or grade to a higher one. ·

Colleges also operate on semester basis but, in a number of universities, the

credit-unit system has been adopted and, thus, students who fail in a particular subject
do not have to repeat the whole year or semest·erbut, rather, only the subject they failed
in, if it is a

237
 10. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN
10.1 Introduction
Pakistan inherited a system of education which had been designed to produce
literate manpower to assist the colonial masters at lower levels of government and
economic administration. Education was meant only for the privileged few who were
supposed to govern the masses rather than to serve them.

In order to produce an efficient class of administration generalists, the main stress

was on arts. Scientific and professional education was limited.

At the time of independence, Pakistan's 90% of population was illiterate with only
a handful of educational institutions. Only two out of 21 universities of undivided India
were situated in Pakistan. From 1947, to 1955, administration of education in Pakistan
was the responsibility of local bodies. With the introduction of one-unit scheme, l!
ducation became a provincial subject. General policy and overall coordination was
handled by the national government through the Ministry of Education. Six regional
directorates of general and two directorates of technical education handled
administration. Intennediate and secondary education were under the control of four
'Boards'. Those who could afford, quality education was available to them in privately
fi n:1nced schools. Most of these schools were run by missionary groups which meant a
rnntinuation of British influence.

The First Educational Conference in Karachi held in November 1947, produced

a number of recommendations designed to make the educational system strong and
relevant to the country' needs and aspirations. This included making Urdu the official
language, curriculum revision, diversification of courses, compulsory religious
instruction and development of administrative machinery. But little of this ambitious
blue print was actually accomplished because of the prevailing socio-political and
economic conditions.

No comprehensive educational refonns were attempted prior to 1958. A few

uncoordinated changes were introduced pertaining essentially to curriculum matters in
primary and lower secondary le vels. Very little attention was given to higher
education. Some technical courses were introduced in classed VI to X and a few
polytechnic and home economic courses were established. Ministry of Education
attempted a comprehensive revie w of education in conjunction with the preparation
of six-year development plan (1952-58) but lack of finances limited its
implementation. Although the goals and objec tives of the six-year development plan
and those of the first five-year plan were not achieved to any significant extent, yet
many of the ideas contained in them became parts of the lat er refonns. The 1959
Commission on National Education called for an overhaul of the structure and
redefinition of the philosophy of education in the develo pment of manpower and
national character. New types of teaching ins tituti ons a nd spec ialized centres were
proposed. Curricula at different stages wer, ,o bl!come more diversified and technical
education and research

238
were to expand. The Commission called for changes in administrative control of
professional colleges and for lengthening the duration of courses in the centres of
excellence and special centres for gifted students with emphasis on science.

New instructions created during the second plan period (1960-65) included
setting up a Bureau of Education for research and data collection, pilot secondary
schools with diversified curricula, educational extension centres, agricultural and
engineering universities, institutes of education and research, textbook boards, boards
of technical education. The plan to reorganise higher education and to increase the
degree level beyond class XIV was frustrated due to the hostile reaction of students.
Establishment 6f higher secondary boards relieved the universities and allowed them
to concentrate on higher education.

New education policy 1969, and Education Reform of 1972, drew up fairly
radical proposals. There was emphasis upon students and teachers involvement in the
running of educational institutions, recognition of the importance of national and
regional languages, a call for setting university commission, demand for changes in
the University Ordinance and in the management of privately managed institutions.
Establishment of national literacy corps was also proposed. In short, the new
Education Policy of 1972, aimed at restructuring of education from top to bottom.
However, implementation of this policy was hampered for several reasons.
Nationalization of schools and colleges resulted in an unprecedented increase in
education budget and a sharp decline in the educational standards.

Based on the recommendations of various conunittees, a National Bureau of

Curriculum and Syllabi and a National Textbook Board were set up in February, 1967,
within the Ministry of Education. Initially, the functions envisaged for Bureau of
Curricula and Syllabi were:

(a) to ensure that the content of education is unified in all the provinces so that the
schools, colleges and universities in the provinces produce graduates of more or
less equal academic level, sharing common national outlook and aspiring to
common national goals;
(b) to coordinate the work of the provinces in order to evolve common curricula
and syllabi;
(c) to undertake comparative study of curricula;
(d) to identify problems and determine areas in which research is needed; to
define research priorities and design research projects;
(e) to hold consultations with subject matter specialists, teachers and other persons;
(f) to hold seminars and meetings; and
(g) to prepare reports and other documents.

The functions of the National Textbook Board were outlined as belo w:

(a) to lay down a broad national policy governing the preparation and production
of textbooks;

239
(b) to review textbooks from time to time to see that they are in keeping with
the changes talcing place from time to time;
(c) to ensure that the contents of education are identical and that achievement at
different levels of education i.e. primary, secondary, etc., is more or less of graded··
academic·standard; ·
(d) to produce model textbooks upto pre-university levels; and
(e) to produce standard books on selected disciplines, i.e. Islamic Ideology,
'Economics, Civics, etc.

Before the adoption of 1973 Constitution, the National Bureau of Curriculum and
textbooks was entirely provincial subjects, whereas under the 1973 Constitution
provision, curriculum syllabi, planning, policy, centres of excellence, standards of
education and Islamic education wereplaced on the concurrent legislatives list of
Federal Government. The functions of NBCT, as mutually agreed between the Federal
and Provincial governments are as follows:
(1) To assist and advise the government in the formulation and implementation of
national policies with respect to curriculum development and evaluation and
textbook production;
(2) to coordinate the curriculum and textbook development activities and projects in
the provincial Bureaus and Boards;
(3) to provide leadership in curriculum and textbook development, in general and ye
and play active role in those provinces where resources are yet to be developed;
(4) to conduct research in curriculum development on different aspects of
curriculum renovation for classes I to XII. To publish curriculum bulletins and
handbooks;
(5) to collect infonnation and data regarding curriculum development and text-book
production in other countries and; after assessing the development in the light of
curriculum research, and disseminate same to the provincial agencies concerned;
(6) to provide guidance and resource material to textbook boards and authors in the
production of textbooks, workbooks, primers and readers.
(7) to evaluate textbooks for all levels against national goals, aims and objectives;
(8) to advise concerning curricula and materials for special educational needs and
community development projects;
(9) to liaise with educational institutions and authorities in Pakistan and with
international agencies, such as UNESCO, I.B.E., UNICEF, I.L.O., and with
curriculum development organizations in foreign countries.

The functions of the Provincial Bureau are as follows:

(a) The Provincial Bureau of Curriculum will be responsible for preparing initial
drafts of syllabi in given subjects for consideration of the National Committee
concerned, and for micro-testing the final curriculum drafts;
(b) The Provincial Bureaus will collaborate with the Provincial Textbooks Boards in
the prepatation of textbook manuscripts based on the agreed national curricula;
(c) The Provincial Bureaus will collaborate with the various Boards, Education
Extension Centres, Teacher Training Organizations and Education Equipment
Centres in the implementation of the agreed curricula.

240
 Education policy of 1979 placed greater emphasis upon religious education and
Pakistan Studies. It also tried to integrate the religious institutions with mainstream
national educational institutions. In order to achieve the target of universal primary
enrolment, revival of mosques schools and maktabs was proposed. A women university
was proposed to be set up in the country to strengthen the female education.

Curriculum Development and Revision and Reforms

The Education Commission, 1959, analysed the situation pertaining to curriculwn
development and refonns and pointed out in their report that:
(a) First, it must provide adequate knowledge of subject that will be needed by every
pupil tor leading a useful and happy life in a fast developing society. This should
form the core of compulsory subjects which every student must take up.
Secondly, the curriculum should include such additional subjects and training as
will fonn a preparation for specific vocation and careers;
(b) The process of curriculum construction and its revision in the light of evolving
social and individual interests and needs be a continuous one;
(c) The curriculum should be adapted to the mental abilities ofchildren aged five to
ten related to the normal situations they are faced with in everyday life. It must be
so designed as to develop the basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetics, a
liking of patriotism. Teaching methods should, as far as possible, use the Activity
or Project Approach, and teachers should show initiative in the use of locai
materials as teaching aids;
(d) Religious education should be a compulsory subject throughout the primary stage;
(e) Due emphasis should be placed on the teaching of the national languages.

With regard to Textbooks, the relevant recommendations of the Commission

are produced below:

"The responsibility fbr drawing up syllabuses and prescribing courses is

nonnally that of the education authorities. However, to realise the national
objectives of education laid down in this report, the Ministry of Education set
up a Textbook Bo!lrd. It should be a small and autonomous body with
representatives from the provinces and should work through textbooks
committees operating within the sphere of each education authority.

The responsibility of the Textbook Board should be:

· (i) to frame the syllabuses according to the recommendations made in this report; and
(ii) to lay down policy for the preparation, printing and publication of textbooks .

Process of Curriculum Development

The process of curriculum development which is generally followed in Pakistan,
with slight variations, may be described to consist of the following stages:
(i) Determining the aims and goals of education:
The first step in the process of curriculum development pertains to determining the
aims and goals of education. Guidance to the curriculum developers is provided in

241
 this respect by the prevalent education policy, Cabinet decision or some other
policy statement by the President, Prime Minister or the Federal Minister for
Education;

(ii) Formulation of various committees by the Curriculum Wing

In pursuance of the policy statement or policy guidelines, the Curriculum Wing of
the Ministry of Education appoints two types of Committees at the national level viz.
()National Committee on Secondary Education and Primary Education each, and (2)
Subject Conunittees at primary and secondary levels separately. These committees
which include teachers, subject specialists, administrators fw·rher delineate aims of
education for subsequent input;
The Curriculum Wing, alongwith constituting the abovementioned conunittees also
communicates the aims and goals of education and other policy guidelines to the
Curriculum Research and Development Centres at the provincial level for appropriate
action in respect of curriculum development;

(iii) Proposals by the CRDC's and Curriculum Bureaus

The Curriculum Research and Development Centres and the Bureaus of
Curriculum functioning at the provincial levels take appropriate initiative and finalize
their proposals, keeping in view the overall aims of education, local situation and their
research experience etc. and send the same to the National Committee on Secondary!
Primary Education, as the case may be for further processing;

(iv) Processing _in the National Committees

Having received the curricular proposals from the provincial CRDC's and BC's
the relevant committee i.e. either the secondary or primary level committee ascertains
their suitability in the light of overall aims of education and then with its
recommendations and observations, sends the curricular proposals to the relevant
subject committee. The relevant subject committee considers the whole package and
sends it back to the primary/secondary level committee at the national level from whom
it had received;
The primary/secondary level conunittee functioning at the national level reconsiders the
original proposals and the subsequent recommendations and accords final·approval of
the curriculum.

Textbooks
Textbooks play a very important role in educational activity. It was in recognition
of this role that a full f1edged textbook sector was established in the Bureau of
Curriculum and .Textbooks in 1974. Its main objectives are given as under:
I. To coordinate the work of four Provincial TextbookBoards;
2. To keep a chec k on the prices of textbooks pu· 'ished by the boards;
3. To ensure that the textbooks prepared by the pn.:vinces confonn to aational
aims and objectives as expressed through nation al w rt,culum ;
4. To maintain unifonn standard in textbooks both in content and production;
5. To provided leadership to the boards by preparing model textbooks.

242
 Production of Textbooks
Production of Textbooks in Pakistan is basically the responsibility of four
Provincial Textbook Boards These Boards are autonomous organizations under the
administrative authority of the Provincial Education Department. The process of
textbook production for classes I to XII starts fonn the Federal Ministry of Education.
The Federal Ministry formulates curriculum and devises schemes of studies . The
finalized curricula are forwarded to CRDC's and the Boards for preparatio·n of
textbooks.

For the preparation of manuscripts of textbook, two type of practices are

prevalent. Some of the Boards appoint a panel of authors for writing a textbook and
assign different chapters to them. Others, through open competition, invite written
manuscripts. A committee of Boards' experts examines the manuscripts. The best
manuscript is selected for publication and prescription. In certain cases where no
manuscript is found up to the mark, lesson/chapters are selected from different
manuscripts and the Boards own book. The finally selected/ adopted manuscript is
submitted to the Federal Ministry of Education for approval.

The Ministry with the consent of the Provincial Education Departments

constitutes a National Review Committee for all subject areas. The nominations for the
members of the National Committee are made by the provinces, consisting of subject
experts, curriculum planners and teachers etc. The committee for various subject areas
examines the respective manuscript with a view to ascertain that true spirit of the
national curricula is re.fleeted·in the textbooks. The Committee deter sequentially from
grade to grade as well as to age and ability level. of the books remain uniform and
ensures that there is no overloading. Measures to reduce prices are considered as well.
The examined manuscripts with the committees are sent back to the Boards for printing.

The job of printing and publishing the textbooks is contracted out to private
printers! publishers. The distribution of these textbooks is done by the private agencies.
The publishers are mostly centred in big cities like, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar,
Hyderabad, and Quetta, and sell these books through retailers.

Since the prices of the books are to be kept at minimum, the amount of the profit
of the books is to be kept at minimum, the amount of the profits of the publishers and
commission to the retailers are specifically prescribed by the Textbook Boards.

243
 11. A SUMMARY OF SYSTEMS OF EDUCTION AND CURRICULA OF SOME COUNTERUIES OFTHE WORLD

Namcof
the
System of Education Role of State Responsib ility of
Curriculum
I Compulsocy
Education
I Principals Subjects
taught at schools
I System of Promotion in Grades
in Schools
country

USA Diverse systems ex ist 111 Although education is No, official mlio nal Free public Eng lish languages 1mlh, Pro motion at emuuy bd
vari ous slates. In each stale a state and localcurriculum s tate Education for social studies, science automatic exa mination at
hoard of education for policy responsibility FederalDevelopment s I:! years from music artsand physical secondary level
and preparing budget. KG + 8 Govt. gives financia prescribe age of6 or 7 education new Regular attendance and school
ele men ta ry grades + 4 years l support for education curriculum subject subjects ethics s tud ics, record of achievement is
of high school lead to high Indians, veterans and specialists schools , cons umer and alcohol criteria for award of diploma
school graduation. students loans. admini strations and t1busc instruction.
teacher arc
involved Ill
curric ulu m

United
King dom
I National system
Locally administer (lea) Education lays
development
Secretary of the slate for w.e.f 1989 National
down curriculum Comp ulsory Moth science No Grode system diihnn-o.c
prima ry sch(IOI in lwo or policy and exercises introduced. Educalio n from language, history through sys tem o n the bas is
of three tiers 6;, form tertiary supervision lhrough her agcofS lo 16 geography, art, music age. Examination at secondary
college technicu l collcgc maje s ty' s in specter of / I 8 yea rs at religious ed ucat ions le vel i.e CSE GCSE (0 level)
schools . two ti e r ( from 1 9 88) Gce(A level.)

Na uniform From age ofS At elementary level Principal or class teacher

I Twelve education systems in Ministry of Education curriculum Even to 16/18 years

Canada declares compulsory within provinces at two tier i.e. em phasis on reading determines whether a student
different provinces oilers
subjects and department curricula diller Elementary computation, science, should graduate on basis of his
and
equality in education issuesguidelines. among systems Secondary. social studies, music school perfonnance.
opportunities to all citizens schoo ls staff art and Canad ian
System comprises Eel. actively part1c1pate Alllmdlybdmi:
Schools special schools, in course a:alnr, nimil
designing. community colleges and s.4n
uni\'ersities.
(a) General Education Promotion on the basis of
Consists of state K.G. sy ste m Sate exercises full control Responsibilities for Aller pri- native languag e, math assessment and tes l.
music art, physical
Russia I term Gener-.il Education on policy curriculum and curricu lum rests schooling
education foreign
vocationa l schools, budgets with the states primary
specialized secondary schoo l education language and scienceare
for introduced progressively
higher education . three years is {b)Secondary Education
compulsory literature, his tory, malh
physics, chemistry try,
fore ign Language,
economy geogra phy
, labor educatioo.
Name of the System of Role of State Responsibility of Compulsory Principals Subjects System of Promotion
countrv Education Curriculum Education taught at schools in Grades in Schools
Japan Kindergarten and Education is the Ministry of K.Gor Elementary Japanese Promotion on the
Nursery 3*5 state responsibility. education pres cribes Nursery languages social basis of tests I
Elementary There are private curriculum and Elementary studies arithmetic ' s, attendance
education for six schools also. provides guidelines Education 6 general science, music performance.
years for instructional years plus 3 art handicra fl
Lower secondary programs. years of Secondary
schools 3 years lover In addition foreign
upper secondary secondary languagesprovincial
school 4 years educatio n. subjects, technical and
Higher education 3- vocational subjects..
4 years Teaching in Marxist Based on tests and
Peoples republic Education starts at 3 Communist party Ministry of Primary and theories, ideological performance.
of China with pre-school guide all Education for lower and moral education
education 5/6 educational mulaters curriculum secondary
primary schools programmers of the prescribes teaching education 8
years voeational ministry of learning activities years.
schools. edu cation. and guide teaching
Under graduate progrmmes books
programmersin and teaching
univ ersity 4-5 years materials published. Primary
medical 6 years Basic and abilities Promotion system
post-g raduate M.A relevant lo future higher structured.
Ph.D. occupational roles. Emphasis on end-of-
Emphasis on character year examination.
Kindergarten 6-3-3- Primary development Entrance to grade 11
Thailand structure of State Con trolled. The educational education is Secondary and join university
education technique compulsory Language, science commerce education
introduced in 1978 department and free (6 math social studies, highly selective.
higher education develops and years) character development However from 1975-
improves learning work education . A 1976 and of years
material text books large number of examination for
reading material exploratory pre- grade I I or 12 were
teaching guides els. vocationa l subjects are abolished. New
available. system emphasizes
internal assessment.

245
Name System of Educa t io n Role Respons ibility Compulsory Princi pals Subjects taught.a t schoo ls Systemof
ofthc of of Education Promotion in
 countty State Curr iculum Grades in Schools

Malaysia Formal educ ation starts at 6 in the S tate Cu rriculum 1 Primar y Three media of instructions Malays ia. Promotion al
primary schoo l. Has a 6+3+2+2+2 ontrol deve lopme nt level ducation Chinese and Tamil. English as the second primary and
year.. system of primary lowe r ,..d c enter universa Iized . lang uage. At lo wer secondary level secondary levels is
secondary upper seco ndary and established in Efforts are comprehensive sty le of ed ucation automatic
posl secondary. 1973 under ways to prcOvocationa l subjects At upper secondary External
miversalize leve l academic teclmical and voe atonal examinationat
ccond ary subjec ts ar c taug ht. secondary and
•d ucat ion higher level.
Saudi r>11(nfflC Councilof cduc,1tion S tate Egyptian schoo l\ :yptian model heavy emphasis on religio us Promotion through
Arabia ·oordin ates educa tion. Four nw jo r ·ontrol curriculum is subjc cts. examination from
..-ducational hudics cd mostly adopted ' Curr ic ulum of both hll)'S a nd girls school arc grade 1 to 2 J·cars
1. Ministry of e<lm:atio n with a he;l\' icr ide ntical except tha t gi rls schools offer is divided in 3
i. General J\d 111ini, tratio11 or Girls emphasis on sul jccts in home management sewing and semeste rs sc m\-.stcr
schools I religi o us cooking whik llcavicr emphasis is given on system introdua..'f.i i
i. other gove rnment cducat io na l s u jccts. physica l c,d •<.:atio n in boys schoo ls. also in universities
orgiUlizat io ns credit syst1'..lll
,,·. Private sch ools educatio n strnctur
n.:mentary
3 :year.; seco ndmy .3 ycnrs
intermediate 4\5 college ed ucation.

Pill.iSlan Formal Ed ucatio n primary lowe r r:ita te urricu lum Nil. Ta rget Regiona l la nguage number skills soc ial studie System of
Sl.-condary midd le second ary ontrol evelopment at o f achie ving at primary leve l English math scie nce and promotion is based
higher seco ndary and college eel he federal leve l univcrs,11 home vocational subject onannual university
professio na l level by the federal primary are added at lower secondary levels a wide examinations atall
purcau of ed ucat ion is range of vocational s ubjec t levels except al
Curriculum and yet to be offered at secondary levels subject taught at some 1D1ivasitics
extb ooks. achieved . higher secondary level are meant to prepare profes.siooaJ
s tudents for medical engineering and arts colleges where
studies at higher level islam iyat and Pakistan semesier hasbeen
s tudies introduced bas
are co mpuls ory from primary to been in divisions
higher secondary levels. has been replaced
bv eradesystem

246
Self-assessment Questions

I. System of education and curriculum of a country reflect the national

characteristics and aspirations of the people. Discuss this with reference to
Canada and Malaysia.
2. You have studied the systems of education and curricula of some countries of
the world. How would you classify the curriculum development. Explain with
examples.
3. Describe the salient features of the educational systems of Russia and China.
4. How would you evaluate the Japanese system of education and curriculum?
How far can we draw some lesson from it?
5. From the comparative styd of various curricula, suggest some changes in the
school curriculum of Pakistan?
6. Go through the following statements and tick 'T if the statement is True and 'F'
if the statement is False:
(a) Education system of a country has got a close relationship with the process of
curriculum development. T/F
(b) In the USA, the school lunch programmes are lanced by the local authorities.
T/F
(c) There is no official national curriculum in the USA. T/F
(d) The General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) was int,roduced to in
the UK in 1988. T/F
(e) In Japan, the schools prepare their own detailed instructional programme in the
ligh of policy guidelines given by the Ministry of Education. T/F
(f) In China, each -of the schools has got its own curriculum. T/F
(g) In Thailand, the curriculum at all levels of education is heavily dominated by
foreign influences. T/F
(h) In Malaysia, all the primary schools follow a uniform curriculum. T/F
(i) Saudi Arabia has primarily adopted the Egyptian pattern of curriculum T/F

Answers of Self-assessment .Questions

Q 1-5: For answers to quest ions No. I to 5, consult the relevant portions of the text.
Q6: (a)T (b)F (c)T
(d) •T (e) T (f) F
(g) F (h) F (i) T

247
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beeby CE. the Quality of the Education in Developing Countries. Harvard
University Press Cambridge Masachus settee 1966.

Clifford, Ceraldine Joncich, Shape of American Education, Printice Hall Inc.,

Engle New Jersey /975.

Coming W. Education and Equality in Japan, Princeton University Press,

Princeton New jersey.

Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National System of Education,

Pergamon Press Pk. 1-Ieadington Hill Hall Oxford, England 1988.

EPM-504 Curriculwn Planning and Evacuation Allarna Iqbal Open

University, Islamabad 1981.

Hill Way, Tyrus Education in American Society, Houghton Miffin Co.

Boston 1961. Japan Ministry of Education, Basic Guidelines for the Reform of
Education, Report of the Central Council for Education, Ministry of Education,
Tokyo 1972.

Machlup F. Education and Economic Growth, New York University Press 1975.
Unesco, the Curriculum Development Centre ot Malaysia, BangKok 1975

National Curriculum, from Policy to Practice, Department of Education

Science, UK 1989.

248