AQA D2 Revision Sheets
AQA D2 Revision Sheets
uk V 07 1 1
Terminology
Example:
An activity is a task which needs to be done and takes an
The table shows the activities involved in creating a small patio
amount of time/resources to complete.
in a garden.
Precedence tables show the activities that need to be done
together with their duration and their immediate predecessors.
Activity Task Time Preceding
Precedence networks show the sequence of the activities. The
Name (hrs) Activities
network must have one end node.
Activities are represented by nodes in the network. A Clear Garden 4
Precedences are shown by arcs in the network. B Measure area 1
Drawing a precedence network: It can be a good idea to do an C Design Patio 2 B
initial sketch as it’s often possible to make your diagram clearer.
Forward pass establishes the earliest times that activities can D Purchase fencing 1 B
begin. E Buy pots and plants 3 A,C
Backward pass establishes the latest time. F Plant all pots 1 E
Critical activites are those whose timing is critical if the project
is to be completed in the minimum time. The critical activities G Purchase paving 1 C
will form a path through the network. H Construct Garden 6 H, D,G
Float is the amount of time by which an activity can be delayed
or extended. The network for this precedence table
Independent float does not affect other activities.
Interfering float is shared between two or more activities.
E F
3 1
END
A 0
4
C G H
2 1 6
B
1 D
1
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E F
4 3 7 7 1 10
END
A 10 0 10
0 4 4
C G H
1 2 3 3 1 4 4 6 6
B
0 1 1 D
1 1 4
4 If activity A needs two people and all the rest can be done
3 by one person, then the resource histogram looks like this
2 2 (note that 4 people are needed in the second hour).
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A If only three people are available for the first three hours,
B but a fourth friend can then come and help for an hour, we
C could move activity D within its float time to make this
D possible.
E
F This would make the cascade chart look like this:
G
H
4
3
2 2 The resource histogram would now look like this:
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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A Solution
4 D
stage State Action Value Current
4 5 (node) (into node) (Route min) max
6 3 1 0 (D) 0 3* 3
1 (E) 0 4* 4
S 3 B 2 E 4 2 (F) 0 6* 6
T
2 0 (A) 0 min (4,3)=3 4
1 min (4,4)=4*
1 (B) 0 min (5,3)=3 4
6 4 6 1 min (2,4)=2
3
2 min (4,6)=4*
C 5 F 2 (C) 0 min (3,4)=3 5
1 min (5,6)=5*
Optimal route S C F T 3 0 (S) 0 min (6,4)=4 5
Maximum weight of lorry is 5tonnes 1 min (3,4)=3
2 min (6,5)=5*
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Example 2
A company is planning to build three new houses A, B and C at the rate of one every three months. They can build the
houses in any order but the profit will be affected by the workers available and the supply costs, which are subject to
variation. The expected profits in thousands of pounds are shown in the table
Time period Already completed Profits (£1000) (a) Represent the information on a
A B C network such that the optimal strategy
1 -- 54 50 48 will correspond to the longest path
2 A - 60 56 through the network.
B 73 - 56 (b) Use dynamic programming to
C 70 65 - determine the order in which they
3 A and B - - 66 should build the houses in order to
A and C - 69 -
maximise profit
B and C 71 - -
Solution
50 69
none B A, C A, B, C
56 70
48 71
C B, C
65
(b)
Stage State Action (house to Value max
(time period) (houses built) be built) (profit)
3 0 (A, B) 0 (C) 67* 66 It can be very helpful to write
1 (A, C) 0 (B) 69* 69 what is happening in the state
2 (B, C) 0 (A) 71* 71 and action columns.
In this case the state is the
2 0 (A) 0 (B) 60+67=127* 127
houses that have already been
1 (C) 56+69125
built and the action is the
1 (B) 0 (A) 73+67=140* 140
house that is about to be built.
1 (C) 56+71=128
2 (C) 0 (A) 70+69=139* 139
1 (B) 65+71=136
1 0 0 (A) 54+127=181 190
0 (B) 50+140=190*
0 (C) 48+139=187
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REVISION SHEET – DECISION MATHS
GAME THEORY
In a two person, zero sum game, one player’s gain is the same
The main ideas are covered in
AQA Edexcel MEI OCR
Before the exam you should know:
D2 D2 D2
• What is meant by a two person, zero sum game.
• How to interpret a payoff matrix.
• How to find a playsafe strategy.
The main ideas in this topic are: • What is meant by a stable solution.
• Finding out whether a two person zero sum • How to find the value of a game.
game has a stable solution. • How to simplify games using dominance.
• If a stable solution does not exist, using a • How to find an optimal mixed strategy for a game
graphical method to find an optimal mixed with no stable solution.
strategy. • How to convert a two person zero sum game into
a linear programming problem.
as the other player’s loss.
A pay-off matrix represents the gain for one of the players for each combination of strategies for the two players in a
two-person game.
Finding a play-safe strategy for a zero-sum game
In the pay-off matrix for A, find the minimum entry in each row; A will use the strategy that involves the greatnesses of
these values (maximin).Then find the maximum entry in each column, B will use the strategy that involves the lowest
of these values (minimax).
A stable solution occurs if and only if the maximum(row minimum) = the minimum(column maximum).
A assumes B uses his play-safe strategy and cannot do better by using an alternative strategy and B assumes A uses his
play-safe strategy and cannot do better by using an alternative strategy. A stable solution is sometimes called a saddle
point.
Example: Anna and Barry play a zero sum game. The Solution
game can be represented by the following payoff matrix
Row
for Anna B1 B2 B3 minimax
max
B B B
B1 B B2B B3B
A1 3 2 5 5
A1 3 2 5 A2 -1 4 -2 4
A2 -1 4 -2 3
A3 2 1 3 3
A3 2 1 3
Col min -1 1 -2
1 ≠ 3 so solution
(a) Show that there is not stable solution maximin 1 is not stable
Dominance: A row/column can be eliminated if all the entries in that row/column are less than or equal to the corresponding
entries of another row/column because the player would never choose that row/column.
Finding a mixed strategy using a graph: If player A has two possible strategies, assume he adopts the first
strategy with probability p and the second with probability 1-p. The expected payoff for A will depend on
which strategy B chooses so plot A’s expected payoff for each of B’s strategies as lines on a graph. A’s best
strategy is to play with the value of p which gives the highest point at the intersection of the lines. This will
maximise A’s minimum return (maximin). The value of the game can be B1 B2 B3 B B B
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Solution
(b) Anna should not play A3 since row A3 is dominated by row A1 since 3 > 2, 2 > 1 and 5 > 3.
(c) Let Anna play
B1 B2 B3
A1 with probability p
B B B
A1 3 2 5
A2 -1 4 -2 A2 with probability (1 − p )
B1: 3 p − 1(1 − p ) = 4 p − 1
B
B2: 2 p + 4(1 − p ) = 4 − 2 p
B
B3: 5 p − 2 (1 − p ) = 7 p − 2
B
Solving for p :
4 p −1 = 4 − 2 p
⇔ 6p = 5
From the graph you can see that the optimal expected return for
5 Anna occurs at the intersection of the lines for Barry playing
⇔ p=
6 strategies B1 and B2.
5 1
So Anna should play A1 with probability and A2 with probability
6 6
⎛5⎞ 20 14 1
Value of the game: 4 ⎜ ⎟ − 1 = −1 = =2
⎝6⎠ 6 6 3
If there are any negative elements in the payoff matrix, add k to make them all positive.
This information can now be put into an initial simplex tableau and solved in the usual way.
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The main ideas are covered in Before the exam you should know:
AQA Edexcel MEI OCR • That you will be working on a matrix or array of
D2 D2 D2 numbers called the payoff matrix.
• How to reduce a matrix to one containing zeros and
interpret this to give an optimal allocation.
• How to apply the Hungarian algorithm to minimise
The main ideas in this topic are: costs.
• Extending the ideas introduced in • That the matrix of numbers must be square before
matchings to find a maximum matching you can apply the Hungarian algorithm.
and its associated cost. • How to deal with maximisation problems by
subtracting all the entries in the matrix from a
• Using the Hungarian algorithm to find an constant.
optimal, minimum cost solution.
Allocation problems are solved by reducing the payoff matrix by subtracting the least value in each row (or column)
form all the entries in that row (or column). You now have a matrix showing relative costs and the least entry in each
row (column) will now be zero. These zeros will represent a minimum “cost” solution. A good way to see whether you
have a maximum matching is to find the minimum number of lines needed to cover all the zeros in the matrix.
station for the 0800 train. The table shows the time D 1 0 1 2 Subtract 24 from each entry
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Note: If you need to maximise, subtract every number in the original payoff matrix from the largest number in the
matrix before applying the algorithm. The final payoff is then found by adding the original payoffs in the cells used in
the optimal matching.
Example: The average scores for five members of a quiz team are shown in the table:
A different person must be chosen to answer questions in each of the five rounds in the final. Using their past
performance, who should do each round in order to maximise score?
(a) Explain why you should replace each entry x by 20 – x before using the Hungarian Algorithm
(b) Form a new table by subtracting each number from 20. Use the Hungarian algorithm to allocate the sports team
members.
(c) State the expected score for the team based on their practice scores.
Solution: (a) Because the problem is a maximisation problem and 20 is the largest number in the matrix.
(b)
music sport geography history General
knowledge
Alan 3 1 2 5 4
Brenda 0 2 5 1 3
Cally 7 3 3 4 6
David 8 4 2 5 6
Edwin 6 4 5 4 5
Alan – sport, Brenda – music, Cally – History, David – Geography, Edwin – General Knowledge
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Example A 3 C
In this the directed network 5 4
a) What is the maximum flow along the path SACT? 2
3
S T
b) Find an initial flow of value 7. 4
8
c) Find the maximum flow in the network 6
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3
3 4
c) Flow augmenting paths A C 3
0 4
5 01
SBCT with capacity 1 4 3 21
2
1 2 2
SBCDT with capacity 1 3 1
SABCDT with capacity 1 2 10
S 3 T
21 1 4 3 4
1 2
0 2 8
6 54 3 Diagrams showing the flow
6
0 augmenting paths can be
This gives a maximum total flow very messy. Try to keep
of 10. The flow is shown on this 4 yours as tidy as possible
diagram, along with the saturated arcs. 4 5 and always list the flow
B D 6
4 augmenting paths you have
A 3 C used
4 4
1
3 Cuts
S T A cut partitions the vertices into two sets, one containing the
2
6 source and one containing the sink.
6
The capacity of a cut is the total of all the cut edges with
4 D
direction going from source to sink
B
A 3 C
Find the capacity of the cuts shown on the directed network:
5 4
Note that only three cuts have been shown here, but there are many
more cuts in this network. 2
3
S T
C1 is the cut {S}, {A, B, C, D, T} 4
8
It has capacity 5 + 6 = 11 6
C2 is the cut {S, B}, {A, C, D, T} Note that we do not add the C1 B 4 D
capacity of arc AB as it is directed C2
It has capacity 5 + 0 + 3 + 4 = 12 from the sink side of the cut to the
C3
C3 is the cut {S, A, B}, {C, D, T} source side
It has capacity 3 + 3 + 4 = 10
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Example:
A manufacturer makes three products x, y and z which give profits of £160, Staff time Storage
£120 and £120 per tonne respectively. Production is constrained by (hours /tonne) (m3 /tonne)
availability of staff and storage as summarised in this table: x 5 5
y 5 3
Formulate a linear programming problem. z 6 4
availability 30 20
Objective function Constraints
Objective function is maximise P = 160x + 120y + 120z Subject to: 5x + 5y + 6z + s1 = 30 (staff time)
⇒ P − 160x − 120y − 120z = 0 5x + 3y + 4z + s2 = 20 (storage)
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0 s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0
First iteration
Look for the largest negative value in the
P x y z s1 s2 RHS Ratio test objective row. This is in the y column, so we
row 1 + 160 × row 3 1 0 -24 8 0 32 640 will choose to increase y.
Since 5 < 10 we choose 2 as the pivot
row 2 − 5 × row 3 0 0 2 2 1 -1 10 10/2 = 5 element.
The idea is to make the pivot 1 so divide the
row 3 0 1 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 4 4/0.4 = 10 pivot row by 2.
Second iteration
P x y z s1 s2 RHS The solution is optimal since there are no
row 1 + 24 × row 2 1 0 0 32 12 20 760 negative values in the objective row.
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