ARCHIVAL METHOD (USING DOCUMENTATION) AS A RESEARCH METHOD

Documents are standardized artifacts, in so far, they typically occur in particular formats: as
notes, case reports, contracts, drafts, death certificates, remarks, diaries, statistics, annual reports,
certificates, judgements, letters or expert opinion (Wolff, 2004). Documents are written texts -
books, papers, scripts, diaries, committee minutes etc. - things which have or can have (when
they are printed) a physical form (Scott, 1990). Both Fitzgerald (2007) and Dolowitz et al. (2008)
add to or extend this definition, with Fitgerald adding oral and virtual documents, and Dolowitz
et al extending the definition further to include photographs, paintings and recorded material.
Writing at the beginning of the current decade, McCulloch reverts to a simpler but inclusive
definition, portraying documents as records of something, without specifying or limiting the
nature of the record. For assessing the quality of documents, Scott (1999) suggests four criteria,
which one can use for deciding whether or not to employ a specific document for research:

 Authenticity: Is the evidence genuine and of unquestionable origin?

It addresses the question of whether the document is a primary or secondary document. Tertiary
documents are sources to find other documents.

 Credibility: Is the evidence free from error and distortion?

It refers to the accuracy of the documentation, the reliability of the producer of the document, the
freedom of errors.

 Representativeness: Is the evidence typical of its kind, and if not, is the extent of its
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untypicality known? It is linked to typicality.
 Meaning: Is the evidence clear and comprehensible?

A major step is to construct a corpus of documents which involves referring to issues of

sampling. Inter-textuality of documents is one problem in this context. They are linked to other
documents. All documents refer to other documents in the way they document and construct
social realities.
McCullough and Richardson’s (2000) Seven Issues:

In developing a full understanding of the nature and potential use of published primary sources,
it is important to clarify the following issues:

1. Issues relating to the text;

2. Issues relating to the author;

3. Issues relating to the context;

4. Issues relating to the audience of the work;

5. Issues relating to the influence of the work;

6. The processes involved in its production;

7. The interests that underlay its development and the interactions that it involved between
different groups and individuals.

Fitzgerald’s (2007) eight questions:

Documentary research requires researchers to undertake a systematic interrogation and

evaluation of the evidence. This will involve asking a number of questions about the evidence
such as:

1. Who wrote the document? What is known about the personal and professional biography of
the author?

2. When was the document written? What other events were occurring at that time?
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3. What prompted the writing of the document? Were there social political economic or
historical reasons that may have influenced the writer and the contents?

4. What audience was this written for? Does this document set a particular agenda?

5. What are the contents, the language and terms used and the key message(s)? What is the
ideological position of the author?
6. What are the omissions? Was this deliberate? How do you know?

7. Are there any sources that can be used as a comparison? Is this document reliable?

Thus, documents represent a certain version of realities constructed for specific purposes. Rather
than using them as “information containers”, they should be seen and analysed as
methodologically created communicative turns in constructing versions of events.

Another suggestion is to take no part of any document as arbitrary, but to start from the ethno-
methodological assumption of order at all points. This should also include the way a document is
set up. Questions of layout or some standard or routine formulations used in a specific form of
documents are part of the communicative device “document” and should not be neglected. To
see these parts of documents more clearly, it may be helpful to compare documents from
different contexts – record from juridical processes to a record from the health system, referring
to the same issue or even case.

Using documents in qualitative research involves the use of Unobtrusive research/ non-
reactive research. Here, there is no direct interaction between the researcher and the participants
(Webb et al., 1966). Instead, data is drawn from existing:

1. Physical (material) traces

2. Existing records
3. Non-participant observation.

Un-obtrusive research is only weakly variable-centric because of its “supplementary character”

and its reliance on found or serendipitous data sets- cases. According to Webb et al., the use of
unobtrusive research provides an opportunity to supplement and corroborate data gained via
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other methods, using measures that avoid collaboration with participants and the potential
resulting weaknesses.

Unobtrusive research is only weakly variable-centric because it is so often used to supplement

existing research or to provide another way of testing a hypothesis (ie., the variables have
already been determined in or by previous research which it supplements). Furthermore, more
often than not the cases that are used to gather supplementary data are the result of happenstance.
Serendipity often seems to play a role in unobtrusive research. In addition, because the data is
often found, rather than created by the researcher, the ways in which the variables may be
conceptualized will often be pre-determined.

Unobtrusive research involves the assessment of actual behavior rather than self-reported
behavior. Such approaches are non-interactive. There is no direct interaction between the
researcher and the participants. Instead, data is collected using one or more of three source
categories:

1. Material traces;
2. Existing records;
3. Non-participant observation (Webb et al., 1966)

Examples of material traces include graffiti, gravestones or patterns of wear on a university

library carpet. Existing records can include personal documents such as letters or diaries, medical
records, newspaper articles or music videos. Non-participant observation may include recording
the use of swear words by students in a university café, facial expressions during an
undergraduate final examination or the behavior of people walking alone late at night
(Kellehearm 1993, Lee, 2000, Liamputtong and Ezzy, 2005; Webb et al., 1966).

Documentary Research Designs:

1. Literature reviews:

They are a form of documentary research where the focus is on written academic texts (ie., the
literature). These are identified, collected together and analyzed to present a synthesis or account
(the review) of the status of research in a particular field, or on a particular topic, or using a
particular method. The existing research is summarized, either for its own sake or in order to
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identify a new research project and locate it within the existing literature.

They are therefore endemic to academic research in the social sciences and beyond. All
researchers need to be competent in undertaking and writing up literature reviews - at different
lengths and to different degrees of detail - in order to meet the expectations for journal articles,
books, and reports.
In a literature review, the focus will likely be on key publications by the key authors who have
researched the area or topic of interest. Examples of other publications may be used to illustrate
the range and variety of research locations.

It serves the following purposes in research:

1. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done;

2. Discovering important variables relevant to the topic;

3. Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective;

4. Identifying relationships between ideas and practice;

5. Establishing the context of the topic or problem;

6. Rationalizing the significance of the problem;

7. Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary;

8. Understanding the structure of the subject;

9. Relating ideas and theory to applications;

10. Identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used;

11. Placing the research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the art
developments (Hart, 1998).

A literature review needs to perform certain functions. It is where one (Branley, Searle, and
Zacharias, 2018): Page PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 8

A. Describes the findings and arguments of literature relevant to one’s research problem;

B. Critically evaluate and make connections between these texts;

C. Locate one’s work within a relevant body of theory and justify this;

D. Identify potential gaps in existing studies asking the same or similar questions;
E. Demonstrate why the research questions one has chosen are the ones that matter.

Types of literature review:

Jesson, Matheson and Lacey (2011) offer the following typology:

1. A traditional review usually adopts a critical approach, who might assess theories or
hypotheses by critically examining the methods and results of a single primary studies, with an
emphasis on background and contextual material;

2. A conceptual review aims to synthesize areas of conceptual knowledge that contribute to a

better understanding of the issues;

3. A state-of-the-art review brings readers up to date on the most recent research on the subject;

4. An expert review is just that, written by an acknowledged expert. This may be heavily
influenced by the writer’s personal selection of material;

5. A scoping review sets the scene for a future research agenda - The review documents what is
already known, and then using a critical analysis of the gaps in knowledge. It helps to refine the
research, concepts and theories to point the way to future research.

2. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses

The key difference between literature reviews and systematic reviews is that the latter are more
thorough and comprehensive. Meta-analyses differ from systematic reviews in that their focus is
on summarizing the quantitative results of all the relevant studies identified, whereas systematic
reviews focus on the qualitative findings.

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In a systematic review, the aim is to identify everything that has been published on a particular
area or topic of research. Of course, it is difficult to locate literally “everything”, so some
limitations will normally be applied, such as language and date restrictions, as well as
accessibility or availability. But the intent is to be as thorough as possible, so that the researcher
can not only identify and analyse the research that has been done, but also what has not been
done and might, therefore, be prioritized for the future.

Torgerson (2003) goes further in identifying nine aids for systematic review.
1. To address a specific question

2. To search for locate and collate the results of the research in a systematic way;

3. To reduce bias at all stages of the revie

4. To appraise the quality of the research in the light of the research question;

5. To synthesize the results of the review in an explicit way;

6. To make the knowledge base more accessible;

7. To identify gaps, to place new proposals in the context of existing knowledge;

8. To propose a future research, agenda, to make recommendation;

9. To present all stages of the review in the final report to enable critical appraisal and replication
(Torgerson, 2003)

In a meta-analyses, the aim is to identify everything that has been published on a particular area
or topic of research that reports quantitative results. The results from all of the analyses identified
are then weighted and pooled to give an overall or summary result.

For both systematic reviews and meta-analyses, the advent of academic databases and search
engines has been extremely helpful, even revelatory. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine being able
to do a systematic review or meta-analysis nowadays, when so much more is being researched
and published every year, without access to these facilities.

3. Secondary data analyses:

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Secondary data is data that somebody has not collected himself, but which has been collected by
someone else. With secondary data, the focus is chiefly on large (or larger) data sets - mostly, nut
not always or wholly, quantitative in nature - which have been painstakingly collected, often at
national or international level. These data sets may result from one-off projects or be regularly
collected each year or every so many years.

4. Archival and historical research

They are closely related designs or genres. Archival research is research which is carried out in
an archive, a place where documents on a particular topic or topics, or from a particular source,
are deliberately collected for the purposes of safeguarding them, keeping them together, and
allowing them to be researched. Archives are essentially, therefore, historical, so archival
research is a prominent branch of historical research.

5. Policy research:

It is also essentially self-explanatory. It comprises research focusing on policy. Like historical

research, policy research is relevant to all of the social sciences and beyond. Policies enacted at
international, national, local or institutional levels impact on the topic of interest to researchers,
and particularly strongly on those researching in professional fields such as education, nursing or
social work.

Policy research lends itself to documentary research because most policies are enshrined in
documents, in addition to which there are many further documents involved in drafting,
implementing, modifying, evaluating and critiquing any policy of interest. Much interest lies in
comparing the different policies advanced by different interests, or in different organizations or
countries, to tackle the same issues; and in exploring how the intentions of the policy-makers are
carried out, interpreted or implemented in practice.

Unlike literature reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, secondary data analysis, or
archival and historical research, policy research lends itself particularly well to mixed methods
research designs. Thus, where the policy being researched is contemporary or recent, the policy
makers and implementers, plus of course those affected by the policy, any all also be the subject
of research, typically using interviews, surveys or some other research design alongside
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documentary analysis.

Examples of artifacts and documents:

The Museum of Childhood is in Bethnal Green, East London, and forms a branch of the
Victoria and Albert Museum. It is arguably the most prestigious of its kind in the world, and
aims to celebrate and explore the many themes of childhood, past and present. It contains Great
Britain’s finest and biggest childhood collection, including games, toys, children’s clothing,
furniture and ephemera. One can reflect upon the importance of childhood and its crucial role in
our development as human beings. It has a collection of exotic blue creeper birds which were
used to make earrings, were popularly traded and used as ornamentation, particularly for
women’s headwear, in the Victorian period (1837-1901). They are from the Museum’s collection
of animal products, originally displayed when the Museum opened in 1872. Although using birds
and animals for clothing and jewelry is less popular now, these earrings were made when
affluent people showed their wealth by wearing lavishly ornate, rare, exotic, and vibrant goods,
similar flora and fauna specimens were brought back from travel overseas and were among the
types of objects displayed at the Great Exhibition of 1851.

Baby Walker:

Walking aids for young children have existed in Europe since the Middle Ages. Common
designs included a railed panel or enclosed frame on wheels, designed to stabilize the child when
learning to walk. The hexagonal enclosed frame walker shown here became increasingly popular
at the beginning of the 18th century. Debate about the safety of baby walkers and whether they
actually help a child to learn to walk is longstanding. Do they promote over-dependence and
hinder the natural walking process, or does increased mobility and stability for the child using a
walker lead to accidents around the home? Despite these concerns, the basic design of baby
walkers is little changed in many of today’s models.

Dressing Gown – Designed by Ladybird, England, 1980s

Ladybird is one of the most recognizable high-street childrenswear brands of the 20 th century,
known for its quality and affordability. Its pyjamas and the iconic dressing gown with ladybird
buttons were some of its most successful garments.
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Ladybird was started by the Pasold family in Germany in the 1930s, before moving production to
the UK during the Second World War. It supplied childrenswear to outlets such as Marks and
Spencer and Woolworth’s, becoming a brand leader in the 1950s. Initially a white bear logo was
tested for the brand, but it found not to appeal to British buyers; the ladybird was then chosen as
a popular alternative, and was particularly successful due to a marketing strategy that placed
comic strips featuring cartoon ladybirds in children’s publications.
Marbles

As simple clay balls, marbles have been recorded as toys in Ancient Roman, Egyptian and Aztec
cultures. Their simplicity has made them an enduring and adaptable toy, as well as fiercely
collected objects to be swapped, admired and displayed. Marbles have been made from a variety
of materials, ranging from actual marble to clay to more familiar modern versions in varying
glass designs.

Marbles can be used in many games, such as knocking your opponent’s marbles out of a circle
drawn on the ground, or into pre-dug holes. They are also used as gaming pieces in Chinese
Chequers. They have proved to be a constant in the changing toy industry, often enjoying a
sudden surge in popularity through new trends and as new generations discover them.

Diary of Anne Frank

It serves as yet another document which reveals vital information regarding the psyche of a pre-
adolescent during the socio-political turbulent times of the Nazi rule.

Significance of unobtrusive research:

Webb and colleagues (1966) indicated that the greatest value of this kind of research is the use
of independent sources of data; these are particularly useful for supplementary or triangulation
purposes, but can be extremely useful in their own right.

Unobtrusive approaches have several advantages over most other forms of empirical research.
They analyze actual behaviour, do not require the cooperation of participants, are usually easily
checked and repeated and are inexpensive. They are also ideal for longitudinal studies, eg.,
comparing census statistics over time, or criminal sentencing patterns, or the presence of graffiti, Page PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 8
or tattoos.

There are, of course, some potential disadvantages. The original data sources may be distorted or
difficult to interpret, particularly for members of different (sub)cultures, or there may be
intervening or confounding variables. This is true of most research. Most directly relevant to
unobtrusive research is the difficulty in determining the intentions or motivations that influence
people’s actions, or biased recording or interpretation (Kellehear, 1993).
Other problems in analyzing documents:

1. Sometimes the necessary documents are not available, not accessible, or simply lost.
2. Sometimes there are gatekeepers who will not let one through to use the documents one
needs. In other cases, some people may block access to documents referring directly or
indirectly to their person.
3. Other practical problems may be that one may have problems of understanding the
contents of the documents, because one cannot decipher the words, abbreviations, codes
or references that are used or because they are difficult to read or are damaged.
4. Essential data are often forgotten or omitted.
5. A certain vagueness in documenting institutional practices prevents others from
controlling these practices.

A key concern that contributes to the decrease in popularity of unobtrusive approaches is the
matter of ethics, particularly with regard to informed consent. The unobtrusive approach renders
the consent process impossible.

Secondary researches are also used in documentation. It involves an approach that collects and
analyses data sourced from the writings of social scientists and other authors. It is sometimes
called a literature review. Scott (2006) divides researching documents into three branches
looking at:

1. [Private world documents of] documents (autobiographies, letters and photographs)

2. Published sources, the mass media and cyber documents
3. Official records, reports and statistics.

Secondary research is a variable-centric approach. There are few variables and many cases. Page PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 8
Often a hypothesis provides the formulation of a relationship between variables. The cases which
researches seek are earlier arguments and “facts” found online or in libraries, etc. Secondary
research helps to:

 Identify gaps in the literature

 Avoid re-inventing the wheel
 Carry on from where others have already reached
  Identify other people working in the same fields
 Increase one’s breadth of knowledge of one’s subject area
 Identify seminal works in one’s area
 Provide intellectual context for one’s own work, enabling one to position one’s
project relative to other work
 Identify opposing views
 Put one’s work into perspective
 Demonstrate that one can access previous work in an area
 Identify information and ideas that may be relevant to one’s project
 Identify methods that could be relevant to one’s project

Thus, documents are the means to constructing a specific version of an event or process and
often, in a broader perspective, for making a specific version of an event or process and often in
a broader perspective, for making a specific cause out of a life history or a process. Again, this
should go into analyzing the documents.

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