Module 3

Principles of Spread Spectrum: Spread Spectrum Communication Systems: Model of a

Spread Spectrum Digital Communication System, Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Systems, Effect of Despreading on a narrowband Interference, Probability of error (statement
only), Some applications of DS Spread Spectrum Signals, Generation of PN Sequences,
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum, CDMA based on IS-95.

Module 3: Principles of Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum Communication Systems:
In treatment of signal design for digital communication over an Additive White Gaussian
Noise (AWGN) channel, the major objective has been the efficient utilization of transmitter
power and channel bandwidth. The major goal of design engineer is the efficient utilization
of transmitter power and channel bandwidth W. Let R denote the information rate at the input
to transmitter and W denotes channel bandwidth. The ratio of and is defined as
bandwidth expansion factor and is given by . The factor represents the amount
of redundancy introduced through channel coding. By increasing , the transmitted signal
power can be reduced to achieve a specific level of performance. In most practical
communication systems, is in the range of .
In multiple access communication system when more than two transmitters use the same
common channel to transmit information, the interference created by the users of the channel
limits the performance achieved by the system.
To overcome the degradation of the system performance the bandwidth is further expanded
and bandwidth expansion factor is much greater than unity. The expansion of bandwidth is
called as spread spectrum signal. The spreading of the bandwidth is accomplished by means
of a code that is independent of the information sequence. The code used is usually called
pseudo random code because it appears random signal to receivers other than the intended
receiver.
Spread spectrum communication system was originally developed and used for military
communication for secure communication system. But later spread spectrum system is used
for civilian applications like digital cellular communication, cordless telephones and other
applications.
Spread Spectrum signal enables an increase in the number of users over a given band- a
feature that is exploited for providing multiple access in satellite communications and for
increasing number of subscribers using the same band, in case of cellular mobile
communications.
Thus Spread Spectrum communication provides:
1. Protection against eavesdropping.
2. Resistance to intentional jamming.
3. Resistance to fading caused by multipath effects.
4. Multi-user facility over given channel
5. Ranging facility.
There are mainly two methods are used to spread the signal bandwidth. They are
● Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) system
● Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum (FHSS) system
Definition:
Spread Spectrum may be defined in two parts:
1. It is a mode of transmission in which the data of interest occupies a bandwidth
necessary to send the data.
2. The spreading of spectrum is accomplished before transmission through the use of a
code that is independent of the data sequence. The same code is used in the receiver
(operating in synchronization with the transmitter) to de-spread the received signal so
that the original data may be recovered.

Model of Spread Spectrum Digital Communication System

The basic elements of spread spectrum digital communication system are illustrated in figure
3.1. The channel encoder and decoder and the modulator and demodulator are the basic
elements of the system. In addition, a Spread-Spectrum system employs two identical
pseudorandom sequence generators, one that interfaces with modulator at the transmitting
end and one that interfaces with the demodulator at the receiving end. These two generators
produce a pseudorandom or Pseudo Noise (PN) binary valued sequence, which is used to
spread the transmitting signal at the modulator and to despread the received signal at the
demodulator.
Time synchronization of the PN sequence generated at the receiver with PN sequence
contained in the received signal is required in order to properly despread the received Spread
Spectrum signal. Synchronization of PN signal is achieved prior to the transmission of
information by transmitting a known fixed PN bit pattern to the receiver. After
synchronization the information will be transmitted.
 Figure 3.1 Model of a spread-spectrum digital communication system.

In spread spectrum modulation there are two types digital modulation schemes are used
● Phase Shift Keying (PSK) modulation
● Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) modulation
PSK modulation is used where phase coherence between transmitter and receiver can be
maintained over time. FSK modulation is used where phase coherence of carrier cannot be
maintained due to time variations in transmission characteristics of communication channel.
The PN sequence generated at the modulator is used with PSK modulation to shift the phase
of the PSK signal pseudo randomly at a rate, that is an integer multiple of the bit rate. The
resulting modulated signal is called Direct Sequence Spread-Spectrum signal (DSSS).
In FSK modulation the frequency of the carrier is changed pseudorandomly in accordance
with PN codes, and the modulated signal is called as Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum
(FHSS) signal.

Direct Sequence Spread-Spectrum (DSSS) Systems

The model of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) System is as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Modulation of DS spread-spectrum signal

Consider the transmission of a binary information sequence by means of binary PSK. The
information rate is and the bit interval . The available
channel bandwidth is where .
At the modulator, the bandwidth of information signal is expanded to by shifting
the phase of the carrier pseudo randomly at a rate of times per second according to the
pattern of PN generator.
The information bearing baseband signal is denoted as and is expressed as

where and & is a rectangular pulse of duration . This

signal is multiplied from PN sequence generator.

Figure 3.3 Generation of a DS spread-spectrum signal.

 Figure 3.4 Convolution of the spectra of the (a) data signal with the (b) PN code signal.

The PN sequence is given by

where represents the binary PN sequence of ’s and is a rectangular pulse of

duration .
The multiplication operation between information data sequence and PN codes serves to
spread the bandwidth of the data signal of bandwidth into the wider bandwidth of the
PN code signal to .
The product signal is modulated by the carrier and generates the
Double Side Band-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal which is
Since for any , it follows that the carrier modulated transmitted signal may
also be expressed as

where when and when

Therefore the transmitted signal is a binary PSK signal.

Figure 3.5 Wave form generation of a DS spread-spectrum signal

The rectangular pulse is called a chip, its time duration is called chip interval. The
reciprocal is called chip rate and corresponds to bandwidth of the transmitted
signal.
The ratio of bit interval to the chip interval is usually selected to be an integer. We
denote this ratio as

is number of chips of PN sequence per information bit.

The bandwidth expansion factor may be expressed as
Demodulation of DSSS signal
The block diagram of the demodulator is as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Demodulation of DS Spread-Spectrum signal.

The received signal is multiplied by a replica of waveform generated by the PN code
sequence generator at receiver, which is synchronized to the PN code in the received signal.
This operation is called (spectrum) despreading, since the effect of multiplication by is
to undo of the spreading operation done at the transmitter. Thus,

Since for all . The resulting signal occupies a bandwidth of , which is the
bandwidth of the information bearing signal. The demodulator for despread signal is simply
cross correlator or matched filter.
The despread signal is again demodulated by multiplying locally generated carrier
and passed it through a low pass filter and finally it is detected by threshold
detector to retrieve the message signal.

Effect of Despreading on a Narrowband Interference

The effect of an Interfering signal on the demodulation of the desired information bearing
signal is studied.
Consider a received signal is given by

where denotes the interference signal.

The despreading operation at the receiver yields

The effect of multiplying the interference with is to spread the bandwidth of to

.
Consider the sinusoidal interfering signal
where is frequency within the bandwidth of transmitted signal. Its multiplication with
results in a wideband interference with power spectral density , where
is the average power of the interference.
Since the desired signal is demodulated by a matched filter (or correlator) that has bandwidth
, the total power in the interference at the output of the demodulator is

( )

The power in the interfering signal is reduced by an amount equal to the bandwidth
expansion factor . The factor is called Processing Gain (PG)
of the spread spectrum system.

Probability of Error at the Detector:

Probability of Error is considered for DSSS system with binary PSK modulation is

(√ )

where I0 is the power spectral density of an interference signal and Eb bit energy.
Performance of DSSS
The performance of DSSS system can be evaluated on the processing gain and probability of
error.
Processing Gain(PG): PG is defined as the ratio of bandwidth of spreaded message to the
bandwidth of unspreaded data signal.
The bandwidth of data signal ,
Bandwidth of spreaded message signal

We know that, one bit period of data signal is equal to bits.

Period of PN code signal is

Probability of error for DSSS system is

where is average interference power.

Interference Margin: We may express in Q-function as

Using log scale

( ) ( ) ( )

or

( ) ( ) ( )

The ratio is called interference margin.

When the transmitted information is coded by binary linear code (block or convolutional), the
SNR at the output of the decoder, at large SNR, is increased by coding gain given as,

where is code rate and minimum Hamming distance of the code.

Therefore, the effect of coding is to increase the interference margin by the coding gain. Thus
interference margin given by,

( ) ( ) ( )

Where denotes the coding gain in dB.

Some Applications of DS Spread Spectrum Signals

Some applications of DS spread spectrum signals are
a) Low Detectability of Signal Transmission
b) Code Division Multiple Access
c) Communication Over Channels with Multipath
d) Wireless LANs

a) Low Detectability of Signal Transmission

In this application, the information bearing signal is transmitted at very low power relative to
the channel noise and thermal noise that is generated in front end of the receiver. If DS-SS
signal occupies a bandwidth W and its power spectral density of noise is . Then the
average noise power in the bandwidth is
The average received signal power at the intended receiver is . To hide the presence of
signal from receivers that are in the vicinity of the intended receiver, the signal is transmitted
at a power level of .
The intended receiver can recover the weak signal from the background noise using
processing gain and coding gain. This is achieved using known PN sequence.
The other users unable to detect and demodulate the signal without the knowledge of PN
sequence. This is called as Low Probability of being Intercepted (LPI) and is called as LPI
signal.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Example 3.1
A DS spread-spectrum signal is designed so that the power ratio at the intended
receiver is . If the desired for acceptable performance, determine the
minimum value of the processing gain.
Solution: We may write as

( )

( ) ( )

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

b) Code Division Multiple Access

The enhancement in performance obtained from DS spread spectrum signal through
processing gain and coding gain can enable many DSSS signals to occupy the same channel
bandwidth provided that each signal has its own PN sequence. Thus, it is possible to have
many users transmit simultaneously over the same channel bandwidth. The type of digital
communication, in which each transmitter-receiver user pair has its own distinct PN code for
transmitting over a common channel bandwidth, is called as Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA).
In demodulation of each DS spread spectrum signal, the signals from other simultaneous
users of the channel appear as additive interference. A major advantage of CDMA is that a
large number of users can be accommodated if the user transmits message for a short period
of time.
The number of simultaneous users that can be accommodated in CDMA system is as follows:
If there are simultaneous users then the desired signal-to-noise interference ratio at a given
receiver is
From this equation we can determine the number of simultaneous users that can be
accommodated in CDMA system.

c) Communication Over Channels with Multipath

The fading of signal occurs when the signal is traveled through multipath channels. Multipath
channel occurs in HF frequency band of 3-30 MHz due to ionospheric layer present in
atmosphere which acts as reflector. In this case receiver will receive direct path signal as well
as the reflected signal.
In mobile radio communication system, multipath propagation is occurs due to reflection
from buildings, trees and other obstacles. In an ideal system (theoretical), the transmitted
symbols arrive at the receiver without any loss or interference, as shown Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 Line of Sight signal.

In practice, the "same" signal arrives via multiple paths ("Multipath") and consequently with
different delays ("Delay Spread").
Multipath: In practice, the signal propagates along different paths from the transmitter to the
receiver; this is the "Multipath". Assuming three different paths (A, B and C), signals arrive
at the receiver as shown in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 Signals in Multipath.

Delay Spread: A transmitted symbol can be received multiple times at the receiver, more or
less as an "echo" effect. This echo is called as “Delay Spread" which is as shown in Figure
3.9.
 Figure 3.9 Delay Spread signals.
At the receiver, all these "multipath" components are summed. And these multiple symbols
being received "simultaneously" and cause the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) which is as
shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 ISI caused due to Multipath and Delay Spread.

Resolving Multipath signals

Multipath signals can be resolved using DS spread spectrum. Fading effect can also be
minimized by separating multipath signals. By using DSSS, receiver may synchronize only to
strong signal (usually LOS) and rejecting the other signals. But this leads to Inter symbol
Interference (ISI) on the demodulation for remaining signals.
The ISI can be avoided by reducing the symbol rate by adjusting such that ,
where is the multipath spread of the channel. By using DSSS, with bandwidth is used
to resolve the multipath. By using tapped-delay-line model with time varying coefficients
(matched filter) called as RAKE receiver.
d) Wireless LANs
A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a network that links two or more devices using
wireless channel within a limited area. WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11 and 802.11 b
standards which operate in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The available bandwidth is subdivided
into 14 overlapping 22 MHz channels.
In 802.11 standard an 11 chip Barker sequence is used to spread the data at 11 MHz carrier
frequency. Barker sequence is [1, -1, 1, 1, -1, 1, 1, 1, -1, -1, -1]. This Barker sequence is
modulated by BPSK or QPSK.
In BPSK with 11 chips per bit, a data rate is of 1 Mbps. In QPSK with 11 chips per bit, a data
rate is of 2 Mbps. In 802.11b standard uses ISM band with 11 MHz carrier frequency. In this,
in place of barker sequence, Complementary Code shift Keying (CCK) is used, which is
similar to the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation with multiple spreading sequence.
In 802.11b standard data rate is of 11 Mbps.

Generation of Pseudo Noise Sequences

A Pseudo Noise (PN) sequence is defined as a coded sequence of 1s and 0s with a certain
autocorrelation properties. The sequence will be periodic in nature.
The major tasks of PN sequences are:
a) Spreading the bandwidth of the modulated signal to the larger bandwidth.
b) Distinguishing between the different user signals utilizing the same transmission
bandwidth.
The maximum length sequence is a type of cyclic code represents a commonly used PN
sequence.
A PN sequence generator using a 3-stage shift register is shown below.

Figure 3.11 PN sequence generator.

,
Since there are 3 shift-register stages and each stage can have either 1 or 0, there can be
distinct sets of contents, from 000 to 111.
However, the 000 state is not permitted because once the shift-register contents are 000, there
will be no change in the contents of shift register.
Table 3.1 Transition table for the PN sequence generator of Figure 3.11
Clock pulse Present state Next state

(Initial) 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
2 1 1 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 1 0 1 1
4 0 1 1 1 0 1
5 1 0 1 0 1 0
6 0 1 0 0 0 1
7 0 0 1 1 0 0
(Same as First stage)

001

Initial state 100 010

110 101

000
111 011

Figure 3.12 State diagram of 3-stage linear feedback shift register

Thus, this PN sequence generator produces a sequence of length 7 and thereafter the same
sequence will be repeated. All zero (000) pattern will be excluded.
Hence, if is the length of the sequence and is the number of shift registers, then

PN sequence with length are called a Maximum Length Sequence (MLS).

ML sequences have many of the properties possessed by a truly random binary sequence (In
random binary sequence 1’s and 0’s are equiprobable).
Properties of ML sequence
Property 1: Balance Property
In each period of a maximum-length sequence, the number of 1’s is always one more than the
number of 0’s.
For an ML sequence generated by a - stage shift register with linear feedback:
Period for PN sequence: bits
Number of ones is: and
Number of zeros is: .
Example for
Period for PN sequence: bits
Number of ones is: and
Number of zeros is: .
Property 2: Run Property
Run is a subsequence of identical symbols. The appearance of an alternate digit in a sequence
starts a new run.
Among the runs of 1’s and of 0’s in each period of maximum-length sequence, one-half
(50%) of the runs of each kind are of length one, one-fourth (25%) are of length two, one-
eighth (12.5%) are of length three, and so on as long as these fractions represent meaningful
numbers of runs.
Note: Total number of runs is where
Property 3: Autocorrelation property
The autocorrelation function of a maximum-length sequence is periodic and binary valued.
Let binary symbol and be represented by and volt respectively. By definition, the
autocorrelation sequence of a binary sequence equals to,

∑ ∑

where is length or period of the sequence and is the lag of autocorrelation sequence.
For ML sequence of length , the autocorrelation sequence is periodic with period and two
valued as given by

{ {

where is an integer.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Example 3.2
For given generator, prove the properties of ML sequence.

Figure 3.13 PN sequence generator.

Solution: Consider the initial state of the shift register is 100 (i.e, x1 = 1, x2 = 0 and x3 = 0).
Then, the succession of state will be as follows: 100, 110, 111, 011,101, 010, 001 (Only 7
states). Next state will be 100(which is same as initial state).
The output of the sequence (the last position of each of the shift register) is therefore
0011101.
Number of 1’s is 4
Note:
● The choice of initial state 100 is an arbitrary one.
● Any of the other six states could serve equally well as an initial state.
Property 1: Balance Property
Length of the sequence generated is , where is number of shift registers in the
generator. For , length of PN sequence is . PN sequence or out put
sequence is 0011101.
Number of ones is: and
Number of zeros is: .
Number of ones is always one more than number of zeros.
Property 2: Run Property: In the output sequence 0011101, there are 4 runs.
00 111 0 1

a) one-half (50%) of the runs (2) of each kind are of length one 0, 1
b) one-fourth (25%) of the runs (1) are of length two 00
c) one-eighth (12.5%) of the runs (1) are of length three 111
Property 3: Autocorrelation property
Consider the sequence 0011101 as . Let and

Similarly,

Figure 3.14 Plot of Autocorrelation function

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Example 3.3
For given generator, prove the properties of ML sequence.

Figure 3.15 PN sequence generator.

Solution: Consider the initial state of the shift register is 1000 (i.e, x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = 0 and
x4 = 0).
Then, the succession of state will be as follows: 1000, 0100, 0010, 1001, 1100, 0110, 1011,
0101, 1010, 1101, 1110, 1111, 0111, 0011, 0001. (Only 15 states)
Next state will be 1000 (which is same as initial state).
The output of the sequence (the last position of each of the shift register) is therefore
000100110101111.
Property 1: Balance Property
For , length of PN sequence is . PN sequence or out put sequence is
000100110101111.
Number of ones is: and
Number of zeros is: .
Number of ones is always one more than number of zeros.
Property 2: Run Property: In the output sequence 000100110101111, there are 8 runs.
000 1 00 11 0 1 0 1111

a) one-half (50%) of the runs (4) of each kind are of length one 1, 0, 1, 0
b) one-fourth (25%) of the runs (2) are of length two 00, 11
c) one-eighth (12.5%) of the runs (1) are of length three 000
d) Rest of the runs (1) are of length four 1111
Property 3: Autocorrelation property
Consider the sequence 000100110101111 as .
Let and

Similarly,

{
 Figure 3.16 Plot of Autocorrelation function.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Modulation

The DS Spread Spectrum depends primarily on the Processing Gain (PG). The PG is the ratio
of chip frequency to the bit . For a given data rate, the resistance to jamming of DSSS
system can be improved only by increasing the chip rate relative to the data rate. It is difficult
to achieve very high chip frequencies and this puts a limit on the PG.
One way of overcoming the above difficulty is to use Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS).
The type of spread spectrum in which carrier hops randomly from one frequency to another is
called Frequency Hop (FH) spread spectrum. The block diagram of Frequency Hop (FH)
spread spectrum is as shown in Figure 3.17. The modulation is either binary or M-ary FSK
(M-FSK).

Figure 3.17 Block diagram of an FH spread-spectrum system.

The FSK modulator generates frequencies or corresponding to the data symbol or

symbol . The FSK modulated signal is translated in frequency by an amount determined by
the output from a PN sequence generator, which is used to select a frequency that is
synthesized by the frequency synthesizer.
The frequency is mixed with the output of the FSK modulator and the resultant signal is
transmitted over the channel.
PN code generates possible carrier frequencies.
At the receiver PN sequence generator synchronized with the received signal is used to
synthesize carrier frequency .
The carrier frequency is removed by mixing the synthesizer output with received signal.
The resultant signal is demodulated by FSK demodulator.
The frequency-hopping rate, denoted as , may be either equal to the symbol rate, lower
than the symbol rate, or higher than the symbol rate.

Figure 3.18 Illustration of FH signal pattern

Based on the frequency hopping rate, there are of two types:
1. Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH): If is equal to or lower than the symbol rate ,
the FH system is called a slow hopping system.
2. Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH): If is higher than the symbol rate , i.e., there are
multiple hops per symbol, the FH system is called a fast hopping system.
FH spread-spectrum signals may be used in CDMA where many users share a common
bandwidth.
In FH system, the chip interval is the time spent in transmitting a signal in a particular
frequency slot of bandwidth . But this interval is approximately , which is much
larger than . Hence, the timing requirements in an FH system are not as stringent as in a
DS system.
Note: In FH-SS an FH tone of shortest duration is referred as chip. The chip rate for an
FH- system is defined by
where is hop rate and is symbol rate.
For slow FH-SS system

Therefore chip rate is

For fast FH-SS system

Therefore chip rate is

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Example 3.4
The FH/ MFSK signal has following parameters:
● Number of bits per MFSK signal, ,
● Number of MFSK tones, ,
● Length of PN segment per Hop, ,
● Total number of frequency hops, .
Assume Binary data sequence to be , and PN sequence be
.
Determine the following:
a) Draw the variation of frequency of FH/ MFSK signal for given PN sequence. Assume that
carrier hops for every MFSK symbols.
b) Sketch the variation of dehopped Frequency with time.
Solution:
● Number of bits per MFSK signal, ,
● Number of MFSK tones, ,
Bits of MFSK symbol MFSK tone in Hz

00

01

10

11
 ● Binary data sequence be 01110011110110000001

01 11 00 11 11 01 10 00 00 01

● Length of PN segment per Hop, ,

● Total number of frequency hops, .

PN Sequence Segment Hopping Carrier frequency in Hz

00

01

10

11

● PN sequence be 0011011000

00 11 01 10 00

Assume that carrier hops for every 2 MFSK symbols.

Input Binary Sequence 01 11 00 11 11 01 10 00 00 01

PN Sequence 00 11 01 10 00
The variation of dehopped Frequency with time

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Example 3.5
The FH/ MFSK signal has following parameters:
● Number of bits per MFSK signal, ,
● Number of MFSK tones, ,
● length of PN segment per Hop, ,
● total number of frequency hops, ,
● Number of hops per MFSK symbol =2.
Assume Binary data sequence to be , and PN sequence be
.
Determine the following:
a) Draw the variation of frequency of FH/ MFSK signal for given PN sequence.
b) Sketch the variation of dehopped Frequency with time.
Solution:
● Number of bits per MFSK signal, ,
● Number of MFSK tones, ,
Bits of MFSK symbol MFSK tone in Hz

00

01

10

11

● Binary data sequence be 01110011110110000001

01 11 00 11 11 01 10 00 00 01
 ● Length of PN segment per Hop, ,
● Total number of frequency hops, .

PN Sequence Segment Hopping Carrier frequency in Hz

00

01

10

11

● PN sequence be 0011011000

00 11 01 10 00

● Number of hops per MFSK symbol =2.

Input
Binary 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Sequence
PN 00 11 01 10 00 00 11 01 10 00 00 11 01 10 00 00 11 01 10 00
Sequence
 ● Special Note:
For 3 stage Flip-Flop Register- 7 bit PN sequence
For 4 stage Flip-Flop Register- 15 bit PN sequence.
In the given example PN sequence will have 10 bit. These 10 bits of PN sequence
repeated to find the fast FHSS system.
The variation of dehopped Frequency with time

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Example 3.6
A PN sequence is generated using 4-stage linear feedback shift register as shown in figure
3.19, with initial condition . This sequence is used in a slow
FH/MFSK system. The FH/MFSK signal has following parameters.
● Number of bits per MFSK signal, ,
● Number of MFSK tones, ,
● length of PN segment per Hop, ,
● total number of frequency hops, ,

Figure 3.19 PN sequence generator with 4-bit shift register with initial condition 1000
Determine the following:
a) Period of N sequence.
b) PN sequence for one period length.
c) Illustrate the variation of frequency of FH/ MFSK signal for one complete period of
the PN sequence. Assume that the carrier hops to a new frequency after transmitting
two MFSK symbols or four information bits. Assume binary data sequence to be
.
 d) Sketch the variation of dehopped frequency with time.
Solution: a) The period of PN sequence is .
b) For the initial condition given, the PN sequence is obtained by writing all the
successive states of the Shift Register (SR), for one period. The table gives the
successive states, fed back bit and output bit.
States of SR Fed back bit Output

1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 Repeat Repeat

The PN sequence of one periodic length is . The carrier is hopped to a

frequency after transmitting two MFSK symbols or four information bits. Number of bits per
MFSK symbol . There are hence four MFSK frequencies corresponding to dibits
.
Length of PN segment per hop . Hence, there are hopping frequencies
corresponding to each block of 3 PN sequence bits.
Bits of MFSK symbol MFSK tone in Hz
00
01
10
11

Let the hopping carrier frequencies corresponding to each block of 3 bits be selected as
PN Sequence Segment Hopping Carrier frequency in Hz
000
 001
010
011
100
101
110
111
c)
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
Frequency ----->

00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
--->
Input Binary 10 00 11 01 00 01 11 11 10 01 Time
Sequence

000 100 110 101 111

PN Sequence
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Example 3.7
Apply fast FH/ MFSK system for same parameters given in previous example 3.6 along with
Number of hops per MFSK symbol = and Period of PN sequence .
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
Frequency ----->

00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
11
10
01
00
--->
Input Binary 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 Time
Sequence

000 100 110 101 111 000 100 110 101 111 000 100 110 101 111 000 100 110 101 111

PN Sequence

In above diagram, PN sequence repeats as this sequence is periodic in nature. And dehopped
MFSK signal is same as slow FH/ MFSK signal.
Variation of dehopped frequency with time

-11
-10
-01
-00

Input Binary 10 00 11 01 00 01 11 11 10 01
---> Time
Sequence

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
CDMA system based on IS-95
Direct sequence CDMA has been adopted as one multiple access method for digital cellular
voice communications in North America. The first generation digital cellular (CDMA)
communication system was developed by Qualcomm, and it has been standardized and
designated as IS-95 by Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) for use in 800 MHz
and 1900 MHz freq bands. A major advantage of CDMA over the multiple access methods is
that, the entire band is available at each base station i.e., the frequency reuse factor .
The nominal bandwidth used for transmission from a base station to the mobile receivers
(forward/ down link) is 1.25 MHz. A separate channel with bandwidth of 1.25 MHz is used
for signal transmission from mobile receivers to a base station (reverse/ uplink). The signals
transmitted in both forward and reverse links are DS spread signal and they have chip rate of
chips per second ( chips/sec).

Figure 3.20 Forward and Reverse Link

Forward Link
The speech coder is a Code Exited Linear Predictive (CELP) coder that generates data rate of
9600, 4800, 2400, and 1200 bits/sec, where the data rate is a function of user’s speech
activity in the frame interval of 20 ms. The data from speech encoder is encoded by a rate of
, constraint length convolutional encoder.
For lower speech activity, i.e., 4800, 2400, or 1200 bits/sec the output symbols from the
convolutional encoder are repeated either twice, four times, or eight times to maintain a
constant bit rate of 9600 bits/sec. At lower speech activity rates, the transmitted power is
reduced by either 3, 6 or 9 dB, so that the energy per bit remains constant for all speech rates.

Figure 3.21 Convolutional Encoder rate 1/2 (r = input bits/ output bits)

The block interleaver overcomes the effects of burst errors that may occur in the transmission
through the channel. The data bits at the output of block interleaver occur at a rate of
, are scrambled by multiplication with the output of long code (period,
) generator running at the chip rate of , but whose output is
decimated by a factor of 64 to . The long code uniquely identifies a call of a mobile
station on the forward and reverse link.
Scrambler is used for Data Encryption to make call more secure.
Each channel user is assigned a Hadamard (also called Walsh) sequence of length 64. These
are 64 orthogonal Hadamard sequences assigned to each base station; thus, there are 64
channels available. One Hadamard sequence (the all zero sequence) is used to transmit a pilot
signal, which serves as a means for measuring channel characteristics, including the signal
strength and carrier phase offset. Another Hadamard sequence is used to provide time
synchronization. One more channel is used for paging. That leaves up to 61 channels for
allocation to different users.
Each user data is multiplied by Hadamard sequence, of length 64. The resulting sequence is
spread by multiplication with two PN sequences of length ; this creates in-phase (I)
and quadrature (Q) signal components. Thus binary data signal is converted to a four-phase
signal and both I and Q components are filtered by baseband spectral-shaping filters.
Different base stations are identified by different offsets of these PN sequences. The signals
for all 64 channels are transmitted synchronously so that, other signals at mobile receiver do
not interfere because of orthogonality of Hadamard sequences.

Figure 3.22 Block diagram of IS-95 forward link

At the receiver, a RAKE demodulator resolves the multipath signal components. These
components are phase-aligned and weighted according to their signal strength, using the
estimates of phase and signal strength derived from pilot signal. These are combined and
passed to Viterbi soft-decision decoder.
Reverse Link
The reverse link modulator from a mobile transmitter to a base station is different from
forward link modulator. As signal transmission is asynchronous; there is more interference
among users. The mobile transmitters are battery operated; therefore these transmissions are
power limited.
 Figure 3.23 Block diagram of IS-95 Reverse link

A rate of , convolutional code is used in the reverse link. It has much higher
coding gain in a fading channel. For lower speech activity, output bits from convolutional
encoder are repeated either two, four or eight times. The coded bit rate is 28.8 kbps
For each 20 ms frame, the 576 encoded bits are block interleaved and passed to the
modulator. The data is modulated using an orthogonal signal set of Hadamard
sequences each of length 64. Thus, a 6-bit block of data is mapped into one of 64 Hadamard
sequences. The result is a bit (or chip) rate of 307.2 kbps [(64/6)* 28.8 = 307.2] at the output
of the modulator. 64-ary orthogonal modulation at an error probability of requires
approximately 3.5dB less SNR per bit than binary antipodal signaling.
The signal is spread by the output of the long code PN generator, which is running at a rate of
. Hence, there are only 4 PN chips for every bit of Hadamard sequence
from modulator. The resulting binary sequences of length , whose rate
is also create I and Q signals (a QPSK signal) that are filtered by baseband
spectral shaping filters and then passed to quadrature mixers. The Q-channel signal is delayed
in time by one-half PN chip relative to the I-channel signal prior to baseband filter. The
signal at the output of the two baseband filters is an offset QPSK signal.
The demodulator employs noncoherent demodulation of orthogonal Hadamard
waveforms to recover the encoded data bits. A computationally efficient Hadamard transform
reduces the computational complexity in demodulation process. The output of the
demodulator is then fed to the Viterbi decoder, whose output synthesizes the speech signal.
Summary of parameters in the IS-95 System
System Parameters Specification
Uplink frequency band 824-849 MHz
Downlink frequency band 869-894 MHz
Number of carriers/ band 20
Bandwidth/ carrier 1.25 MHz
Multiple access method CDMA
Number of users/ carrier 60
Chip rate 1.2288 Mcps
Speech coder Variable rate CELP
Speech rate 9600, 4800, 2400, 1200 bps
Interleaver Block
(D)
Channel encoder
(U)
BPSK with QPSK spreading (D)
Modulation
64-ary orthogonal with QPSK spreading (U)
RAKE matched filter with maximal-ratio
Demodulation
combining
Signature sequences Hadamard (Walsh) of length 64
(Long code)
PN sequence
(spreading code)

Frequency Hopping SS system

Assume the interference on channel is broadband and is characterized as AWGN with power
spectral density . The probability of error for detection of noncoherent demodulation binary
FSK as

where is energy per bit, it is given as , where is average transmitted

power and is bit rate. Similarly, , where is average power of broadband
interference and is available channel bandwidth. Therefore SNR can be expressed as

where is processing gain (PG) and is interference margin for FH-SS system.

There are frequency hops generated because of k-bits of PN sequence.

Therefore B.W. of FH signal is and B.W. of baseband signal is
Method for generating PN sequence:
Gold and Kasami sequences
It is derived from m-sequences with better correlation properties, and a larger code set. Gold
sequences are constructed by taking a pair of specially selected m-sequences, called preferred
m-sequences, and forming the modulo-2 sum of the two sequences for each of cyclically
shifted versions of one sequence relative to the other sequence.
The generation of Gold sequence is as shown in Figure 3.24.

Figure 3.24 Generation of Gold sequences of length 31

For odd, the maximum value of cross correlation function between any pair of Gold
sequences in √ . For even, √ .