CELL ORGANIZATION: STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND EXISTENCE

Sub-topics
1. Forms in which cells exist
2. Cell Theory
3. Cell Structure and functions
4. Cell Organization

Forms in which cells exist

The cell is described as the basic unit of structure and function of living things. All organisms are

made up of cells. From the smallest cell (of Mycoplasma gallicepticum) to the largest cell (of the

ostrich egg) cells exist in different forms. Some organisms exist as free – living or single cells

(unicellular organisms; eg. bacteria), some exist as colonies (colonial organisms; some algae

such as volvox), filaments (filamentous; some algae such as spirogyra) and as whole individuals

comprising of numerous cells otherwise known as multicellular organisms (as seen in animals

and plants). In addition, some cells exist is a variety of shapes such as rectangular or rod shaped,

cuboidal shaped, spindle shaped star shaped, spherical, spiral among others.

*** Assignment***

Draw diagrams showing examples of unicellular, colonial, filamentous and multicellular

forms in which cells exist (in Assignment notebook).

Cells are mostly too small to be seen with the naked eyes and as such are seen only with the aid

of a microscope. Robert Hooke was the first to observe cells in 1665 after he examined the cork

and described it as cellulae meaning “small rooms”. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to

observe living cells which he termed “animalcules” or living animals. After about a century and

a half, the study of cells gained attention by biologists which resulted in further discoveries

around cells. Matthais Schleiden, a botanist, stated in 1838 that all plants are aggregates of fully

individualized independent, separate beings, namely the cells themselves. In 1839, Theodore

Schwann reported that all animal tissues were also made up of individual cells. Schleiden and
Schwann, therefore propounded the cell theory which has formed the foundation of cell biology

and related fields/disciplines.

*** Assignment*** Complete your notes on the contribution of the following scientists in

the development of the cell theory:

1. Felix Dujardin

2. Rudolf Von Virchow.

The Cell Theory

The cell theory states that:

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells and life processes of metabolism and

heredity occur within these cells.

2. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organization of all organisms.

3. Cells arise only by division of previously existing cells.

Basic cell types

All living things are classified into two major types of cell namely

Prokaryotes and Eukaryote.

While the prokaryotic cells (prokaryotes) are primitive and simple cells lacking membrane-

bound nucleus and organelles, eukaryotic cells (eukaryotes) contain membrane –bound nucleus

and organelles. Prokaryotes are organisms which belong to Kingdom Monera while eukaryotes

are organisms found in Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Planta and Animalia.

********** Refer to notes of Biodiversity for general characteristics of each group of

organism**************
Cell Structure and function

Cell structure vary from cell to cell, however, all cells have basic components which are:

i. A nuclear region

ii. Cytoplasm

iii. Ribosome

iv. Plasma Membrane.

1. Nuclear Region

This is a region within the cell where genetic material is stored. In prokaryotes (bacteria

and archae), the nuclear material is left naked or unenclosed by membrane in a region

called the nucleoid. The nucleoid is a region near the center of the cell which contains

circular genetic material in form of DNA. This area is not segregated from the rest of the

cell’s interior. In eukaryotes, the genetic material is enclosed by a double membrane

structure called the nuclear membrane in an organelles known as the nucleus. In both cell

types, the DNA contains genes that code for the proteins synthesized by the cell.

2. Cytoplasm
This is a semi fluid matrix which fills the interior of a cell. It contains all the sugars,
amino acids and proteins required for cellular activities. It also contains macromolecular
structures which carry out specialized functions (Organelles: defined as a distinct part
of a cell which has a specialized structure and function). The part of the cytoplasm
which contains organic molecules and ions in solution is called the cytosol.
3. The Plasma Membrane
This encloses the cell and separates it from its environment. It is a phospholipid bilayer
with proteins embedded in it. The plasma membrane functions by regulating the
movement of substance in and out of the cell. Transport proteins present on the
membrane help molecules and ions move across the membrane while receptor proteins
induce changes within the cell when they come in contact with specific molecules on the
surface of neighboring cells.
Structure of Prokaryotic cell.
1. Cell wall: bacterial cells possess a strong and rigid cell wall made up of murein or
peptidoglycan. Murein is a polysaccharide which comprises repeating units of N-
acetylglycosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid joined together by β-1,4- glycosidic bonds.
The cell wall prevents cells from bursting and gives the cell rigidity and shape. The
nature of the cell wall in bacteria divides bacteria as gram positive and gram negative
bacteria. This classification was propounded by a Danish biologist - Christian Gram
(1884) based on the cells’ reaction to specific dyes.
2. Cell surface Membranes, mesosomes and photosynthetic membranes: like in all
living organisms, the protoplasm (the living protion of a cell) is enveloped by a
selectively permeable membrane (sometimes called the plasma membrane). In bacterial
cells, besides regulating the movement of substances in and out of the cell, some
infoldings occur in bacterial called mesosomes. Mesosomes play important roles during
cell division and the formation of new cross-walls for separation. Added to the
mesosomes, the cell surface membrane in bacteria are also sites for respiratory enzymes.
In photosynthetic bacteria, certain infolding on the cell membrane (known as
photosynthetic membrane are sites where bacteriochlorophyll occurs. Similar
membranes also occurs for nitrogen fixation.
3. Nucleoid: this is the region where the genetic material in bacteria is kept. Bacterial
genetic material is usually circular in shape and lies naked within the nucleoid region in
the cytoplasm.
4. Ribosome: these are sites for protein synthesis.
5. Capsules: These are slimy secretions in certain bacteria which enable bacteria to stick to
surfaces such as teeth, mud rocks etc. they also offer additional protection to baceteri.
Capsules sometimes enhance the virulence of some bacteria (eg. Pneumococci).
6. Spores: These are thick walled, long lived and highly resistant structures (particularly to
heat, drought short – wave radiation). The position of spores differ from bacterium to
bacterium. Spores enable bacteria to survive through unfavorable environmental
condition.
7. Flagella: these are organelles found in some bacteria which aids movement.
8. Plasmids: these are small self – replicating circle of extra DNA in some bacteria. It
possess few genes which confer extra survival advantages to bacteria. Some confer
resistance to some antibiotics, some confer ability to cause disease, others, confer
 abilities to degrade complex molecules such as hydrocarbons, others, confer ability to
ferment milk.

9. Pili: these are fine hair-like tubular short cell surface structures made of protein. They are
usually shorter than the flagella. They are known to partake in sexual reproduction among
certain bacteria. Genes which code for pili are usually contained on plasmids.

10. Fimbriae: these are bristle like cell surface structures. They are shorter than the pili and
function in assisting attachment of cells to surfaces. Genes for fimbriae are contained in
bacterial DNA.

*****Reading Assignment*** Compare and contrast between Pili and Fimbriae.

*** Draw a typical bacterial cell here****

Eukaryotic Cell Structure.

S/No Organelle Structure Function
1. Cell surface membrane A partially permeable membrane for
controlling the exchange of materials
between cell and environment.

2. Nucleus Houses chromosomes which contain

the molecule of inheritance (DNA).
Also plays roles in nuclear and cell
division during reproduction.
Manufactures ribosomes
3. Endoplasmic reticulum Rough ER transports proteins from
ribosomes while the smooth ER is the
site for lipid synthesis.

4. Ribosomes They are sites for protein synthesis.

5. Mitochondria Site for aerobic respiration (Oxidative

phosphorylation and electron transport
chain in the cristae and the Krebs cycle.
6. Golgi Apparatus Processing and transport system of cell
materials to other parts of the cell or for
secretion.
Also makes lysosomes
7. Lysosome Concerned with the breakdown of
structures or molecules such as old
organelles and digest bacteria
 8. Microbodies Site for oxidation reactions and
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by
catalase.
9. Cell Wall Provides mechanical support and
protection to the cell or organism.
Also it is a pathway for water and
mineral movement in plants
Cements neighboring cells together
Enables a continuous system of
cytoplasm, the symplast, to be formed.
10. Chloroplast Site for photosynthesis in autotropic
organisms.
11. Large Central Vacoule A site for storage of various substances
including waste products.
Contributes in osmotic regulation in
the cell. Sometimes it functions as a
lysosome.

Plant and Animal cells.

They are both eukaryotic but differ in some aspects:
Plant cells possess plastids, cell walls, chloroplasts and large vacuoles unlike animal cells which
lack these organelles and possesses a small vacuole. Animal cells on the other hand possess
centrioles while plant cells do not possesses centrioles.

*** Assignment***
Compare and Contrast between with a minimum of five points between:
• Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
• Plant cells and animal cells