Instructions to write in the record note:

For Right hand side of the record book:

1.Experiment Name

Aim:

Materials Required:

Procedure:

Theory:

Result:

Precautions:

Sources of error:

For Right hand side of the record book:

Diagram:

Tabulation:

Calculation:
 1. DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim:

Determination of the focal length of a concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Materials Required:

Concave Mirror, Spherical mirror stand, White screen and a half metre scale.

Procedure:

1. Mount the concave mirror in the mirror stand.

2. Locate some distant building/tree from the glass window of your laboratory.

3. Place a half metre scale along the edge of a table, such that it is in line with the direction of distant object.

4. Place the concave mirror stand, along with concave mirror and the metre scale such that it is at 5 cm mark
and facing the object.

5. Place the stiff white cardboard screen in front of the concave mirror. Move the screen backward or
forward till a well defined, sharp, inverted and diminished image is formed. Note the position of the screen
from the metre scale and hence find the distance between concave mirror and the screen. This distance is
equal to the focal length of concave mirror. Record the focal length.

6. Repeat the experiment two times more, by placing the concave mirror at 10 cm mark and 15 cm mark
respectively. Calculate the focal length in each case and record it.

7. Calculate the average focal length from the three values of focal length.

Diagram:
Tabulation:

S NO Object distance Image distance Focal length

u (cm) v (cm) f= v-u (cm)
1 5 20.6 15.6
2 10 25.4 15.4
3 15 30.5 15.5

Calculation:

Average focal length of a concave mirror, f = = = 15.5 cm

Result:

The focal length of a given concave mirror is 15.5 cm.

Precautions:

1. The concave mirror should be fixed in the mirror holder.

2. The base of the concave mirror and the screen should be parallel to the half-metre scale.
3. Note the position of the concave mirror and the screen by looking vertically down, to avoid parallax error.

Sources of error:

1. If the concave mirror is not fixed in vertical plane, the focal length is likely to be wrong.
2. Parallax error may occur if the readings are no noted from a proper position.
 2. DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS

Aim:

Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Materials Required:

A double convex lens, lens stand, White screen and a half metre scale.

Procedure:

1. Locate some distant building/tree from the glass window of your laboratory.
3. Place a half metre scale in the direction of the object.
4. Place a convex lens, duly mounted on a lens stand, along the half metre scale such that the mid-point of its
base is at 5 cm mark and facing the object.
5. Place the white screen behind the lens and move it backward or forward till a sharp, inverted and
diminished image is formed.
6. Read and record the position of the lens and the screen on the observation table.
7. The distance between the position of the lens and the screen is equal to the focal length of convex lens.
Record the focal length of lens on the observation table.
8. Repeat the experiment two times more, by placing the convex lens at 10 cm and 15 cm and 20 cm marks
and in each case record the focal length.
9. Calculate the mean average focal length from the data.

Diagram:

Tabulation:

S NO Object distance Image distance Focal length

u (cm) v (cm) f= v-u (cm)
1 5 19.3 14.3
2 10 25.4 14.5
3 15 29.4 14.4
4 20 34.4 14.4
Calculation:

Average focal length of a concave mirror, f = = = 14.4 cm

Result:

The focal length of a given concave mirror is 14.4 cm.

Precautions:

1. The convex lens should be fixed in the lens holder.

2. The base of the lens and the screen should be parallel to the half-metre scale.
3. Note the position of the lens and the screen by looking vertically down, to avoid parallax error.

Sources of error:

1. If the lens is not fixed in vertical plane, the focal length is likely to be wrong.
2. Parallax error may occur if the readings are no noted from a proper position.
 3. RAY OF LIGHT THROUGH GLASS SLAB

Aim:

Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of incidence.
Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the result.

Materials Required:

Drawing board, Board pins, Two sheets of white paper, A rectangular slab, A protractor, scale and a sharp
pencil, four drawing pins.

Procedure:

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the middle of white sheet of paper and draw its boundary ABCD with a
sharp pencil. Remove the glass slab.
3. On the side AB. Mark a point E. Draw a perpendicular NM at a point E. NM is normal to the surface AB.
4. With the help of a protractor make ∠PEN = 30˚. This is the angle of incidence.
5. Fix two pins P and Q on the line PE in an upright position. Replace the glass slab back on its boundary
ABCD.
6. Looking through side CD, locate the images of the pins P and Q, looking at the images of pins P and Q,
fix two more pins R and S in upright position, such that these pins and the images of pins P and Q are in
same straight line.
7. Remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin points.
8. Remove the glass slab.
9. Join points R and S by a straight line, such that the line meets CD at F. Join EF.
10. Draw a normal at point F on the straight line CD.
11. Measure and record the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and the angle of emergence in the
observation table.
12. Repeat the experiment for angles of incidence as 40˚, 50˚, 60˚. In each case measure and record angle of
refraction and the angle of emergence.

Diagram
Tabulation:

S no Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i - ∠e

∠i (degrees) ∠r (degrees) ∠e (degrees) (degrees)
1 30˚ 19˚ 29˚ 1˚
2 40˚ 25˚ 41˚ -1˚
3 50˚ 31˚ 51˚ -1˚
4 60˚ 35˚ 59˚ 1˚

Conclusion:

As the difference between the angle of incidence and angle of emergence is within the experimental limits,
i.e., 1˚, therefore:
(i) Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence
(ii) Incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray.
(iii) Angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence when the rays of light travel from the rarer to the
denser medium.
(iv) With the increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction increases.

Precautions:

1. The rectangular glass slab used should have perfectly smooth faces.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should be in a straight line.
5. The distance between the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, about 5 cm gaps should be maintained.

Sources of Error:

1. There shouldn’t be any air bubbles in the glass slab.

2. The measurements done by the protractor should be accurate.
 4. RAY OF LIGHT THROUGH A GLASS PRISM

Aim:

Tracing the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required:

An equilateral prism, Geometrical instruments, 5 sheets of white paper, A wooden drawing board, Board
pins.

Procedure:

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base. Using a pencil, draw the outline of the prism.
3. Draw NEN normal to the face of the prism AB. Make an angle between 30° and 60° with the normal.
4. On the line PE, fix two pins at a distance of 5cm from each other and mark these as P and Q.
5. Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other face of the prism AC.
6. Fix two pins at R and S such that they appear as a straight line as that of the P and Q when it is viewed
from the AC face of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the prism.
8. At point F, make the points R and S meet by extending them.
9. PQE is the incident ray which is extended till it meets face AC. SRF is the emergent ray which is extended
backward to meet at point G.
10. Now mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and the angle
of deviation ∠D as shown in the experimental setup.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angles between 30° and 60°.

Diagram:

Observations:

1. At surface AB, the light ray enters and bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC, the light ray bends away from the normal as it travels from one medium (glass) to the
other (air).
3. The angle of deviation is observed. Here, the emergent ray bends at an angle from the direction of the
incident ray.
Conclusion

1. The incident ray bends towards the normal when it enters the prism and while leaving the prism it bends
away from the normal.
2. With the increase in the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation decreases. After attaining the minimum
value, it increases with an increase in the angle of incidence.

Precautions

1. For drawing the boundary of the prism, a sharp pencil should be used.
2. Soft board and pointed pins should be used.
3. The distance between the pins should be 5cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and should be encircled when they are removed from the board.
5. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
6. The arrows drawn for incident ray, reflected ray and emergent ray should be proper.

Sources of Error:
1. Make sure that the paper is fixed properly in the wooden board.
2. If the pins are not fixed properly there can be a large error in the path of incident and the emergent ray.
 5. OHM’S LAW
Aim:
Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it and
determine its resistance. Also plotting a graph between V and I.
Materials Required:
A dry cell, A single key, Voltmeter, Connecting wires, Ammeter, Rheostat, Resistor of 2ꭥ, Sand paper.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the devices with the connecting wires keeping the key open.
3. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4. Before connecting the voltmeter in the circuit, check for +ve and -ve terminals.
5. Check for ammeter and voltmeter reading once the circuit is connected and also adjust the slider of
rheostat after inserting the key.
6. For current I and voltmeter V, record three different readings using a slider.
7. Record the observations in the observation table.
8. Using the formula R=V/I, calculate the resistance.
9. To plot the graph between V and I, take V on the x-axis and I on the y-axis.
10. For pure metals, resistance increases with an increase in temperature.

Diagram:

Model Graph:
Tabulation:

S no Current in Amperes Potential Difference in Volts Resistance (R) = V/I

(A) (V) Ohms
1 0.1 0.20 2.0
2 0.2 0.45 2.2
3 0.3 0.65 2.2
4 0.4 0.80 2.0
5 0.5 1.10 2.2
6 0.6 1.20 2.0

Mean resistance of resistor = = = 2.1ꭥ

Precautions:
1. Clean the ends of connecting wires by sand paper.
2. Make tight connections, while connecting various elements of the circuit.
3. The plug key should be inserted only when you are ready to record the readings.
4. Remove the plug key, when you have finished your readings.

Sources of error:
1. The value of the resistance is likely to change, if the connections are not tight or the ends of copper wires
are not clean.
2. The values of the resistances is likely to change, if a heavy current is passed through circuit or the circuit
is switched on for a long time.