Engineering Mathematics

UNIT-2

(Differential Calculus-I)
 Mor-r a
Differential Calculus - I
2.1. INTRODUGTION
The concept offunction has a wide application. Here we shall discuss the nature and certain
properties offunctions. The notion oflimits in respect offunctions forms the base for the study
of continuity and differentiability.

2.2. FUNGTION
Definition: Let X and Y be two given sets. Suppose there exists a correspondence / which
associates to each member of X a unique member ofY. Then/is called a function or a mapping
from X to Y.
lIx) is called image at x e X. The set X is called the domain ofthe function /and Y is
called codomain off.
flX), the set of images ofelements ofX, is called the range of/.
2.3. REAL VALUED FUNGTION
Let R be the set of real numbers. Ifl : A -+ R, then we call / a real valued function.
Ifr e A, then flr) is also called the value offat r.
2.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
Let f be a real valued function defined on an inlerval I c R except possibly at c e I. The
function flr) is said to tend to a limit I e R as r tends to c for each e > 0, there exists a
_if
lflr)-ll < e, wherever 0 < lr-cl <5
or l-x<l\x)<l +t,Y x e (c-6,c+6).
Symbolically, we write

lli n"r = z'

2.5. LEFT HAND LIMIT

The function flr) is said to tend to a limit I e R asrtends to c from the left iffor each e > 0,
there exists a 6 (e, c) > 0, such that
llbc)-ll< e whenever c-6< r<c.

103
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Symbolically, we write

,If_o fl") = I or flc - 0) = I or lk -) = I --*..*-

OI l\c_0)= )y,rfll"_n> x+i /
l'> o

2.6. RIGHf HAND LIMIT

A function flr) is said to tend to a limit I e R as: tends to c from the right if for each e > 0, there
existsa6(e,c) >0suchthat lflx)-ll< e whenever c <r <c + 6.
Sl.rnbolically, we write

,Ino fl") =l orf (c+0)=lorflc+)=1.

or /(c + 0) = l\to fb + h).

h> o

2.7. EXISTENGE OF LIMIT

In view of above defrnitions one may observe that limit of a
function exists at some interior point ofan intewal provided both
1eft and right hand limits exist at that point and are equal ln other
words, if c is an interior point of an interval I, then lim flr) = l, if

lim^ lim
/x)=1=a J.+0 fl.r1.

2.8. WORKING II'IETHOD OF FINDING RIGHT I{AND LTMIT AND LEFT HAND LtMtT
(i) To find limit on the right, we put a + hfor x in flx) and then take the limits as b + 0.
Thus. lim frxt lim l1o + ht.
= h-A
o-0
(ll) To frnd limit on the left, we put o - h for x it flx) and take the limits as h -+ 0.
Thus, r-d-0
lim /irt = h-,0'
1i- l\a - h) .

2.9. INFINITE LIMITS

Definition 1. Let /be a real vaiued function defined on an interval I except possibly at c e I.
Thenthefunctionflr)issaidtotendto+-asxtendstocifforeachft>0(howewerlarge)there
exists a 5 = 6 (ft) > 0 such that
flr) > [, whenever 0 < lt*c l<E.
Symbolically we write

,lim flr)=+-.
Definition2.Thefunctionflr)issaidtotendto--asr+cifforeach,ta>0(howeverlarge)
there exists a 6 = 6 (fr) > 0 such that
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 105

f\x)<-hwhenever0< lr-cl < E.

Symbolically, we write
lim flr)=--.

2.IO. LIMITS AT INFINITY

Definition 1, Let /be a real valued function defined on (s, -) c R for some cr e R. The
function flr) is said to tend to a limit I e Rasrtendsto-ifforeache>0,thereexistsp=p(e)
> o such that
It\x)-ll < e,V x>p.
Symbolically, we write

,t11 flr) =
z.

Definition2.Thefunctionflr)issaidtotendto+-asrtendsto-ifforft>0(howeverlarge),
there existsp > a such that
flx)>k,Y x>p.
SJmbolically, we write

,191 flx)=+*.

2.I1, SOME THEOREMS

Theorem f. If lim /(r) exists, prove that it must be unique.

Theorem 2. lf lim f @ =Land lim g(r) =M,then,]13X I/{:r) + s'(r)l = L + M

Theorem 3. If lim /(r)=L, lim A(r)=M,then lim 11r1g1x')=LM

Theorern4. If lim fl.r)=L,J,ll s(.x)=M,then,lim providedM*0

#= #
Theorem 5. If 1im flr)=L,then lin l/(r) l= lLl
Theorem6, Letf :A-->RwhereAe Randif ,1T, flr) = L, then for any real number I,

,lim )' flr) = l,L

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example L. By using e - 6 method, proue that
Itm. lx'+'2x) = 15.
)3x

Sol. Here l(*) = x2 + 2x, L = 15, a = 3. Given e > 0 we must find 6 > 0 such that
l(x2 +2a)- 15i<e,(0< lr-31<6) ...( 1)
'1
06 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Now, l(x2 + Zr) -151 = | (x-3)(r + 5)l

= lr_Bl lr+bl.
t
\ 9/]. tn",
Let a= -i., [r.
lx-3llx + 5 | < 9 6 < e, ( lr - 3 | < 6),

whichimplies(1).Givene>0wehavefounda6[name]y6=minIf,:jJforwhich(1)holds,

and this proves lim (*2 + 2x) = t5.

,-rg

Example 2. By using e- 6 method, proue thqt lim^ * rin ! = 0.

I
Sol. Here,flr) ="r si1 a, | = 0 and a = 0. Here we are to show that
,a

Iimfl*) = lim r sin I =0.

:-0 r+0 .r
For this we are to show that for any given e > 0 there exists a number 6 > 0 such that
lflr)-01 < e, (0 < I r-01 < 6)
1
i.e.. lf,sin:-01<c.(0< l*_01 < 6).
Now, lrsinl-01= lrl lsinll
xx
< l* l, since lsin1l < r
x
< lr-ol ...( r )
Let s > 0, choose 6 = e, then for lr - 0l< 6, we have from (1)
.1
.xsrn--U <t.

Hence, lrm .x sln -

I U.
r-+0 =
x

TEST YOIIR I(NOWLEDGE

1. If z-2 < 1. prove that bc2-41 <8.
1
If lr --31< lO.provethat lx2-x-61 <87.
Let 6 be ary number such that 0 < 6 < 1.
(o) Ifg lr - 2 | < 6, prove that lr2 - 4l <56 (b) IfQlr - that
31 < 6, prove lr2-r-61 <66.

(c) If Q I r + 1 I < 5, prove that I 13 + 1 | < 76. rdt lf lx - 2l < 6. prove ,nr, l-: .I .
I |
tr -o | +
 107
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I

4. If lim flr) = L, then prove that lim efl") = eL

5. If lim flr) = L > 0, then prove that lim logfl.r)=logl,.

2.I2. COI{TINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

The study ofcontinuity offunctions is the most impotant aspect ofcalculus and it is based on
the notion of limit. Geometricaliy, ifthe graph ofthe functiony = flr) is continuous curve, then
it is callerl continuous function. This requires that there should be neither cut nor sudden
change in the value of the function for the value of*.

2.13. CAUGHY'S DEFTNITION OF CONTII{UITY

Definition 1 Let f: A -+ R, where A g R, then we say continuous at o e R that/is iffor every
e > 0, there is a positive number 6 = 5(e, o) [6 depends on e and point o] such that
lf\x) - fla)l <e,(0< lr-al <6)'
comparing this defrnition with that of the limit, we see that a function is continuous at
.t=aif
)tn flx) = fla) .

Ttre function /: A -+ R is sairl to be a continuous function on A ifit is continuous at each

point of A.
Definition 2. A function / : A --+ R. where. A g R is continuous at a e R if , lim o flx) and

tim flr) both exist and are finite and

lim
rJa+0
flx) = flo t lim
=x-o-\t flx)

L.€., f\a+0)=fla)=fla-0).
2,14. GONTINUITY FROM RIGHT

-\ function /: A -+ R, where Ag R is said to be continuous {iom right at a e R ifgiven e > 0,

-Iere exists a number 5 (e, o) > 0 such that
lflx) -flc-)l < e, whena <r < a + 6
In other words a function F: A r R, where A e R, is said to be continuous from right at
: =
Rif
fla+0)=fla)
i.e., lim flrc) = flo).
, o

2.15. CONTINUITY FROM LEFT

,i irnction /: A -: R, where A g R is said to be continuous from left at a e Rifgivene> 0, there
:rists a number 6 (e, a) > 0 such that
lflr)-flo)l <e, whereo-6<t<a'
108 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING IVATHEMATICS

In other words a function /: A -+ R, where A g R is said to be continuous from left

ae Aif
flrl-0)=ft.a)
L.€., lim flr) = fla).
2,16. CONTINUITY AT A POINT lN AN OPEN INTERVAL (o,6)
Let/be a function defined on an open interval (o, b). Then the function /is said to be continu-
ousatpointce (a, b), if for each e > 0, there exists 6 (e, c) > 0 [6 depends on e and c] such that
lfl;)-flc)l<e, lr-cl<6.
2.I7. GONTTNUITY IN AN OPEN INTERVAL
A function/is said to be continuous in the open inrterval (o, b) ifit is continuous at each point
'of the interval (a, b).

2.,I8. COI{TINUITY !I{ A GLOSED INTERVAL

A function /is said to be continuous on the closed interval [4, b] if it is continuous at each point
of the interval (a, b) and the continuity at the end points is defrned as below:

fl.r) is continuous atr =o if ,I*"_o flr) = f(a) and flr) is continuous atx =b if
lim
r +I 0
fl*) = flb).

2.{9. DTSCONTINUITY
A function /is said to be discontinuous at a point o if it is not continuous at that point. This
point is called the point of discontinuity.
Specifrcaliy, if out of the following two limits

,Ino lfr, and , lim-o lir)

one or both limits do not exist or both exists but are not equal or both are equal but their
common value is not equal to flo), then the function flr) is called discontiauous at point r = o.

2.2O. CLIASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES

2.20. 1. Removable Discontinuity

The function flr) has removable discontinuity at r =o if and only if lim flr) exists but this
limit is not equal to fla), i.e.,
fla+0)=fla-0)*fla).
Such a function can be made continuous ifwe defrne that
lim flx) = fla).
 '1
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS - I 09

2.20.2. Discontinuity of First Kind

If / (o + 0) and f (a - 0) both exist bfi f (a + 0) * f (a - 0), then fl*) is said to have discontinuity
of first kind at r = a. Such a discontinuity is also known as ordinary discontinuity.
Here,
{a) lf fla - 0.\ * flr;-) = fla + 0), then r = a is called a point of discontinuity of frrst kind ftom
left.
(b)Iff(a-O)=f(a)+f(q+0),thenr=aiscalledapointofdiscontinuityoffirstkind
fiom right.
2.20.3. Discontinuity of Second Kind
If neither of/(a + 0) arrd/(o - 0) exists, then flr) is said to have discontinuity ofsecond kind
atx=a.
(o) Iff(a - 0) does not exist, then the function is said to have second kind ofdiscontinuity
iom le{t.
(b) Iff(o + 0) does not edst, then the function is said to have second kind ofdiscontinuity
iom right.

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES

Example L. By using t- 6 method, shou that sin x is continuous for euery oalue of x.
Sol. Here, l(r) = sin r.
Let o be any real number. We claim that l(r) is continuous at r = a.
Now, lflx) - fla)l = lsinr-sinal
l- tx -o) tr +a)l
=
lzsrn--co" 2 I

I r -ol L+ol
=21s1n- l"o" z I

- I x-ol
<zlsm t'. 0l < 11
lcos
2 l,slnce
-.1* -ol ['.'sin0<01
2
< lr-"1 ...( 1)
Take 6 = e, then for lr - a j< 6, we have from (1)
lflx) - fla) <€
i-e., lsinr-sina <e, lr-al<6.
Hence, sin.r is continuous at r = a, whatever a may be,
Hence, sin r is continuous for every value ofr.
Example 2. Sfrout that xn, where n is pcsitir.te integer i.s coniinuous qt x = a.
Sol. The value of xn at x = a is ctn
\orv, lxn-anl = lx-a lxn- | + xa -2 a + ... + o,-1 |

<lt-ol (lr1'-t* l*" 'ol +...+ lol'-tl

< | x-al nb"-1 ...( 1)
110 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING I\,IATHEMATICS

where, b is frxed positive number greater than both lr I and I a | .

Take an arbitrary positive number e and choose 6 = elnb" 1. Then by (1),
lxn -anl < e, whenever lx-ol < 6.
Example 3. By e, \technique, show that the function f(x) = x2 + 2x is continuous at x -- 3.
Sol. Here l\x)=x2+2x

Given e > 0, we must find 6 > 0 such that

^3)=9+6=15.
lf @-f $)l <e, lr-31 < 6'
Now, l/(r)-/(3)l = lx2+2t-t5l
= l(r-3)(r+ 5)l
= lr-3llr+51 ' ''(I)
Choose 5, = 1, then
l*-31<6,
:+ lr-31< 1
:., -1<r-3<1
+ 2<t<4
= 2+5<x+5<4+5
= 7<x+5<9
(r + 5) e (7, 9) ...(ii)
=
/ .j
.6, we have from (i)and (ii)
Lete>0,choose6=min
' \ 9_,l, thenfor lr-31
11,:

lf k)-f {il1. f,.0=.

i.e., l< e, lr - 3 | < 6.
l/k) -/(3)
flr) is continuous at r = 3.
Hence,
Exanple 4. Test the continuity of function defined as follous at x = 0:
ll
lx sin L, x +0
/{'rr= 1 x
I o. x+o
Show that it is continuous for all real values of x.
Sol. First Part:
(1) /(0) = 0. (bY definition)

t2t l0+0r= rl,rl f ,O*frr= lim (0+h) sin -l

1
= lrm /i srn ft
=0xafinitequantity
t 1 I
1,vhl
L'. sin
i li.es between - 1 and +
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
'I 1I

(3) - 0) = ,irm^
flo - ft) = frlirq (0 - fr) "i" 0;
^0
1
= hlim
)0
i sin i
=0. ll,ike(2)]
From equations (1), (2) and (3),
flo+0)=flO-0)=fl0).
Hence, function flr) is continuous at.r = 0.
The graph ofthe function is shown in adjoining figure. Since

.1
rsrn- = ;*1 si, ,lr,.thegraphisincludedbetweenthe
x | * |=
I
Iinesy r aldy = -r. Note thatflr) = 0. when sin = 0: i."., *h"t
=
;
1111
-.x=nfi.n = t I. t 2- t 3. .... i.e.. when r = t -.t - .1 :-....
r zfi 3rr
Although the function is continuous at r = 0, yet its graph in vicinity of the origin
cannot be drawn, since the function oscillated infinitely often in any interval containing the
origin.
Second Part: Again take r =a(a+0).
Then we have clearly

/(o) =o sin l, l, a"f. or/ ...( 1)

a

/(r) = /T. " + h ! ...(2)

Now, f(o + 0) =
"Ino
sin
;l=o "i.,

f (a - 0) =,Ipo flr) = tim^ (a - h)ri, ;+ = o.i, ! ...(3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3), we have

fla+0)=fla)=flo-0)
Consequently, flr) is continuous at x = a. moteoyer, o is arbitrary and hence given
function is continuous for all real values ofr including zero.
Example 5. Discuss the continuity of the following function at x = 1:

tt..\ fl*r',0<r<t
ltx)=\t_x, x>1.
Sol, {1) l1) = I + 12 =2. (by definition)
(2) /(1 +0)= /giftt*l,)=;r1o. [1 lim (- lz)= 0.
-(1 +D)] = I+0
(3) /(1 -0)=li,.ftt-ll=,lim [1 -(1 -ft)= Iim ft=0.
h+o
112 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHET,IATICS

From equations (1), (2) and (3)

/(1 + 0) = /(1 _ o) */(1).
.'. f(r) has a removable discontinuity at r = 1.

lr'-l x+-l
Example 6. If f t =);' then decide whether the function fir) is
| -2. x=-J,
continuousatr=-1.
So1. (1) ?\) = -2.
f (by definition)

(2) /(-1+o) = )tu^f t-r*nl

(-l+h)2 -l t+ h2 -2h-1
lim lim -
= h-0 (-! + h) +1 = h)0
.. -2h h2
= lt* -i, = tim (h -2\ = -2.

/(_ 1 _ 0) = ;rm^ /(_ 1_ h)

" _ t !-h)2
__=-1 1+ h2 +2h-l
= nlim
-.o (-l-h)+7
lrm
hao -h
lirn -(h +2)=-2.
= n+O
From equations (1), (2) and (3),
/(- 1+ 0) =F(- 1- 0) =/(- 1).
.. /(r) is continuous at x = - 1.

\ftrrmple T.Testthe continuity ofthe function f {d=;}; atx=0'

1 I
Sol. (1) f Q)=
l_elto
=
1_ r- = -1 =g.
i__
lim 1,=
1,,, I
'f(o+o)= /.-o
lim f(o+h)= i - =
-
-0 1-'1th I -eUo 1- e*
1-
- 1-e
-
1
(3) 'f(0-0)= 1,lim
)o f(0-ft)= n*:r le 1-0 =1
/(0 +0)+t(0-0)
.'. /(r) has a discontinuity of first kind at r = 0.

j
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 113

Exanple 8. Test the continuity of a fiinction at x = 0 uhich is de/i.ned as follows:

(1
x +0
1 0,-,x
I sin
/txt=
|. x=0'
Sol. (1) /(0) = 0. (by definition)

(2) /(0+0)=;rm^ /(0+ft)=;11 "t i

1lsin0(1,V0
.'. The above limit u'ill oscillate between - 1 and + 1.
.'. The above limit will not exists.
(3) /(0 - 0l = rLq /(0 - n) = ;y. - "', i,
The above limit will also not exist IiI<e (2).
. '.' Neither ofl(O + 0) and/(0 - 0) exists.
;. /(r) has a discontinuity of second kind at r = 0.

Example
tEl +n
9.fflr)= 1 " ' -**0 th"n test th.e continuity ol l (x) at x =0.
[0. x=o
Sol. (1) = 0. Gy definition)
(2) /(0 +^0)
o) =
,rrm^
f r0 + n) = ;1% T# = ;T. ?
rm 1=r
h -o h
(B) =
],+fo-nt= ;,$
lt+ = ;iTl !#
^o-o) fr
= hlim
>a =-1.
-h
f(0+0)*f(o-0)
r .. /(x) has a discontinuity of first kind at.r = 0.
Sxampte lO. Test the following function:
lo''' -l
t+u
f *t= I *'
I o.-' x=o
ior its continuity at x = 0.
Sol. (1) /(o) = o. (by definition)
e1Ao +ht
(2) lim f(o+ir;= lim 1/,0*hr-L.
f(o+o)= h-o h-o e +L
oL/h-7 l-e
lim
= h-o =lim
- +l h+o l+e
e"n 1/h

l-e * 1-0
L+e-* 1+0
114 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATIOS

u(0-i) . -1th -
(3) /(o-o)= #Tof(o-t)= #3n. ffi = I*. ffi =-r
f(0+0)+/(0-o).
.'. f(r) has discontinuity of first kild at r = 0.

TESTYOT'RKNOWLEDGE

1. Prove that a constant functio! is continuous.

Prove that for each value ofr, cos r is continuous in iO, fl .

L',2)
Prove that for all valuesofr, sin2r is continuous.
4. Test the continuity ofthe following function at, = 0 andy = 1:
flr) = lrl + lr-11
,rf trr"r, a""ia"n,hether the tunction i5 cortinuous att = 2'
D. *> =
\L!-', | !1,
6. If'fl = 4- - when.r*0 andf(O) = 0, then prove that/(r)
e''- +1
is discontinuousatr=0'

Prove that the function flr) defined by

sin2 an
f(-t\= --'r ,-.x*O
flo)= 1

has a removable discontinuity at r = 0.

8. Prove that the function flr) defined by
1
= *,x+O
^xl
flo)=0
has a discontinuity of first kind for all real values ofr.
9. Prove that the function

---1 1 rl- r) l,r*o

'f(.r)= r-d
cosec \x-cLt
f(o)=0
has a discontinuity of second kind at r = o.
I r+1. r(1-l
10. Iff(x)= .l^- ', ^x>t then, prove thato = I if/(x) is continuous.
ld-ar,
I f if x=o
11. Prove that the function f(x)= j3r -1, if r<0 is discontinuous atr = 0.
[ 0, ifr>0
[*-],1' -'"
-*n is discoDtinuous atr = 0.
12. Prove that the functionF(r)= I -i,
r=o
I
(
lac"' tt,
| ,, ifx+0.is continuous atr = u.
Prove that f(r) = 11+ eu'
[ 0 if x=0
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 1'15

lan 2r,
3r
, fotx+O
14. Prove that /(r) = 2 is contiauous at r = 0.
forr=0

Answers
4. Cotrtinuous atr =0 andr = 1 5. Continuous atr= 2.

2.2I. SOME THEOREMS ON GOT{TINUOUS FUNGTIONS

Theorem l. If the functions/andg are continuous at* = o, then so /+g is continuous
atx=a-
Theorem 2. Ifthe function / and g are continuous atr = o, then so/-€t is continuous at
x =Q.
Theorem 3. If /is continuous at r = o, then so ),/is continuous at r = a, where l" + 0 is
a real constant.
Ttreorem 4. If functions flr) andg(r) are continuous atr = a, then soflr)g(r) is continuous
atx=a.
Or
Product of two continuous function is a continuous function.

Theorem 5. Ifl(*) antl g(r) are continuous at x = a, then so 84 is continuous at

g(r)
.. = a. where g(a ) / 0.
Theorem 6. Ifa real valued function is continuous atc € I, then the function lflr) |
:s also continuous at c. The converse may not be true in general.
^.r)
2.22. BOUNDED AND UNBOUNDED FUNCTIONS
2.22.1. Bounded above function
-\ function/: A + R, whereAE R, is said to be bounded above ifthere exists anumberM e R
.uch that
fln)<M,VreA
The number M is called upper bound.
2.22.2, Bounded below function
-\ function /: A + R, where A s R is said to be bounded below ifthere exists a number rz eR
::ch that
rnSl\r)YxeA.
The number m is called bounded below function.
1,22.3. Bounded function
,-, function /: A --+ R is defined as a bounded function in the domain A, ifhere exists two real
::mbers nr and M such that
rz(flr)<M,VreA.
Aliter: A function /: A -; R is defrned as a bounded function if there exists a real
- rmber K such that
lflr)l<K,VreA.
Note: A function which is not bounded is called an unbounded function.
 116 A TEXIBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.23. SUPREMUTI'I OR LEAST UPPER BOUND

Let f :A+R,whereAgR,thenLe Ris called supremum of/if
(i)f(r)<L,Vre A
(li) For each e > 0, there exists at least one o e A such that
L-ecf(a)
L<f(a)+x.
2.24. IilFIMUM OR GREATEST LOWER BOUND
Let f :A+R,whereAqR,thenMe R is called infimum off if
(i)M</(r),Vre A.
(ii) For each e > 0, there exists at least one p e A such that f(0) < M + e"

225. lf, o]{oToNlc FUNCTIOI{

A function / : A -+ R is called monotonic non-decreasing if for
,j7> x2> a3....
we have f (xr) > f (xr) >f (xr) ....
A function / : A + R is called monotonic increasing if for
x1> ti2 > 1cA ....
we have flxr)>flxr)>^rB)>....
A function A -+ R where A c R is calted monotonic non-increasing function if for
/:
11> x2> x3.....
we have f (xr) < flxr) < flxr) < .....
A function f : A -+ R where A g R, is called monotonic decreasing if for
rt> x2> x3.....
we have f (xr) < flxr) < < ..'..
We say that /is monotonic if /is^ra) either non-decreasing or non-increasing'

2.26. PROPERTIES OF COI{TINUOUS TUNGTIONS

Property 1. Borel's Theorem: Iflis continuous function on the closed interval [o, b],
then this interval can be divided into a frnite number of sub-intervals such that for a given
€>0
lflr,) -fl*r) |<e
where r, and r, are any two points in the same subintervals.
Property 2. Boundedness Theorem: If the function flr) is continuous on a closed
intervai [o,5], then/is bounded on this interva].
Or
i Ifflr) is continuous in a closed interval, then it is bounded in this interval but not in the
open interval.
property 3. (The Mostest Ttreorem) If a function flr) is continuous in a closed interval
[o, b], then / attains its supremum and infrmum at least once in [4, b].
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 117

Property 4. If a function flr) is continuous the point r = c where flc) + 0, then there
exists a number 6 > 0 such that for ailr e (c -6, c + 6),flr) has the same sign as l(c).
Property 5. (Bolzano's Theorem) If a function flr) is continuous in the closed interval
lo,6l and/(a) andflb) have opposite signs, then there exists at least one pointr = c in [4, b] for
which flr) vanises, i.e., flc\ = O.
Property 6. (The Intermediate Value Theorem) If a function / is continuous in the
closed interval la, bl ar,d fla) + flb), ther. f at'tains all the values between fla) and flb) in the
interval [a, b].
Remark 1. Since /is continuous in the closed interval [a, b], so that /is bounded on
la, bl. Let mbe the infinimum and M the supremum oflon [o, b]. Therefore, m s flr) ( M, for
allre la, bl.
Corollaryz If a function f is continuous on a closed and. bounded interual ld, b\, thzn f
assumes all ualues between its infinirnwn m and supremurn M on [a, b], so that the range of the
function is lm, Itttl.
Renark 2. It may seem that the above theorem and its corollary have a converse. That
is, one is tempted to infer.that if a function assumes all values between any two functional
values, then the function is continuous.
That converse of this theorem is not true can be seen from the following example.
Example: Consider the following function:
(t
f @= 1t'" i' lorx *u
[ 0, forx=0.
This function does not haue a lirnit at x = 0 and hence it is not continuous there. Yet f
dssumes all values between - 1 and' 1, and hence betueen any two functional ualues in any
neighbourhood of * = 0.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPI-,ES

Exanple l, Prooe that the Dirichlet's function f d'efined on R by

/ (r) = {_ i #: : ;:,;,i:::,*
is discontinous at every point of R.
Sol. Let o e R be an arbitrary point. Let, if possible, /be continuous at r = a.
Since in any interval, there lie an infrnite number of rational and irrational numbers,
therefore, for each positive integer z, we can choose a rational c,, an irrational go such that

loc, -o; < In

antl lp,-ol .1.
n
Thus, {o,} and {p,} are sequences of rational and irrationais respectively, such that
an -+ a and, $, -+ a.
118 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEIVIATICS

Since, fis continuous at o, by sequential continuity, we have

,19 flo") =^o) =

lim /(P") ...( 1)

But f(a")=- 1 and flP,)= 1 forallz e N.

,l5n fla,) = -
1 and jg: /(P,) = 1
Thus, from (1)
_L=f(a)=r
This is a contradiction of continuity of f at' a.
Hence, / is not continuous at x = a. Since o e R is arbitrary, it follows that f is
discontinuous on R.
Example 2. Sftow that the function
(t
f'*'= ]"" -' x +u
I o, x=o

tahes all ualues betueen -1 ancl 1 for eo.ch ualue in the intervall--Z ,Z), the function
"Un "sh
is rtot continuous.
Sol. Here flO)=0
1 ..
hm Sln
1
flO + 0) = fl,) = ,Iflo
"In. "i. -=
x h-.,0 -h
which oscillates between - 1 and 1.

/(0-0)= u lim_o /(r) =, 1r- ! =- Ilrm 1

srn -
--)0 h
r0-0 "io r
which oscillates between - 1 and 1.
Hence, f (r) is not continuous at r = 0.

Now, ,(+) =.'(;) =-,,,(il =sin | =r

r varies from ;-2 t"

2
Hence /(r) assumes all values lying between - 1 and 1, while
;.
Yet the function, being discontinuous at the point.r = 0, is not continuous in the interval

\ r I[,/
Example 3. Consider the function

/txt=,lim ''"#+"t
ft
in the interval 0 ax ! ;z , and explain why the function does not uanish anyuhere in the interual,

although f tlt dnd f hJz) differ in sign.

 'l 19
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I

Sol. We have
f @) =1os2
, ,2n
r."[2+I]-[I]
-\ 2) \2)
and rill=
' ri-
)2
\2) ( h
=_1.
n\,n
l+t 1.,1 I

So (0) and / (r/2) differ in sigrr . Considering the continuity of f (x) at the point
/ r=1
which is between O arrd 2,

lim log3-(lr1sinl - log3-sin1

fll)= ;-* l+(l)2' 2

+})
fl7+ht= r.- logt3+ft)-(1
+ r, )2' sin {1
=-srn(r+nr
1 ,fi *h\*
/{1+ 0) = - sin (1).

AIso Iog (3 - r) - (1 - r)2' sin (1 - n)

=log(3-ft)
f(1 lim
-n)= n)6 t+o-h)2"
f(1 - 0) = log 3.
So the function is discontinuous at I = 1, and that is the reason why the function does
not vanish an),where betwden 0 and ry'2.

TESTYOI]RKNOWLEDGE
1. Show that the function f defrned by

Ar)= lt-r,
Ir, if x is rational
if* is irrational
1
is continuous only at x = i-
2. Show that the function fl*) defiaed on R by
[r when r is irrational
nrt = l- x when r is rational
is contiauous only at r = 0.

/ (*) = xI , r e (0, U is continuous

1

Show that the fulction defined by on (0. 11.

4. Let f: [0, U -+ R be defined by

| rl ir-!;r.1=,*. [t- N
&+1 k'
ltrt= l0 , if r=0
l'l , ifr=l
Then f is discontinuous at, = : , z e N.
1
120 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.27. 9ERIVABILITY AT A POINT

Let /be a real valued function defined on an interval I = [o, b] c R. The function /(r) is said to
be derivable or differentiable at an interior point c e I if

,rro fk + h) - f(c) o,
h+o h x -c
The value ofthis limit, ifexists, is called the differential coefficient or derivative ofthe

function /rxrat x = c and is denoted bv/'tctor

[#
O,'],
=.

,r^ f(x) - f(c) exists when right-hand antl left-hand limits exist and are equal'
x-c
2-2A. RIGHT HAND DERIVATIVE

The right-hand clerivative offlr) atr = c is rlenoted byf'(c + 0),/'( c +) orRf'(c) andis defined as

..
lrm
fk+h\- f(c)' Of
r, ro h rJc-0 X-C
h> o

2.29. LEFI HAND DERIVATIVE

The left-hand derivative of the function fl*) at * = c is denoted by f '(c - 0), f'( c -) or
L/'(c) and is defrned as

,.- f(c - ft)-- /(c) o, ,.^ f(c - h) - f(c) ,, , f(x) - f(c)

n-o (- h) h'->o
i,< 0
x+c-0 X-c

Thus, the function flr) is differentiable at r =c if and only if

(i) f(c + 0) and f(c - 0) both exist and
(ii) f(c + 0) = /'(c - o).

2.30. DERIVATIVES AT END POIT{TS OF AN INTERVAL

A function / clefined on [o, b] is derivable at end poini'o'of [o, 6], ifright-hand derivative offl.r)

atn=oexists.that js. lim frx)-f(a\ exists and by f(o ) would then be meant f'(a + 0).
r 'dr0 (x-a)
similarly /is derivable at b if le{t-hanrl derivative of flx) at x = b eists and by/' (b) would then
be meant /'(b - 0).

2.3{. DERIVABILITY lN [a' bl

The function flr) is said to derivable in [o, b] if it is derivable in the open interval (4, b) and
also at the end points o and 6.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 12'l

2.32. THEOREM

Ifa function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point but converse is not
necessarily true.

2.33. ALGEBRA OF DERIVATIVES

Theorem 1. Letlandg be defined on [o, b] and derivable atc e la,bl.Thelrf + g,f-g'
fe |a (c) + 0} are also derivable at c. The derivatives at c are given by the following
'- and {e
-
formulae:
(i) (f xd' G) = f' (c) te'(c)
Gi) (fe)' G) = f' (c) e G) + f (c) s' (c)

(i,,) [ r _ er"t-f!!t st"t],,rr,",*r.

\g/],r, lf1"t
L [gr"t f )

1
Theorem 2. Iffis derivable at c, and f (c) * 0, then the function is also derivable
7
there at and

tll,-, -f'rct
t/l .' lfrctlz
l-l {c,=-

2,34, CHAIN RULE OF DIFFERENTIABILITY

Theorem. Let/be defined on an open interval S, letg be defined on/(S), and consider
the composite function goldefined on S by the equation
@6fl (x) = sv\x)l
Assume c e S such that /(c) is an interior point of flS). If /is differentiable at c and if g
is differentiable at flc), ther' gof is differentiable at c and we have
@ofl, (c) = s, flc)l f,(c).

2.35. DERIVATIVE OF AN INVERSE FUNGTION

Let f : lq., bl function such that /is one-one. Then the map /- 1 : fl[a,bl) -+ R defined
--+ R be a
= r, where y = flr), r e [o, b], is called the inverse offor io, bl.
1 (y)
by f-
2.36. THEOREM
Let /be one-one and differentiable function on an interval [o, b] Then /- 1 is differentiable at
flc), where c e ia, bl 1tr f ' (c) + O.

Moreover, (/ 1)'
U(c)1 = .l (c)
f
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

ILLUSTR.A,TIVE EXAMPLES

Example L. Shou that the function f d'efined by

flx)=lxl3,xeR
is differentiable at x = 0 and f ' (0) = 0.

Sol. '.'

Thus, right-hand derivative at r = 0 is

ri-
Rf.(o)= i-o 4!1?:Iq = r,-
lill-o =o
h h-o h
and left-hand derivative at r = 0 is

t f ,@) Li+-e = Ir. - (*) ='

= lxLe2Je;*
Rf' (0) = L f' (0) = 0.
@) = 0 +/'
Hence, /(r) is differentiable at r = 0 and /' (0) = 0.
Example 2. Show that the function f defined by
= sin x, x e R, is differentiable on R'
f(x)
SoI. Let c e R be an arbitrary point. Then we shall check the differentiability at r = c'
Now, /(c) = sin c
flc+hl-fk)_
.:--j-----------
sin (c + /r) - sin c
R/,
' (c) = hlim h = hm
n-o
-o
lim
sinc cos h + cos c sin lr - sinc
= ,ili0 h
lrsul) /cosh-t\ I
lim
= [+0
Ll' i, ,J"o'"*l l, """] .J

( h\2
lsrn
--
I

t sin ft)
= ahm cosc-
[ ft J *,* \ tt2 ) "'" "

=cosc-0 t ']
R/' {"; =
"o" "
Similarly, W'k)=cosc
Thus, Lf ' (c) =Rf ' (c).
Hence, /is differentiable at * = c. since c is an arbitrary point ofR, it follows thatf (r)
is differentiable on R.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ 123
'

Exarrple 3. Show that function

Irsin -' x +0
/t*r = ]r is not differentiable at x = 0.
I 0' x=0
to+rzrsin[-1- )-o
R/'(0r= lim ft0
+ ft) - /(0) \0+h,
Sol. h)o h
lrm
= n'o
.1 /t srn -
Iim --;in
= h-O Iimsin i.
= h-o n
-
I
Ttre value of sin does not tend to a defrnite value when h -+ 0 because it oscillates
f
between - 1 and 1. Thus R/'(0) and L/'(0) will not exists.
Hence, the given function is not differentiable at r = 0.
Example 4. Slzo w that the follouing function is continuous and d'ifferentiable at x = 0:

sin xto t
1'*t= )*' 0, ' x=0 '
[
Sol. Test of continuity at r = 0: The value of flx) at x = 0 is flO) = 0.
Now, Right limit =/(0 + 0) = lim r,-o/(0 + fr)
f1)
= lim lr' "in lr]
= 0 x (a finite quantity between - 1 and 1)
=0.
LeIt timit = f (0 - 0) = lim^ /(0 - n)

llm /l-n ,, Sln-

-. 1)
= r-o! |

h)
= 0 x (a frnite quantity lying between - 1 and 1)
=0.
The left limit, right limit and value of/ (r) at r = 0 are equal.
Therefore, function is continuous at, = 0.
Test of differentiability at r = 0:
(o + h)'z sin f-}-) - o
Rflo) lim f(o+ir-l(o) - hm \0+h)
' = h-o h h'o

t- [;,.
= il-o 1)
\ "in h)
= 0 x (a finite value in between - 1 and 1)
=0.
'124 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEHING MATHEMATICS

Now, ry',(o)=
urimo
t +/9=m (, "**)
= 0 x (a finite value in between - 1 and 1)
=0.
Thus, R/'(0) = L/'(0).
Therefore, the given function is differentiable at t =0

Example 5.I/fl.r ) = ,x*0 aruJ fl}) = 0, then shou that thz function is continuous
T:JI;
but not differentiable at x = 0.
Sol. Continuity of function at r = 0: It is given /(0) = 0.
Right Iimit of function at * = 0

flo+o)=;,T. *"q*, = g-r;}. =o

Left limit of function at r = 0

^o-o)=;*;51,
= i*;j; ='
limit and value offlr) at r =
Thus, we get that the right limit, left 0 are equal to 0, that
is
l(0 + 0) =flO - 0) =^0) = 0.
.'. The given function is continuous at * = 0.
Differentiability of function at x = 0:
f@+h)-f(o) = Im;1,," =
611s1 =.lim
/r-0 h h)o l+e'"' -f
l+- =0.

L/'{0,=,,iq te+== ('*)-'=

** ** t*+
e

1,
_1
l+
Thus, nf '(o) * r,f '(i)
Hence, the given function is not differentiable at I = 0'
Example 6. Test the differentiability of the following function at x = 0, where
( -tt, ltx
-" ., uhen x +0
'* .".
Irt= 1 e,,'+e,,,
[o' when x =0.
Sol. We see that

61161 =
f@+/i-fQ),o,o
rlim
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 125

7lh ,lth
Le -e
uh -uh -i "
" e--+e-' uh -llh
g__-e
_ l.m =im _
rilio h ;:o etth + e-uh

.. L- e-2th 1- o
=lUI]-
h--to1q2zth 1+0

and ly''(o)= fto-:\;t@),h>o

ilim
h
-- -"
= .lT""-'lh
-vl -re-vl

-. "-x'h -L
tlm ----:::-
= h-o
o -1
e-114 +L 0+ I
Thus, we see that R/'(0) +Lf '(O).
Hence, the given function is not differentiable at * = 0'
Example 7. Find the right and left differential coefficients of the following function:
(
tdn',1-' x+u
flrl= ]r
| 0, x=0.
Also show that it is not dffirentiable at x = 0,

.. ntant l-o
.. /r0+h)-/(0)=#s.--
Sol. R/'(0) =
l* ,, fr-
li- tar'-r fl)=n
= ,r+o \h) 2

ry'(o)= rinl N-+19=r--1I1L- -J1

rim [-tan.l)=-l
= rr-o\ h) 2
Thus, R/'(0) * L/'(0)
= Function is not differentiable at .r = 0-
Example 8. Test the continuity and. dffirentiability of the following function in the
i4terval 10, 21 when:

wheno lr <7
*,
-s* *1, whenl3x!2
126 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

Sol. From the definition of function, it is clear that the function is continuous at each
point in the interval [0, 2] except r = 1, therefore, we are to test the continuity offuncticn at
x=1.
The value offunction atr = 1. 'fl 1) = 2 x I- 3r f * 9=1
22
Right limit of function
fl1 +0)=]rm^flr+Al

l-
= i-o lar+i,r'-3(1 +ft)+q'l
L 2)=12
Now, the left limit of function at r = 1,

lim (1 - ft) = li- [(1-

r''''l 1
- o) = h-0 /,,0 1 2 ) = 2
^1
Thus, value offunction, left limit and right limit offunction are equal atr = l, that is,

fitt=fit-o)=lu+or= 1
2
Thus, the function is continuous in the interval [0, 2].
Test ofdifferentiability at r = 1: From the defrnition offunction, the function is differen-
tiable at each point ofthe intervai [0, 2] expect r = 1.
Now, we will test the differentiability ofthe function at r = 1.

Rr'(l)= rim A#9

-ze+D+Z)-;
lim lr<r*nf
= h)o h

lim 2hz +4h-3h+2*3+L

= /i_)0
lim(2i+1)=1
= h+o

!,. t12 I
Now, L/,(t)= lim [\L-h)-ftl) = \m 2'- "' 2
h-o -h i-o h

= hti-
-;o +
2
Q-h)=L
Thus, Rf(1) = L/'(r) attr = 1
Therefore, the given function is differentiable at r = 1.
Now, at the left end point r = 0 ofthe given interval,

'o
Rf,(0)
' lim fto+ h!-
= h-0
[\o) h^trh'h
= i-0 tim la
= a.o2
h,
=0
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. I 127

Now, at the right end point r = 2 of the given interval,

Lf(2) = tim fQ-h)-f(2)

-h
nt - a(, - r,).;]- +])
lim lz<z-
= h:0
[zx+ -zxz
-h

zl+-+n*n' -a*zn*1r-7rf ...o zhz _bh

=rlm--_....--=liTrl-
i-o i?
-h -h

li-
= t-.,0
2fr -5 =s.
-1
Thus, the function is differentiable at both the ends.
The given function is differentiable in the interval [0, 2].
Example 9. Slrow that the d,eriuatiue of an eoen function is always odd function.
Sol. Let flr) be an even function. Therefore, by definition ofan even function, we have
fl- x) = flx), for all r.
Differentiating both sides with respect to r, we obtain
-.. l-d
f'(-x). (- x) =f'(x)
'dr
i.e., lf'Gx)l .G 1) =f'(x)
Therefore, f '(-x) =- f '(x)
Hence, f '(x) is an odd function. We thus see that the deriu atiue of an euen function is
always an odd. function.
Example lO. Let f (x + y) = f(x) f(y) for all x and y. Suppose f(5) = 2 and f (0) = 3, then
find f(5).
Sol. From the definition of derivative at a point, it follows that

;^ f(5 + Q- f(5)
7151 =

_.
lrm
= [-r0
f(5) ffi) - f6) f(0')
lSince fl5) = + 0) = 0)l
h
^5 ^5)
=frur" lY,@/9
= fli) x f'(0) = 2 x 3 = 6
130 A TEXIBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Answers
4, Continuous but not differentiable. 5. Continuous and differentiable 7. No.
8. Continuous trut not differentiable 11. Not continuous ancl not differentiable
12. Not dilferentiable 13. No.
16. Cqntinuous and differentiable both 2L. f.x) = lx - ll, g(*) = l t - 2 1; intelval [0, 3].

2.37. ROLLE'S T}IEOREM

If a function flr) is such that

(l) it is cont.inuous in the closed interval [a, 6]
(ii) it is derivable in the open interrral (o, b)
(iii) l\a) = l\b) then there exists at least one value 'c' ofr in the open interval (o, b) such
that f(c) = 0
Geometrical Prcof. Let AB be the graph offunctiony = fl:r) such that the points A and
B ofthe graph correspond to the numbers a and b ofthe intewal la, b1.

(,) (iil (il.i)

1. As is continucus in the interval a ( lc s b

flr)
.'. its graph is a continuous cuwe from A to B.
2. As fl*) is derivabie in the interval o < r < b
.'. The graph ofli.r) has a unique tangent at every point between A and B.
3. Asfla) = llb).
.'.
AL and BM, the ordinates of A and B are equal.
It is evident from the figures that there is at least one point P on the curve between A
and B, the tangent at which is parallel to x-axis
'. tangent at P is parallel to r-axis.
.'. slope of iangent at P = 0.
If 'c' is the abscissa of P, then /'(c) = 0 where a < c < b.
Note 1. Rolle's Theorem fails to hold good for a function v,'hich does not satisfy even one cf the
three conditions stated above.
Note 2. Every polynomial is a continuous function ofr for every value ofr.
sin r, cos r, e' are continuous for all values ofr. log r is eontinuous for all r > 0.
Note 3. Alternative Form of Rolle's Ttreorem. Ifa function flr) is such that
(i) it is contiauous in the interval o ( :u 3 o t i,
(ii) it is derivable in the interval a < x < a + h
{iii) fl.d) = l\a + h)
then thele exists at least one number 0 such that /'(o + 0i.) = 0. 0<0<1
('.' the number c which lies beiween a and a + l, :nust be greater' than
a by a fraction of i, and may be wdten as c = o + 0,h where 0 < e < 1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I
r al

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES

L. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function f(x) = x2 - 6x + 8 in the interual

-z-fxample
12, 41.
Sol. Here a=2, b=4
l.flx)=7.2'6aag
- fll) is a polynomial.
Since every poiynomial is a continuous function ofrior every value of .t.

- l(*) is continuous in the closed interval [2, 4]

2. f (x) = \6 - 6,l,hich exists in the open interval (2, 4)
3.|\D=a-12+8=0
l\4)=16-24 +8=0 .'. fl2) = 0 =fl4)
;. flr) satisfies all the three conditions of RoIIe's Theroem.
.'. there must exist at least one number c between 2 and 4 such th at f'(c) = O.
Now f(x)=2x.-6
f(c)=0grves 2c-6=0 c=3
This is a point in the open interval (2,4) and', therefore, the theorem is verified.
Example 2. Verify Rolle's Theorem for (x * a)* (x - b)" in the interual [a, b]; m, n being
positiue integers.
Sol. Here flr) = (x - a)*(x - b)
As m and n are + ve iltegers, (.r - a)- and (x - b) arc pol;momials on expansion by
Binomial Theorem and consequentiy f(r) is a poiyrromial of degree (rn + n).
1. Since every polynomial is a continuous function ofr for every value ofr.
.'. flr) is continuous in the closed intewal La, b\.
2. f (x) = 1n(26 - a1m_l(x - b)tl + n(x - a)n(x - b)tt-t
Llm(x b) + n(x q)l
= (y - otn-t1t - 61 - -
:r'hich exists in the open interval (o, b).
3. fla) =0 =flb)
.'. flr) satisfies ail the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'. there must exists at least one number 'c' between o and b such that f(c) = 0
t@) = (x - aln-t (, - 61n-tlm(x - b) + n(x - a)1.
l'(c) = 6 *irn". (c - a)n-t12 - 61n-t lm(c - b) + n (c - a)l = 0
r m(c-b) +nk-a)=0 l'.' c+a,ctb aso<c<bl
(m+n)c=mb+na

' mb+na
_
,"-"'
rhich is a point within the interval (o, 6) dividing it in the ratio m : z internally.
Hence, the verifi cation.
 132 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING ITATHEMATICS

Example 3. Verify Rolle's Theorem for x3 - 4x in L-2, 21.

Sol. Here flr) = 13 - 4r, a polynomial.
1. Since every polynomial is a continuous function ofr for every value ofr.
.'. flr) is continuous in [- 2, 2]
2. f(t) = 3r2 - 4 which exists in (-2,2)
3. fl-z)=0=fl2)
.'. fl*) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'. There must exist at least one number 'c' in (-2, 2) such that f'(c) = 0

L.e. 3c2 - 4 =o or c =- k =t 1.155 (nearly)

Both the values of'c'lie in (-2, 2). Hence the verification.
Example 4. Verify Rolle's Theorem for 2 + (x - 1)2t3 in 10, 2).
Sol. Here llr) = 2 + (x - l) 3 (not a polymial)

'f'txl = ?3lx - 7r1t3 = --] *

3tx-11''
which does not exist at r = 1 e (0, 2)
.'. Rolle's fireorem is not applicable to flr) in t0, 21.
Example 5. Verify Rolle's Theorem for
f(-)=*+ilea2in[-3,0).
Sol. Here fl.r) = 62 + 3x)- 2
Since x(x + 3) = xaz4 3x and ellare continuous al] r
-for
. . their prorluct = )c(x + gk-xk = flr) is continuo"s?or ali ,.
+ flr) is continuous in [- 3, 0].
Also. + Sxte-'/2
. i t) =- r lx2-x-6)e*tz
"
f'rxt=e* + 3)e-,/2 + hc2
l-;J |
which exists in (-3, 0)
= l(r) is derivable in (-3, 0)
and = 0.=^0)
.'. flr) satisfres all^-q)
the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'. there must exist at least one number t'in t-3,0) such thatf(c) = 0
i.e. - !r"r-"
2
- 6)ea, =o
or c2-c-6=O L'-' d+Dfor any frnite value ofrl
or a=3,-?
Butc=3e (-3,0) whii'ec=-2e (-3,0)
Hence the verification.
Example 6. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the following functions:
(i) flx) = sin x in l-n, n) \ii) flx) = e" sin x in 10, nl
f r--1
!Ba ltD)lltcl=d x-tosxttn l--
Gii) fl*) =
e
;,, 10, 11
' lstn
l+'t)
|

I I

I
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 133

tu\ l\xt = losl

I *2 + obf
in la, bl (u r-_;x' in l-2,21
o** | flx) = 114-
Sol. (r) fl*) = sin r is continuous for all *
+ flr) is continuous in [-n, n]
/'(x) = cos r which exists irr (* n, rr)
+ l(r) is derivable in n, n)
(-
Also, fl-x) = 0 =^7r)
.'. flr) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem
.'. there exists at least one number 'c' in (- r, ,r) such that
f(c) =0
L
cosc=0 or
2
Both these values ofc lie in (-n. r).
Hence the verification.
(ii) flx) = e" sin x
Since e" and sin r are continuous for all .r.
.'. their product = e" sin x = flx) is continuous in [0, r]
f'(x) - e" sirr x + d cos r = e' (sinr + cos.r)
rhich exists for all r
.'. flr) is derivable in (0, n)
Also, flO) = 0 =l(n)
.'. flx) satisfres all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'. there exists at least one number'c'in (0, n) such that
f'(c) = o
.. ec (sinc + cosc) = 0
:: sinc+cosc=O ('.' e' + 0 for any finite vaiue ofr)

tanc= 1 o,
"=44
This value ofc lies in (0, n). Hence the verification.

sin r
\tlt)t\x)=
e'
Since sin
-r and e" are continuous for all r and, e! + 0 for any (frnite) values of .r

.. . sinr
.
their quotient ""-11 is continuous in [0. r]
= = flr)
et

t '''=
e'.cosx-sinr,e' cosr - sin.r
1...
= e" + 0)
e2,
exists for all r. ",
.'. fl*) is derivable in (0, r)
Also, flO) =0 = fln)
 134 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

flr) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.

there exists at least one lumber'c'in (0, n) such fhat
f'(c) =o
cosc-sinc
=0
e"

or, tanc=1 o, "=[

This value ofc lies in (0, t). Hence the verifrcation.
(iu) flr) = e'(sin.r - cos t)
Since sin r and cos r are continuous for all r
... their difference = sin., - cos, is continuous for all r. AIso e" is continuous for all r.
.'. their proiluct = e'(sin;r - cos r) = flr) is continuous for all r'
=r /lr) is continuous in lI.!Il
L4'4)
f(r) = e'(sin.r - cos.r) + e{ (cos r + sinx) = 2e" sin r which exists for alllr'

.'. flr) is derivable in lr

t__t 5n)
lt't)
AIso, fu) -,,(srn_n_cos -n)| = e.-.
= e,"=l
-^(tI ---- A) =o
'\+) \ 4 4) \./2 "lz )
1
,(?) -Lll
ii, =,u,, ["i,!l-"*T)=r* [- 6 ( J2 ))
=n

,(t)=,(T)
.'. flr) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem'
. . there exists at least one number 'c' in
(n, !I) tt ut
\4 4) ".t"t
f(c) =o
L.e. Zec sinc = 0 or sinc=0
or

T?ris value of c lies in l,1. E). Hence the verification.

\4 4)
*,qb
(u) flr) = roe [l'
l\a+btx)
I u tr, ar
= Log (x2 + ab) -1og
(.a + b)
- logr.
Since log r is defined only for r > 0, .'. 0 < a < b
.'. flr) has a unique and defrnite value for each r in [4, b]
.'. flr) is continuous in [o, b]
 135
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS - I

- 2x ^ 1 x2 -ab
A1so,
't'lx) = xz +ab-U--:--------=-
x xlx" + ab)
which exists for all r in (4, b) -
.'. flr) is derivable in (4, b)
flar=iog 1''ll'=log1=o
\a +o)0,
b la +b)
'llbr =log" ta +b)b
-log 1 = o

flrl) = flb\
Thus fl*) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'. there exists all least one numher'c'in (o, b) such that
f(c)=0
c2 -ab =0 or c2=ab
c(cz + ab)

= j"b which lies in (o, b)

"
I{ence, the verifrcation.
(ai) flx) = a,[- r' t a unique antl tlefinite vaiue for each r in [-2, 2]
".
.'. flr) is continuous in [-2, 2l
/1xt = 1 (4-x2)
u2 .(-2i= -+
z l4-x-
'rhich e.xists for all r in (-2, 2) -'. for -2 < x <2
.'. fl*) is derivabl e in (-2, 2)
Also fl-2) =0 =fl2)
.'. flr) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem'
.'. there exists at least one number'c'in (-2, 2) such that
f(c) =o
-c =0 c=0
V4-c'
rvhich lies in (-2,2).
Hence the verification.
Example 7. Can Rolle's Theorem be applied, to
(i) f(x) = tan x in 10, nl
(ii) flx) = sec x in 10, %t1.

Sol. {i )flxr = tan r is discoutinuous at.r = I e [0,nl

2
.'. Rolle's Theorem cannot be applied.

(ii) fl*) =sec r is discontinuous atx = 1 andr= E, both of *hich lie in [0,2r]
22
.'. Rolle's Theorem cannot be applied.
'136 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Example 8. Djscuss the applicability of Rolle's Theorem to the function

flr) = lr I in l-1, 1l
ff.t = lvl
f
I
x for 0(r (1
Sol. r*r = l-x for -J(x<0
fl.r) being a linear function is continuous and derivable for every value ofr, except the
partitioning value r = 0.
Continuityatr=0
Right Limit = Lt l\A = ,L-to. x=O ('.' r-+0++r>0)
r-+0+
Left Limit = Lt flr)=,It_ (-r)=0 ('. *-->0-=r<0)
LL flx)= 0 A]sofl0)=0

= flr) is continuous at (the doubtful point) r =0

= flr) is continuous in [- 1, 1].
Derivability atr = 0
y1^ f&)- t-Q)
Right-hand Derivative =r'r0+ r-0 = L! '-0
x =,1t- tu=r
'+O+

Left-hand Derivative - r+O_ Lt -*-0 = Lt (-1)=-1

,, flxt-f(01 = ,_0_
x_0 tc ,)o_
Right-hand Derivative + Le{t-hand Derivative:
flr) is not derivable at r = 0
flr) is not derivable in (-1, 1)
Rolle's Theorem cannot be applied to flr) = lr I in [- 1, 1]

2.38. LAGRANGE'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM

If a function flr) is such that
(l) it is continuous in the closed interval [a, b]
(ll) it is derivable in the open interval (a, b), then there exists at least one value'c'ofr
in the open interval (o, b) such that
f(b) -
= lL:!
f( a.\

, b-o
Proof. Consider the function F(r) = flx) + Ar "'(')
where A is a constant to be determined such that
F(a) = F(6)
Now F,a)=flrr)+Ao,
F(b) =^b) + A,
Since F(o) = F(b)
fla)+Arr=flb)+Ab
F(b)_l\a)=-A(b_a)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 137

^ f\b) - fta)
-A=
b-a "'(ii)
(': b-a = length ofintervai + 0)
Now flr) is given to be continuous
-
in a ( r ( b and derivable in a < r < b.
Aslo, A being a constant, A, is also continuous it a 3 x ! b and derivable in o < r < b.
- F(r) = flr) + A-r is
1. continuous in the interval o ( r -< 6
2. derivable in the interval o < r < b
3. F(a) = F(6)
.'. F(r) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'. there must exist at least one value 'c' of * in the open interval (a, b) such that
F'(c) = 0
Now P'(s) = /'(r) + A
.. F'(c) = 0 gives /'(c) + A = 0
or -A = f'(") ...(iii)
From (ii) and (iii)

f(b) - f(a) - r.,r",

b-a
2.38.1. Alternative Form
If a function fl*) is such that
f. it is continuous in the closed interttal la, a + hl
2. it is derivable in the open interv al (a, a + h) ther: there exists at least one number e
such thatfla *71=fla)+ hf'(a + 0h)where0<e<1.

2.39. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF TJAGRANGE S itEAN VALUE THEOREM

Let A and B be points on the graph ofthe function y = flr) corresponding to r = a arrd x =b-
.'. the coordinates ofthe points A and B are la, fla)l and, [b, flb)] respectively.
difference of ordinates f$) - f(a)
Siope of chord AB =
difference of abscissae b-a
Now 1. Since flr) is continuous in the interval a (r ( b.

x'o X'O
Y' Y'

. . its graph is a ccntinuous curve from A to B.

138 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING IVIATHEMATICS

2. Since is derivable in the interval a < r < b.

flr)
.'. it possesses a unique tangent at every point between A and B.
It is evident from the frgures that there is at least one point P between A and B, the
tangent at which is parallel to chord AB.
Ifc be the abscissa of this piont, then slope of tangent thereat is /'(c).
f(b) - f(a)
Hence --6 _, = f'tcl | ': m, = rz, for Parallelism I

Exalmple 9. Verify mean aalue theorem for the follouing functions and find c if possible.

(a)flr) =x(x- ttrx-21 in -:l

t rl
\btilxr=tx- 1)\x - 2)tx - 3t in 10. 4l
lO
SoI. (a) fr)=rrx-:)rr-Z)=*tr'-S* +2\=xa -3x2 +2x

a=O,O=!
2

1. flr) being a polynomial is contiauous in the intervat 0 < r < |2

2.f(*) = \xz - 6x + 2 which exists in the interval 0.r. ].2
.'. By the mean value theorem, we have

/(c'=- fb)b-o
- f(u)

L.e. 3c2-Gc+2=
1-o 4
2
L.e, lzcz-24c+5=0-
24tJ576-240-
- 24
= r.76.0.24
Discarding the value c = 1.76 which does not lie in the given interval (0, 5).

:. c = o.24,a va.lue which lies between 0 and ].

2
Hence the verifrcation.
(b)fl") (r-1Xr-2Xr-3)=x3-6x2
= + 11s-6
a=0,b=4
1. being a poiynomial, is continuous in the interval 0 3 r ( 4
flr)
2. f'(x) = 3x2 - L2r + 1.1 which exists in the interval 0<r<4
.'. By mean value theorem, we have
f(b) - fta)
'" '' -
1,.,_ 6_s
(64-96+44-G)-(-6)
t.e. Zc2 -t1c+ 11 - -B
4-0
 139
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I

or 3c2-l2c+8=0

"
=
rz x
E+ - iE = 3.1b5, 0.848
Both these values lie within the given interval.
Hence the verification.
Example 1:O. Verify Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem for the following functions:

(ii) t\x) = loe x in

<ilf@= JV -a t"tz,t1 11, el

sol.(i)flr) = pZ, a=2,b=4

'.' li.x) has a uaique and defrnite value for each * in the ciosed interwal [2' 4l
.'. flr) is continuous in [2,4]
l"
['Jt= _tv'-41 2 -2x= tc

tl*' - 4
which exists for all r in the open interval (2, 4)
for2<x<4.
- flr) is derivable in (2,4)
.'. By Lagr:ange's Mean Value Theorem, we have
ftb\: f(!) [ (4) - ftz)
r(",1 = b-q -
4-2

Le. F;- "_ 4 J=tz

O
-o r;
,1""
c2=B(c2-4) or 2c2 =12 .+ c=t.,6
Discariling the value c = - Jd which does not lie in (2, 4)'

.'. = Ja , a value which lies in (2, 4).

"
Hence the verification.
(ii) f(x) =laex, a=l,b =e
'.' 1og r is continuous for all x > o
.'. flr) is continuous in the closed interval [1, e]'
flx) = I which exists for all x in (1, e)
1

'x
.'. flr) is derivable in the open interval (1, e).
.'. By Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem, we have
f(.b)-f(a) = f(e)-f(L)
f'(c) = b-a e-l
1 loge-Iog1_1-0
i.e.
c e-l e-L
 140 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

or e=e-l
Since 2<e <3, \<e-L<2<e
c=e-lliesin(1,e)
Hence, the verifi cation.

Example LL. The function ft*l = !J]: , = 1, b = 2: proue that there is no number c in

the open interual (a, b) that satisfies the conclusion of Mean ualue Theorem. Determine the
conditions of the theorem which fail to hoLd.

Sol.flr.t=
' 3-1
3x-4
*discontinuousu1,= f,.,a "l "
.'. flr) is not continuous in the closed interval [1,2]

119-
(3x -4)'2-(74 -D'e- -5 -
(3x - 4)2 (3x - 4)2

which does not exist at x = -1

.'. fl.r) is not derivable in the open interval (1,2)

Both the conditions of mean value theorem fail to hold'
;
., 2.4O. CAUCHY'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM
If two functions fl.r) and Q(r) are such that
(j) both are continuous in the closed interval [o, b]
' (ri) both are derivable in the open interval (4, b)
' (iii) 0'(;) + 0 for any value ofr in the open interval (4, b) then there exists at least one
value c oft in the open interval (a' 6) such that

f@)- f@) - f'(c)

0(b) - 0(a) 0(c)
proof. Consider the function F(x) fl*) + AQ(r) = ...(')
where A is a constant to be determined such that
F(o) = F(b)
Now F(o)=fla)+A0(o)
F(b)=^6)+AO(b)
Since p1"y = F(b)
.'. f,a) + A0(o) = flb) + A0(6)
f\b) - l\a) = - Ato(b) - 0(o)]

'' o - ftb\ - fh) [where o(b) - o(o) + ol ...(ii)

Atbt - q( a.)

llf0(b) - 0(o) = 0, then 0(a) = Q(b)

.'. Q(r) satisfres all the three conditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.r Q(r) = 0 for at least one value ofr in the interval o < r < b which is contrary to the
given condition that Q'(r) + 0 for any value ofr in the interval o < r < bl'
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 14'l

Since flr) and Q(r) are both given to be continuous in the interval o ( r( b and derivable
intheintervalo<r<b.
... F(r) = lflr) + A0(r)l is
1. continuous in the interval o ( r 3 b
2. derivable in the interval o < r < 6.
3. F(a) = F(b)
.'. F(.r) staisfres
all the three corrditions of Rolle's Theorem.
.'.there exists at Ieast one value c ofr in the interval 0 < r < b such
that F'(c) = 0
Now, F'(r) = /'(r) + A0'(r)
.'. F'(c) = 0 grves /'(c) + A0'(c) = 0. :. -A=
fk) ...(iii)
0(c )
From (li) and (ili),
f(b)-f(a) - f'(c)
0(b) - Q(a) 0(c)'
2.4I. DEDUCTION
If Q(r) = r, then 0(b) = b, Qio) = a and Q'(r) = 1 for all r.
.'. The result of Cauch"y's Mean Value Theorem
. ftbt - fta\ ['(c\
O(b) 'Qlo) f(r)
reduces
. to
f\b) - f\a ) f'k)
l
b-a =:----j- =
\C)
1

which is Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem.

2.42. ALTERNATIVE FORM

If two functions flr) and Q(r) are such that
(i) both are continuous in the closed interval la, a + hl
(ii) both are derivable in the open interval (a, a + h)
(iii) O'@) *O for any value ofr in the open interval (o, a + fr), then there exists at least one
number 0 such that
f(a+h)-f(a) _ f'(a +sh) where0<0<1
Stu+h)-S,a) ((a + eft)
Example 12. Firud 'c' of Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem for the follcwing pairs of func-
tions in la, bl:
1.;1nx61= ,Q , Qttc) =
1
(ii) flx) = e', 0G) = e* (iii) flx) = sin x, Q(t) = cos r.
1;
Sol. (i) flx)= Ji,q@)=
1 (Assuming0<o<b)
G
1 1
f '(".t 0(r) = -
2,lx ,,G
 142 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Both and Q(.r) are continuous in [a, b] and derivable in (o, b)

flr)
.'. By Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem, rtre have
f(b)-f(a) - f(c)
0{b) - (a) 0(c )
1

or
Jb-J; ,T"
11 1
--%G
{b-7"
or
. F - Vo
(v0 r. )-
---
,lab
=-c ;. "= 'ra
Jo - r/b
(ii) flr) = d' Qk) = ea
f'(x)=d,Q'@)=-e=
Both and Q(r) are continuous in [o, b] and derivable in (4, b)
flr)
.'. By Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem, we have
f(.b)-f(.a)f'(c)
(b)-O(d) - O-(c)
-eo
eb e"
cn - e-o -e'
e" .eb
leb-e\. -.
or e- -e-n =-e%
or ^r+h ^2t
a +b
a +b =2c
2
(iii) fl.x.) = sin r, $(r) = cos I
f(r) = cos r, Q'(r) = sin
- I
Both flr) anrl 0 (r) are continuous in [o, b] and derivable in (4, b)
.'. By Cauehy's Mean Value Theorem, we have
f(b)-f(a) - f'('c)
0(b) 0(a) - 0(c)
sinb-sina cosr
or
;r=; =
- j-,,"
-
Z cos
b+a b-a
2 2 - *"'
OI
2--.-ri-.
srn - sln
q-h =_cotc
.22
b+a
OI - cot
^
=-cotc
a +b
2

L
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 143

2.43. IMPORTANT DEDUCTIOiIS

1. Ifflr) is a fuaction such that /(r) = 0 for al1 values ofr in the interval a< ,c < b, then
fl*) is a constant in this inten'al.
2. Ifflr)
is continuous in the intervaT a ! x 3b and f (r) is positive for every value ofr in
ihe inten'al o <r < b, then flr) is a monotonic increasing function ofx in the interval a !x 3b.
3. Iffl:r) is continuous in the interval a <x <b attd' f(x) is negatiYe for every value ofr
in the interval a < x < b, then flr) is a monotonic decreasing function of .r in the interva-i
a !x 3b.

Example \8. Proue that for * , o, < log (1 + x) < x .

ll
SoI. Now fl.r)=1og(1 **l-
*
1 (1 +*).1-r.1 1 I x
f (x) 1+r (1 + r)2 t+x (1+r)2 (I + x)"
whichis>0forr>0
- flr) is a monotonic increasing function for r >0
- flr) >110) forr> 0
1 rrr
L,e. loutl+r)- l+r or
fr'tog11 *', "'(I)

Now iet Q(c) = rc - log (1 + r)

d'(r,=
' 1- 1-- 1. >ofolx>o
l+x I+r
0(r) is a monotonic increasing function for x > 0
,p1r1 >Q(0) forr>0
r-Iog(1 +r)>0 or log(1 + r) <x ...(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii)
x
11" < log (1 +r)<* forr>0
x2
Example 14, Proue that for x > 0, x - ! .,rf (1 t xl < x -
,Q+")

SoI. /.r) = 1o* ,, - ,, - [- - +)

1 *'
't\xl= 1+)r-l*r= L+x >oforx>o
.'. flr) is a monotonic increasing function for r >0
;. fls) >flO) for: > 0
log(1 +r)-[,- * ,-t <:.gl + t) ...(,)
r),.
144 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING IVIATHEMATICS

Now let o(x)=r- *2 -loe(1 +r)

2(1 +x)
l.(l+x).2r.-x2.1
0'(r) = r -2 (l+x)2 1+r

= 2(l ".>oforx>o
+ x)"

- 0(r) is a monotonic increasing function for r >0

' O(r)> {(0) forr> 0

t.e. x -- "2t -loe(I+r)>0

2(I r)

*'
" (I +r) .r-
los
2(1 + r')
...(ii)

Combining (l) and (il),

,- t .los"
2
( 1 + -r, . * - 2(1*'+.r)

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. Verifu Rolle's theorem for the functioa (t - 2)x (x - 4)4 iD the interval [2, 4].
Verify Rolle's theorem for
(i) 8r - 12 in [0, 3] (ii) jr2 in [-1, 1]
If flx) = xa - 5*2 - 3x, verify that the conditions ofthe Lagrange's mean value theorem are satisfied

for a = l, b = 3. Find all numbers t' in (.1, 3) such that f(3)- [(l)
' = 3-1
.

^c)
Answer

s. "=1
3

2.44. TAYLOR'S THEOREM }YITH LAGRANGE'S FORM OF REMAINDER AFTER

,, TERMS
If a function flr) is such that
L. flx), f'(t), f"G), ....., f"-r(.x) are continuous in the closed interval o < x < a + h.
2. f'(x) exists in the open interv al a < x < o + ft, then there exists at least one number
0 between 0 and 1 such that

fla + h) = l\a) + hf' @) +

f; ,'r,, * ! r" r, . ... . #.r-,@) * \ f (a + 0h)
148 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

7. (o)Ify=A(r+ {l- .')" , prove that (rz + 7)yr+xyr-n2y=0.

(6) Ify = A t, * aFI)", p.ov e ttlal (x2 - 7)y2+ xyt- nzy = o.

& (i) Ify=1og (,.r[.]),or""ethat(1 +r2)

#..o* =o
(ii) lt y = lros G +,h+ x2I2, prove that (1 ,*\ t4+*4=2.
dr"t dJ

2.48. CALCULATIO]{ OF rn ORDER DERIVATIVES

I. To find the zft differential co-efficient ofr-.
Let
then ! t = ms*-t
!z= m(m
- L) xn-z
y = m(rn -
s 1) (m. - 21 *^-s

f lm(m - l) (m - 2) ... upto z factorsl x r--"

,=
= m(m - L) (m - 2) ... (m - n + 1) . 3c^-", w}:.ere n < n'1.

then [Cor. If m be a positive inte ger , and, if n = m

'^==YT--?,ff,-:l Y,;:.*','*-
L.€., (n") =m!

and (rn + 1)th, (m + 2)th derivative ... etc., each will be = 0.

i. J- = m ! which is constant and y,-*r, which is the derivative ofy- will be zero and so on.]

II. The ztr differential co-effrcient of (ar + b)*, where n < m.

Let y=(ax+b)*
then lt= rru(ax + b)^-1 . a
lz - l) (arc a [)m-z . .z
= m(m
! s = m(m - 1) Gn - 2) (ax + bf'a . aB

! = m(m - L) (m - 2) (m - 3) ... (m - n + l) (ax + b)tu-n . an

"
lCor. If z = m, then
!^= m(m - L) (m -2) ...3.2.1. (ax +b)0 a* = ml a'"1
DIFFERENTiAL CALCULUS _ I 149

IIL The zth differential co-efEcient of

t [, * - 4l
-
ax +bl' al

Let y= -+
ax+o =(a-5 a[1-1

then ft=GL)(ax+b)-2.a
yz=GDG2)(ax + b)-3 .a2 = (- 1)2. 2l(ax + b)-3 .az

1::l- lll_ illl*tll-"_tl : l:11 i I 1* I ill :l

l^ = C D . n | (uc + bfn+ r'r . an

(- L)" nla"
or
(a-r + b)"+r

IV. The ntr differential co-ef6.cient of log (ax + b),

y=log(ax+b)
1
then v. = ---i - a=(ax+bl-l -a
dx+b
y, = (- L)(ax + b)-2 . a2
y, = (- l)(- Z)(ax + b) 3 . as = (- L)2 2 | (ax + b)a . aa

yn= G Dn-l fu-l)l(ax+b)-.a"

(-l)'-t (n -l)!o^ .
or Y"= @n +bY

t^ Ifc = I;
..
b = 0,y = 169 v, ihen y,
(- t)"
=--
- 1
tn - 1r!l
lcor. ]
V. The zth differential co-efficient of a*
Let
yr= m . a* (log a)
! z = rn2 . a* (1og a)2
la = ms . a* (log a)t

yn = ,nn . aru (log a)n

[Cor, Put a =e,theny =e* andl,.=mieru.l

150 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

VI. The nth differential co-efficient of sin (ar + 6)

y=sin(ar+b)
then yl = a co' (ut+ b) = o sin (*. u.t) lNote this stepl

rz = a2 (r,. t - |)= r'"io [,,

cos *a* I * I]

=rr rin(ro*t*z.L)
/a = oB cos (*. o. z.|)= "',i^(,. + t* z.[ * [)
/ _\
= os
"ir, [or+b+e.a]
.....................\......

,,, = un si', ("* -t r

"|)
ICor. If b =0,y =sino.r.y, =o'sinlax+n=ll
" r rr'l
L
f

'"
VII. The ztr differential co.efficient of cos (cr ' + 6)
y=cos(or+b)
then /r=-sin(ar +b).a=a-.("r*a*f) [Notethisstep]

lz = - a2"i" (", * a * f) = o' *,(o* * u * [* Lr)

/ -\
="'"o.lr"*b*z i)
ls = - as
"io (o*
+u+ z.|) =,' .o" (o, * a . r.;- ;)
="'*" (r*+a+s.{)

lo=arcos (."-t."|)

lr, = cos q.x, yn /

coslor+,?.-l.l
r\ I
["o". \ 2/ l
DIFFEREi.ITIAL CALCULUS - { 151

VIII. The zth differential co-efficient of e- sin (6r + c)

then Let y=e*sil.{bx+c)

"=="1* i'i!![ui:'";'.i:]lu;i")|"'"*
We determine two constants r and 0, to change the expression into a single sine which
will enable us to make the required generalisation by putting o = r cos 0, b = r sin 0.
9
a2 +b2 ,0=tan-1 a
Hence' cos (br+c)]
"==::,r;",";,"i1f[r."'+rsin0'
Thus y, is obtained from y on multiplying it by the constant r and increasing the angle
by the constant 0. Repeating the same rule toy, we have
yr= r2 e* sirt (bx + c + 20).
Similarly, ys = rs e6 sin (br + c + 30).

Hence. in general. *= [e*sin(br+c)l =l.e*sin (bx+c+n0)

*
Putting values ofr and 0,

yo = (oz + bz)fr e* . sir, (b, +. +, . a"r'

3
D(. The zth differential co-efficient of e* cos (br + c)
Let !=e*cos(bx+c)
then yr= a eM cos (bx + c) - b e* sin (bx + c)
= sM la cos (bx + c) -b sin (br + c)l
As in Art. VIII, put o =rcos0,andb=rsin0.

, tano=4 ,i.".,e=t*-t*
:. y,:ff,;::L.::(br +c)_ sin o sit(bx + c)l
Thus y, is obtained from y on multiplying it by the constant r and increasing the angle
by the constant 0.
Repeating the same rule to y1, we have
lz= r2 ee cos (bx + c + 20).
Similarly, ys= r3 e* cos (br + c + 30).

Hence, in general, y-= dn 1s* cos(bx + c)l=f e*. cos (bs +c + z0)
Putting values ofr and 0,

ln=(a2 +bz)oE d'..o" (u, *. *, . r*-'9

152 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING ['ATHEMATICS

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example L, Firud the nth dffirential co-efficient of log (ax + x2)-

Sol. Let y =log(ax + x21 =1gg 11, +.r) = log r +Iog(x+a)
Differentiating z times,

u- = lL6n"''* -31 tog tx + at

dxn

_ (-1)'-.1 (,1 -i)1.1'l (- 1)" 1(n -1)!.1"

[By Art. IVI
'x" (x+a;"'

=(- 1)n r(n-l)!['----r

[x' -.l!
rx+a)n
Example 2. IIy = c65s 7, trn6 t,.
Sol. We know, cos 3r = 4 cos3 r- 3 cos r
3r + 3 cos t]
"o.', = * [cos
L.€,, y=f [cos3r+3cosr]
Differentiating z times,

[By Art. VII]

Example 3. fy = sin 2x sin 3x, ftnd yo.

/ = sin 2s sin 3r
= j t2 sin 3x sir. 2xl = j [cos r- cos 5rl
['.' 2 sinA sin B = cos (A- B)- cos (A + B)]

1[d' cosJr--
v =-l- -
cosax.
I
zldx' dx' j

1[ I r+---
nn\| -5'
-^ coslt-5{--n7r ]lll
= -- I cosl
2L-'-\" 2) \ 2t) .

Example 4. Firud nth deriuatiue of sin2 x coss x.

SoI. Let y = sin2 r cosS r
= (sin r cos r)2 cos r = + sin2 2r cos i
1/1-cos4x\ 1- cos 20
Srn_ H=-
4f 2 ) 2

1
= a,(cos x - cos 4x cos x)
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
153

or , = fiecosr -(cos 5x + cos Sxtl

. t. 2cosAcosB = cos (A+ B) + cos (A-B)l
.. v, = * l,* -"(..f,)-s'"o'[s* * Xo)-'" "'"(*-T)]
-,
= 16 [,.^.f --nI\-r, "^.l,.1,*rI)-
Lr"o"l**l l-c'coslu.' z)"r'"o.Ia**1']1.
"""1"^ z/l'
Example Find the nth d.ffirential co'efficient of e" sins t'
5.
Sol. We know that, sin 3r = 3 sin r - 4 sin3 r
...( 1)
sinsr= i [3sinr-sin3r]
Let y =e" sin3r = e: . + lSsinr - sin 3rl I From (1)
= f; e'sir,x - ] e'sin 3r

t"= f; {lz + l2)n/2 e' sin (r + z tan-l {)

- J . rt2 + 32\nt2 d sin[3r + n tan-r f, J

I Comparing to result in Art. (VIII)

3 tnrz
I
, *, n)- . rO" e' sin (3r + z tan-1 3).
=i't n'
"in(\ 4) 4
.

1
Example 6. If y = ;- , fi'"d Y, .
1-DX+OX
-. 1123
y= (rr-1,(3--x =2x- 1--3*- I
1-',,x+Gxz=
( 1 \ -- I t )
t,= zt' _ t)-
3D'
[ 3,r
lr_ J

_ zlGlr nttzt' I _,"I[!:_l_gl]

-"1 r By Art. lr
rx-n' ' .1 tr*-rr'.' ]
=(-l)an'.1 et-t -- r3r-I)'''r
'g"'' I
ftzx-tt'-'
Example 7. Find the nth deriuatiue y=
"f cx+cl
ot+b a bc - ad.)
Sol. Let, r- rx+d c clcx+dl
tbc-ad\ ( 'r )
v =0+lr c t D'I I

\cx+d,)
154 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEIVIAT|CS

ad\ t- l\" nt c'

l. -c ,G;tr;r
( bc
= I By Art. III

-9-!t-lj9:-:agt'
(cx+d)"*1
Exaurple 8. I/y = J. + fird y,,.
" ,

Sol. Here, y=(t+a)rn

tr= ! (x + a)-w

Y, = (+)(- +) (x + a)atz

y, = i(- *) (- g) bc + a)-5t2 = (- ff # @ + a1-srz

(2n - 1\
1. 3. 5... upto (n - terms
lx+a) \ 2
v =(-1)tr 1 1) )

(2n-I\
1'3 (2n - ,, * a) | 2
3)
= (- 1)',-r
I

Remark. Ifnone ofthe formulae ofthe nine articles is applicable to findy, in a problem, then we
proceed as in the articles, i.e., frnd y, y, y, and then generalise.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Find. the nth d,eriuatiue of the following:

1. (')4 (ii) e% + e-x (iii) log 3x
L
2. ti) --1- 0i)
o)'
(3- 2r)' \br +

,. ,,,1o.
"Jl @
*-2 -"15-4r
,,,,rnn IE (.iii) log (*2 - o2\
.. . 3r +7
ltD )
r+2
4. (i) sin2 r (ii) cos2 r (iii) sin3.r (iu) cosa
- r.
5. sinr . cos 2t
(l) (il) cos r cos 2r
6. (i) cos a* sin 6r (ii) sinr sin 2r (iii) sini * cos2r.
7, (i)d cosx (ii) e'sinr (iii)e"sinrcos* (io) e3. Bin2
8. (i) e* cos2 r sin x (ii)e'cosa x (iii)d sirPxsir, (iu) a* cos x
9, Ifp = sin zr cos nr,
+ prove p. (-
that = n" [1 + 1)" sin 2zr*]u2, where denotes the rff differential
p"
co-emcient of !t w.r.t. ,. Hence show ihat pr(r) = (U2)31i2 when z = u4. (4.KT.U.2018)
Answers
1
(iii) l- 1l'1- (n - 1) !
(i) 4' Iloe 4l (ii) 24 Leze + (- l)n e-zx)
xn

2.
... \n + b\.2"-1
tr)- (ii) l- \n
(n + 7)l.bn
[3 - 2rl'*' lbx + al"*2
DIFFERENT|AL CALCULUS - I 155

'l
3. ri)I 1l"-rrn 1 -1r!l
l r L-2,"
2 l,r",_r -" ,r ) iit;(- t'tn-'(n -r,,l,r*, ,5r4,r)
tiii\t_1t" .r (r _ 1,: t
I *. 1 I .(io) crn n'.
l{.jr+o), o_* ] u;;;
4. (i\ -2-1 cos l +n.n/21 (.ii) 2-r cos I2x + n . trl2l

(iii) f sin ltc + n. tt!21- f . a" I3r + n . tr!21

"A
(iu) 2"-1 cos l?at + n.rl21 + 22n-3 cos[4x+n.n/2].

5. ti)
+ B'sin{3{+n.rc/2)-sin tx+n.rt2tl,ii, }[s' * ,
i) , *. [, r , i
"", [r* )]

..
-' ,r,
2lo -6r'sin l(a+b;r+ !\2l * o - of
1l {ta
| - or, * Illl
| "t,, 2))
gi) lcos (x + n . rl2) -S cos (3x +
| n . r/2)1

rI t nn\ ' (u**"r ]*e'"lo[a"*3r)l

(,ri)Glzsmlr+-J-b'sm\ 2t \ 2 t).
7. () 2n . e' cos lx + n . Tl41 (i 2t2 . e sh lx + n . nl4)

tiii) I2 . 5'i' e' sin (z)( + n tan t 2) (iu ) ,1 lB' e3' - sn elr lnr * ,, .r,,-' 1 ll
2L "o" t 3/l
8. (r)
+ t(o'z+ l)ntz e@ sir,?c + n larr-1 7la) + (a2 + 9)n e* sin (Src + n lar.-l tsla\l

(i + . 2t2 . e. cos f{ + n . tl{ + f, . 7offi e' cos [3x + r tan 3]

I

Gi ! . sn . e" sin L2x + n tan 1 2l - +tl71 .d sittf4x + n tan-r 4l

[
tlu t a' 11 + tlog a t2l"/2 cos
lx
* r, ,r'.-' -ll
log o l.

2.49. USE OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

In order to determine the 116 derivative, of any rational function, we have to split it into
pariial fractions. Forming partiai fractions is converse process of taking L.C.M.
To resolve a fraction into partial fractions, the degree of numerator must be less than
the degree of denominator.

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Find. nth deriuatile of' li) x'-a'

J . -- 2*,,11 ,. (ii) (U.p.T.u.20lb)
Qx-1)(2x+3)
Sol. (i) Let,
I 11[ 1 1l
"- 12-a2 tx-atlx+d - 2alx-a *+o)
r, =-
j ld,
l-l-l--l-ll
| 1 \ a. i r )l
2a lax" \x-a) a*'\,+a))
156 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

J [t- 1r'n!1' r-1r'n!.1'I

= nl,t-rY;- ,x+;7;t)
1[1
(-l\nn !l- 1l
=
=-io'- " "'lrx-rf ' ,-
r tx+at' tl'

(ii) Let, 2t+t 1( I r )

" \2x -1) lzx +3t 2\2x-l 2x+3)

rld^ ( 1) (t'(1 )l
t" = al* lr, -11. * 12,.s J]

tl etf nltzf t-tl' n'.12)'1

- zlex -f -1 t2x+3r''r _]

=(_t)n nr rr, ,loin.- **_-]

Example 2.If y = . find nth deriuatiue of y.
G _;, \, * D
Sol, To split y into partial fractions.

Letx-l=2. then 'n= 1.7*2'+"

z' 3+z
t(t sz 4 ,2\ I on division
,zfa'9 9'Z+z)
154t54
- 322 ' 9z 9(3 + z) - 3(r - 1)2 9(-r - l) 9(.r + 2)

(- l)" (ru + 1) ! 5(- l)' nl 4(- 7)" nl

9(*-I)' I 9(r+2)'
Hence,
3rx -rt''2 r

Examof63. Find the n'h deriuatiue **.'(;+)

w
Sol, we have. ,rr' [ 2* " ] = 2 tan-1 r
ll- ," )
Hence we have to find yo if y = 2 tart 1 x.
Now, Y =2t'an-1 x
2 21 1
rr- 1*12-zilx-i
r I 1l l rI
r+;_l - i[r-i r+i.]
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS . I 157

Hence, yn=
1It), r. (n _ il t
I r _ 1l
i [*_,y r._rr,]
I Differentiating (z - 1) times
Suppose r = r cos 0, ald 1= r sin 0 so that
r2 =x2 + tr"d o= tr"., (+)
,.l"-]:@
Thus, y,= - l)' {(cos 0- i sin g)- - (cos g + r sin 0) ,}

(-1)" 1(n
- 1) !
. 2i sin z0 | Using De Moivre's theorem
t -r
' + l^=2(-LY1(n-1)!.sinn0.sin'0, where 0=,,"-'[+)

Example,{. Pra ue that the ualue of the nth differential co-efficient o1 }!- for x = 0 is
zero, if n is euen:and is - (n !) if n is odd and greater lhan 7.
'l
x3 x 1[ 1
- I
Sol. Let
"v=-=;+
x'.1 "r'-l 2lx+1+ --:
" =;+.1 x-ll l ...(l)

Ifz > 1, the second and higher derivatives of.r are 0.

:' r[t-tr'rl (-1)'n!l

Y' =
zl - l ;;F;r]
+

'; 'r
=i,_ro,,[_;-.";] ...(2)

Case I. When z is even, putting r =0 in (2),

+[+ -._",]=# rr - u
,",. = =o

Case II. When n is odd,

r",. = eP[+.+]=-g + 11 1r = -n,.

Examnlefifr =, bc
#,shou
that rn= e1)n-2 r, - r rli* f:fr]
! = x llog (x - 1) - log (r + 1)l ...( 1)
Differentiating y w.r.t. ,, we get
( t 1)
.v,=rl - r+1/. | + Ioe (x - 1) - log (.r + 1)
\x-l
1l + log (x - l) - log (x + 1)
= r-l - + -j=
-r+1
...(2)
158 A TEYTBOOK OF 5}:C!!'!EEPII]C I,4-TTI'1EI.'I,\T:CS

TESTYOURKNOWLEDGE
Find the nth d,eriuatioe of the following:

L o be+zxx-l)
1
(,,) ----1---------F
7+ 3x + 2x'
rtii)
r +a
1
. (u.K.T.u.2011

-
-2
z. titlx+z)lzx+'i) il4l. r 6
--jj- - tu.K.T.u.20u) riirr'+5r
3. lfy = r feg rl + r). prove thaty, -t-lf4t-l:21(r-nt

4. Find the a.b derivative of ,""-,

[j=)
5. rf y= sin'+1 g cos (z + 1) O, -h.". O = t.rt (:).
+a2---L,ptovelhatt"=+#
x2
6. Ify =(v2 - l)^, prove Lhat y2^ = r-,
*"*.""
1 1 'l / .l

,r' r'r
.-,r-1r'.n![ _
- l.l;-u;-t- ,--r7-] ,r,,,-rr, !l --I-
"' - " "'lr, 11'- -
'
(-1r"n![ ] 1 I

?rri ft, - oit, -r (r i oi), ' t l

2' \itr- tr'z n !f{rr+Jrn+i-

s.2n
(.r+z}"'l
-q=.l
tii) \- D, n! l-z-, ----q-l
1r".-zlt'*-Ji--
4. (- 7),-L (n - i) ! siao 0 sin 20, whe.e e = ta"- (11 .

2.5O. LEIBNITZ THEOREM

This theorem helps us to frnd the nth differential co-efficient ofthe product of two functions ia
terms of the successive derivatives ofthe functions.
 D!FFsRE\]T!AL CALCULUS - I 1EO

Statenent. ffu and u are two functions of x, hauing d.eriuatiues of the nth order, then

{"ul = un u + nC, un u
t } "C, uo_, u, + ... + "C" u,_, u, + ... + nC uun,
* 1 n
where suffixes of u and u cJenote d,ffirentiations u.r-t. x.
Proof. We shall prove the theorem by Mathematical Induction.
Step I. Let Y=ul)
By actual differentiation, we have
yl= uru + uD1
and !2= u2u + ulut+ utul+ uu2
= uru + 2uru, + uu2 = u2u +2Ctup1+2Cruu,
Thus, the theorem is true for z = 1, 2.
Step II. Let us assume that the theorem is true for a particular value of n, say m, so
that,. we have

!*= u^u + ncl unl_1ut + tuC2 un_2u2 + ...

+ *C,_r + mc.u n_t u r + ..- + *C
^_,*t
rt u u uu *.
Step III. Differentiating both sides, we have ^
! + t = u m + 1 u + u m u, + mC, u * u I + mct um_1 u
2+
mC2 um_t t)
^ 2
+ nC z n_2 B + ... +
mC n
r_1 +
u u u
F7 m_r+2 u C u
r_, *_, *, r.t,
+ ^C, u^ r*t | + ncr un-r ur+l + ...
D

+ nCn upn + ncnuDnn.

= un+1u + (*Cr+ l)u*ut+ (^Cz+ nct) un1u2+ ...
+ (-C" +.C"_1) u*_+tu" * ... + ncm uum+l.
But, we know th at nc._l+ mcr = n+Lcr
Putting r = 7,2,3,...
-Co + -C, = -*1C, or 1 + nC1 = n +1C1
nct+ nC2= n+rc2

mla - 1 - tt+lf\
vm+t'
!^+t = urn+t u +n+r C1u^ut+^*1C2umtu2+ ..,
+ m+r0, an_+lur + ... + n+\C.,+ruun+l
which is of exactly the same form as the given formula with z
= m + I.
.'. it is clear that ifthe theorem is true for z = n, then it is arso true for the next higher
ralue ,1 = n? + 1.
But in Step I, we have proved that the theorem is tru e for n 2.
=
.'. it must be true for next higher values n = 2 + 1 = B.
Again '. the theorem is true for z = B.
.'. it must be true for next higher value z = J + l, i.e.,4 and so on.
Hence the theorem is true for any positive integer n.
160 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES
Example L, Find the nth d.eriuatiue of x2 sin t at x = 0.
Sol. Let L' = SlnJc and v=x2
(
. x+n-l nl ut=2x
,,, = stnl
I 9l
\ !-/

, . ="in[*+(n- UI'l
I 2)
r
u ^= sinl r+tn-2)1-.,] I Ds=0
I 2)
Now by Leibnitz Theorem, we have

u, u+ nc, u, +'c,
- rv,
un ru,
fioa = -

ff{",io *)=
"i" (,
.,;) . x2 + nc,"io
[,
+ t, - t[f u . " c z,i,l. + r, - ztlf z

=.' "i^ (, + +) + Zrux sin[,. t - r]l + nh - r)"i"

["
* t" - zr]].

Atr = 0, lo= n(n -1) sin (z-2) X = fu *"') ra T

Note. Generally, we take r' as u.
Exanrrrple 2, Find the ntt' derivatiue of d log x.
Sol. Let !:E u =losx
un= e'
-- 1
.I

ua
-t= u,
-z= uz= ut= d uz=-1z
x
2

(- 1)' 1(z
- 1) I

x"
Now by Leibnitz Theorem, we have

-1 *... * "c, (-1)'I(/?-1)!

eI ros.x.,", + "c,* ( --;
#",::y'=
.

" [+.) x' )

1(n
I nh -l) I
+-- 1)' - 1) ,]
(
=cltocr---" - z ?*
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 161

PyarnFle 3. I/y - * e', show that

# =i ntn- #-nh-2)*.ir-1)(n-2)v'
1)

Sol. ! =d. x2
Differentiating z times by Leibnitz Theorem, we get
!o= uou + "Ctun ,ur+"Crun-ru,
!n= * . x2 + "Crd .?,cc + "C2d .2
= e'lx2 + 2r* + n(n - l)l ...( 1)

Put n = 1, 2 irr equation (1), successively

Yr= dlx2 + 2rl ...Q)
Yr= e"lx2 + 4x + 2l ...(3)

Now RHS =
),o - uff - n{n - z)*. *, - L)(n' 2)v

rrr - r) . d + 4x + 21 - nr n - 2t . e' k2 + ?,x) * r* - r)(n - 2)x2e'

= i, Lr2
*
I "fn(n- t)-n(n*z)+ r,, -l\tn-z), x lz"tn ,,_ zn\n _ 2)l * ,tn _ rtl
=cl-"\-'z -- z J+ - I
=dlx2+2tu,+n(n- 1)l =y, =LHS I From (1)
Example 4, Differentidte n times the dffirential equations:

^ *-x* dzv dv
+azl =0 (ii) x2y, + xy, y = 0.
6(1 -#): .l-r-' dx
+

Sol. (i) Differentiating each term ofthe given equation z times by Leibnitz theorem, we

W,*2o-x2) +"Cryn*r(2x) +"Cry,(-2)l -lt,*r(x) +'Crv, (1)l +a2vn=g

:+ (1--x2)y,*r+(-2nx-x\yo*r+{-n(n-1)-n+a2ly,=0
(l-x2)y,,r-(2n+L)xy^*r-(n2-a2)yo=g
=
(ii) Differentiating each term ofthe given equation z times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
lt, *-r{r,2) +"Ctlo*rQlE) +nc2vnQ)l + lt,*r(x) +'Crv,(1)l +v, = 0
xT,*z + (Znx +x)yn*r+ ln(n - l) +n + Uyn =0
x2!n (2n + l) xyo *, + (n2 + l) y/,= 0.
+ 2*
Mxarrrple 5,If y = sin (m sin 1
x), then p,'oue that
(1-f)yr-xyr+m2y=g
(1 - *)y *, - (2ru + 1) xy n *, - (n2 - m2) I o = g.
^
y = sin (m sin- 1r) ...(1)

1rt .-ft
Jr = cos (m sin
.,ll - *"
162 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

Cross-multiplyin s, t , = m cos (nr sin- 1 *).

^ll -
x2

Squaring both sides,

0- 3c2D? = m2 cos2 (rz sin- 1
r)
= m2ll - sirL2 (m sin 1 r)l l.'"o.20=1-sinzo
=n2(L_y2) tBy (1)l
Again differentiating both sides w.r.t. x,
l- x2) 2y ,y , - 2xy t' = - 2*'yy ,
Dividing every term by 2y r,
(l-x2)Yr-xYr=-PzY
(l -
x2)yr- xy, + m2y = X.
Now differentiating every term z times by Leibnitz Ttreorem, we have
U^*2(l-x2) +'Cry, * r(- 2x) +"Cry,(-2)1 -W**r.x+"Cly,l+m\,,=g
(L - x2)y o * r- 2nxy n * r- n(n - Lly^- ry, * r- ny n + m2y n = g

= (l-x2)yo,r-(2ru+l)xyo*r-(n2-m2)y^=0
Example 6.If y = a 96 (log x) + b sin (log x), proue that
(i) Pyz+ xy1+ ! =0and
(ii) xzy.*, + (2n + l)xyn*, + (n2 + 1)y^= 0.
Sol. (i) y = <l cos (log r) + b sin (log r) ...(1)

:. y1 = -a sin (logr). 1* b.o" (Iog r) . 1

XX
- xtt = - a sin (1og r) + b cos (log.r)
Again, L!2+ yl=-d.cos (1ogx). 1-b (logr). 1
,c "i, jc

= x2y. + x,v. = -y
= xzyr+xyr+y =0 '..(2)
(li) Differentiating equation (2) z times by Leibnitz Theorem, we get
b,,*2. @2) + "Cr!nat . ex) + "C2y* . (2)1 + ly,*r. (x) + "Cr.J, (1)1 +y, = 6
= x2ynnr+yn*r\2nx+xJ+ynlntn -1)+z+ 1l =0
= x2yn*r+ (2n + l) xy,*r+ (n2 +l)y,=O
p"o-rt. 7.If y = (P -1)', proue that (x2-- 1) ynn, * Zry)- r- n(n + 1) yn = 0
/' [u.K.T.u. 2o1oi
dn d( dPl
Hence, if P^ = ,* - 7)" . show rhat *\{t - *" ,il + n(n + lt P,=
i, 0.

SoI. v=(x2-L)" ...( 1)

Jt= - 7\.T' .2,
n (x2
(x2
- l) y 1= 2nxy ...(2) I Using (1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I toJ

Differentiating again, we get

(x2 - l) Y, + zxY = 2n (tcY
1 1+ Y)
(x2 l) y, + 2(l n) xy, 2ruy =0
= - - -
Differentiating z times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
U, * r tx2 - l) + "C r y. * r(Zr) + "C r y, (2)) + 2(l - n) U, * r(x) +'Cr y,(1)l - 2ny n = g
= (x2
- L) yn *r+ (Znx + Zr - Znx) yn* r+ (n2 - n + 2n -2n2 - 2n) y,= o
= (x2-L)y,*r+2xy,*r-n(n *rrr,=L.,r,

Again, P,= @2-l)"=y^ ...(4)

&r^
.'. !{t-*',+}=+
dxl dx) dx'{(r -x2rynn,r
= (l -!, * z _ 2x !, *, = _ l(r2 _ l) y, *, + 2xy, * rl
x2)

=-n(n+l)!n lUsing(3)
= - n(n + 7) P. Usine (4)
I

u"r,"u. ${,r
dxl -- t*l+n(n+t)pn
dx )
=0.

Ytyrt "
8. lf ylt^ + y- tt^ = 2x, proue that
(x2 - 1) y^ *2 + (2n + 1) xyn *t + (nr - *2)Y,= o.
tU.P.T.U. 2015; U.K.T.U. 20111
Sol. yltm+y-un=Zr
Put Yu^=z

"*!=2,
z
or z2-Zxz +l=o
z,+z-[Pli
'=T='x+{i'z_,
i.e., y'^ =* t$ -t or y =(x t,t7l)^
If y=1**lsi)^,tnn
rt=mtx+ rlr,
,._- . r.r
_tt .(,lr* L_ ,,.l
l;:_r.^ )
= mtx + tlx2 - r-' ['.fit''] *l* *,p l)^ m!
-17-1
I
[-E-TJ =
$=
AntI, similarly, if y = (*- ,,p-l*,
rl t----'
,l*' - |
 A rExrBooK oF ENGINEEHING UArEyAr]g:
164

In either case, squaring' we get

o ot -lvf = m2v2'
v; = 7^'Y2
-I
lx2

Differentiating again,
-!).2YSt2 +Yr''b=m2 '
(xz 2Y!t
Dividing both sides bY 2Y., we have
(r2-]rlY,+xYr-m)=O
we get
Differentiating n times by Leibnitz theorem'

lln*r{xz-L)+n.vn*, *.!9# 'r,'21 + b"r''+ nvn'Ll-m2!^ =0

l) + (2n + l\ xy n *r+
(n2 - n+n=0 - n?>y n
or
(x2 - y
n *2
'(*,--
r\, (zn + 1)rY,,*1+ (n2 -m2Yo =0.
or ^,r*
v\ bg( x , proue that
/
Example 9. lltffcos-'[6J=, \^
\m)
*yo*r* (2n + 1)xlor1+(n2 + m2) !n

(ii) If x = cosh (* t), proue that (# - 1) v, *, + (2n + 1) xv' * t + fu2 -

m2) v' = 0'
^r
Sol, (j) **'[#)=-,*(;)
...(1)
-v = b cos i-
l'
,"* (:Ll],
\mt)

I,=-bsin{-rre)} *;^ :
xy,=-bm"t
{-"r(-)
Again differentiating,
1
xy2+y1=-brrlc"" '* ';; m
{-",H)}
x2 y,+ xy,= - m2 b cos{. t* (:i} = -.r'
...(2)
) x2yr+xY,+m)=g
Differentiating (2) z times by Leibnitz theorem'
r")'.rt.,l ."cit,*r(2x) +ncr.l,(2)l + Iv,*rlx.' .'"r1,,11'1
,ii,tr* (2i f t) xy*.f (n2 + ru2) Yn= *," -io
(,,) ,="o"rr[1togy])
\m

ltl
"o"6-rr=1lo8]l,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 165

r r
y=e u cosh ...( 1)

1
!t= e*"o'h-'* . tn .
F=
+ 6@ -t>tr=memcoshli -m! I Using (1)
Squaring both sides,
(x2-t)Y1=*ztz
Differentiating, we get
(x2
- L) zygr+ yr2 (2x) = 2mTl t
::, (x2-l\z+xyr-mzy=O ...(2)
Differentiating (2) z times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
lt,*r{x2 - l) +"Cry,*r(2x) + "Cry,(2)l + [yo *, (r) + "C, yn(l) | - mzyn= g
:+ (x2 L) yo
- *r+ (2n + L) xynrr+ (n2 -m2\,= o.
,hxampfe $.
(i) If y = 1 - xl e- proue that ( 7 - a) y, * 1 - h - *rt
( d w,
lr.{Y ir- ;r!,
(ii) If y= Iog (x + ,!i7 ) , prou" that (1 +*)y,*r+(2n+ 1)xyn*r+n2y,=9.
Sol. (i) y=(l-r)aee ...( 1)
y = (l - x)- s (- oe*) + e* (- a) (1 -r)-d-1(- 1)

gl ( 1 r)- d I a +I a)
= e- - - _
r-f I

\ ./
(L - x) yr= o16y ...(2)
=
Differentiating (2) z times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
J, (1 - r) + "Cry,(- D = uA,@) + "Cty,-
*, l1))
.'. (1 - r)y,*, +(-n-ax)yn-nWn-t=0
+ (l - x) yn *r- (n + at\yn- na yn- r= O
(ii) y =los(x * .[r* I ...( 1)

t ( ,) r
"'- ,*,fi17 t- r/i.7]-fi;7
,[t+*'tr=t
(l+x2)tl=1 ...(2)
Differentiating again, we get
(l + x2) 2y lz + yl t.u'l = O
+ (l + x2)yr+ xyt=O ...(3)
Differentiating (3) z times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
\f n.r(L + x2) + "Cry,*r(2*) + "Cry,(2)l + {y, *, (r) + "C, r, (1)} =0
(l + x2) y.*, + (2n + 7) *y, * r+ n2yo =0.
too A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING I\,IATHEMATICS

ample 11. (i) If x = tan (log y), proue thdt

(1 + x2) y,*, + (2nx - 1)y^+ n(n - 7)y^-r= 0
1 (1 + x2bn*z+ L2(n + 1) x - llyo*, + n(n + 1)f,= 0 (u.P.T.U. 2014)
(ii) If y = sin 169 . (x2 + 2x + 1), proue that
(7 + x)2 y,*r+(2n+ 1)(1 +x)yn*1+(n2 + 4)y,=0. (M.T.U.2013)
Sol. (i) r = tan (logr)
y=e ...( 1)

t-" 1
!t= e .
1;j
(7 + x2) yr= y ...(2) lUsing (1)
Differentiating (2) n times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
!, * t(l + 3c2) + "Cty,(2r) + "Cry^ -r(2) = y,
(l + x2') yn + (znx - L) y.+ n(n - l) !/, r= O
*, -
...(3)
Differentiating eqn. (3) again w.r .t. x, we get
y. *2(7 + x2) + 2x!, *t+ (Znx - L) y^ *., + Znyn+ n(n - l) yn =0
(L + icz)y,*z+ l2(n + !) x -tl yn*, + n(n + 7) yn =0 ...(4)
Equations (3) and (4) give the required resuJts.
(ii) y=sinlo&(x2+Zx+l) ...(1)

v, = cos los lxz+Zx+1). ;L \2x +2)

x" +2x-+1

= cos Io& (x2 + Ztc + l)

x+L
(x + l) yr= 2 cos 1o& (r2 + 2x + l)
Squaring both sides,
(x + 7)2 yl = 4 cos2 log" (x2+2x+1)=4(l-y2) ...(2)
Differentiating (2) again w.r.t. r, we get
(x + l)2 .2yryr+ yr2 .2(x + L) = 4(.- 2yy)
(x + 7)2 yr+ (r + 1)yr + 4J = 0 ...(3)
Differentiating (3) z times by Leibnitz theorem, we get
U,*r@+1)2 +"Crln+1.2(x + 1) + "Cr! n.21 + ly,*t@ + L) +"Crt*i)l + 4t, =0
(x + l)2 yn t, + (2nx + 2n +r+ 1)y,"*, +(n2-n+n+4)yn =0
(L + x)2 yo*r+ (2n + !) (l + x) y,*r+ (n2 + 4) y, =0.
Example 12. If y = 1x" log x, prove that
(i)y"*t= n! (ii) fyo *, + (2p - 2n + 1) xyp + 1+ @ - nY yo= 0.
x
Sol. (i) Y =x"logx ...( 1)

/I\
v.=r'l-lrr./ + nr" llogx
\
xlt = x" + nx" logx=x"+ny ...(2) I Usine (1)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 167

Differentiating (2) a times, we get

!, * r. (x) + "C, y, (1) =nL+ny,
+ !,*t@)=nt
nl,
Y
"*1=;
(iir !t=x^.!*ron tror* r
r I Diff. y w.r.t.
4t= Jct + nx" log x I Multiplying by r
:+ xlt= t" * ny ...( 1)
Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t. ,, we get
Ilz+ !t= nxn-1 + nY,
xyr+ - nl yr= nxn-1
(7
x2y, + (7 - n) xy, = nxcn = n (xyr- ny) I Using (1)
= x\, + (l - 2n) q, + n2y =0 ...(2)
Differentiating equation (2), p times by Leibnitz theorem,
[ypo2@2)+
pCttp*t(2x)+ eC2yo(2)1 + O-zn) []r*r (r)+ pClyr(1)l +n2yr=0
= x2!p+z*!p*t{2px+(l-2n)xl+yolp@-L)+(l-2n)p+nzl=0
x2 yo*2 + (2p - 2n + l) xy o* r+ (p - n)' y
o = O.

TEST YOT]R KNOWLEDGE

Apply Leibaitz Theorem to find yn in the follouing cases 11-2t:

l. (i) xB e* fiit x"-1 log M (A.K.T.U. 2010, 2012, 2018)
2. (i) x3 cos tt (ii) x2 ea cos x.
3. Find y, when y = . sin r by Leibnitz theorem.
^F;7
!!! =62-nz* r,"rr, [**11] -2nxcos L- g)
4. .tfy =12sinr, Drove that
\ 2) ---('' 2)
.

ru.P.r.u. zout
5. Ify = sin-r 3, prove that (1 - rz)y, *2- (2n + 1) xy,t- n)^ = O.
6. rdlf y = e'"i' '', prove rhat:
(i)(L*x2)yr-xyr=mzl (A.K.T.tl.2016) (ii) (7 - r2) y,+z- (2n + l) xyn*r- (nz +rnz\y.=o.
(6) If r = sin Ilog v] ,p.ou"t]r.t(7-12)y"*2. (2n+t\xyn,r-(n2+a2\y,=0. (U.K.T.U.2012)
, -t
Ia./-
7. Ify = . prove that l l -12)y n*r-(2n+B)ryn*r-(n+t)2!n=o.
,,lr_ *"
8. Ify = etu"-'', prove that
(.i) (l + x2\y, + ( -7)y,=Q.
(ii) (l + x2) y^*+ [(2n + 2)x - 7]y"r+ n(n + lD^= 0. (A.K.T.U. 2018)
9. If y = qss (fqg a), prove that.r2yo *, + (2n + 7)xy o * r + (n2 + lb ^ = 0.
10. Ify = r cos (log x\, prove t,nat x2 yn *, + (2n - L) xy^,r+ (n2 - 2n + 2)yn = 0.
168 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

11. Ify = (sin 1r)2, prove that

(i\(7-12)y"-xyr-2=o (ii) (l - i)y, *z - (2n + 1) xyo *, - nzy o=
g.

lA. K.ar. u. 201 4, 20 1 8'l

12. Ify=(tan 1r)2, prove that (r2 +L)2yr+ (l+12)yr=2
13. Ifcos-1 [*] =,* ['l', p.ouu th.tr 2 !o *r+ (2n + 7) xy. *, + 2nzy,= 0
\n,j
14, lfy = sss Qa sin-1r), prove that (7 - x.2\y, *z- (2n + 1) xy, * r- (n2 - mz\yn=O
16. If y = sin (z sinh-1r), prove that (1 +*2)y^,r+(2n+l)xyn*L+(tuz+m2)yn=0
16. If y = (sinh-lr)2, prove that (1 +12)y,rr+ (2n+l)xyn*r+n\,,=n. (U.P.T.U.2015)

\7. If y = a[-7 "io-'r, prove that

(i) yr(l - x2) - 3yrr, + 2 = o ; (ii) t,*r(7 - xz) - (2n + 3) )ryn+2- n(n + 2) y"*, = 0.

18. If y=A(;g1,[P -l rec--1F-)",n o.,"thut

(a) (x2 - 1) y, + xy, - n2y = 0 (b) @2 - l) y, * 2 + (2n + L\ xy,,, ,= 0.
rry = prove thatyn =
t-;'jri' - t-; -* - - *]
Y, 1,,*,
If-r +y = 1, prove th6 lL 6^ y,1 = o I lJn - (4\r)2fn-1 .x+(^Cr)2yn-Z .x2- -..+(-L)'r"l.

If r sin Q +y cos Q = a and r cos Q -y sin O = 6, show thaa =

# # #. ff "orr"tuot.

Ify = tr 1, * * S y * e1" * *2 + o2 )-", Prove that

,{i
(x2 + a2)y (2m + l\ xy +(m2-n2)y^=0.
^ *r+ ^.,
Evaluate Di log {*2
/ t sin u tl
- 2r cos cr, + 1)] hence or orherwise find Dr ft-r ' l1-*""""/l
L
Prove
, n2 n2r,
that 1+ ---F r- ---+ -
ll2 + ---*-+...=---;
n2r, - lr2rn - zt2 2n I
(J1.i)'

lHint. I'ind D" (r' . xD and D" (r2") then equate two values.l
za. 1I y,Fj = tos (, * .'r, L), prove that (r2 - 1) ln* r+ (2n + l\ xyn+ nzy.-r= o.

. .1t2
I'l+x)
Ify = . prove that
[1_,.,J
(l - x2\, - l2(n - 7\x + 71y,
-, - (n - 7)(n - Zjy o z = o.
-
(M.',l:.U.2012)

27. If "v = tar-r l/' *')- o"n*," th^t

\o-r./ '
(a2 + r2)y n*2 + 2(n + 7)xyn*1 + n(n + l)y, =0 (G.B.T.U. 2012)

lf l^= =-txn log*), then prove that f, =nI,_1+(n-7)l (A.K.T.U. 2017)

and heace show that

L-
--4 = los f
11
+l +-+-+__ +-. 1

nl"23n
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 169

Answers

l, (i) e* . a,-3 laLra +3n.a2x2 +}n(n-7)ax +n|/"-7\{n,- 2)l 6S !-}).

2. (i)rrcos [*- Inl *rr*r"o"l, ,,-l n..l] t3/i('-l)'rcos ' I n-2n\

\ 2.t \" 2 lr 2 )
+ ntn - Lt\n - r, -" (, - O#^)

tiit
"'lz'n' "0" [
*,-
f, )
- zt',* "0" [,., - ;]' z"
f urn -r, *" ('., z-
[)]
B. f--,r-
^ y. = -"os' 1r+ .- Sxsin r r Scosx Srsinx
ffi 1r;;tp - ru *r.,u,,
(- 1)" 1(r,-1)! t- t sinc 'll: {-1,'-r(r-1)! ...f ,..-1
lz cos L tan r sincr
tarl-r ____::::_:: J
(x2 -2xcosa+7)"/2 L-*'t'"*" r-cosu)]'tx2- 2rcosq+ 1)"/2 ""'|."'*' r-"otuJ

2.5{. DETERMINATION OF n'H DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION AT x= o

Sometimes it is required to find the zth derivative of a function for r = 0.
The working rule to find g,)._,, is being given-sin|,?
below:
1

1. Put the given function equal toy.

dv
2.Find Y, =
'oJ -i .

Then (i) Take LCM (ifpossible).

(ii) Square both sides if square roots are there.
(iii) '|ry to get y in RHS (if possible).
3. Again differentiate both sides w.r.t. :r to get an equation in yr, y, y.
4. Differentiate both sides z times w.r.t. x by Leibnitz Theorem.
Leibnitz Theorem is
(uu)o = u". v + "C, . un_l. Dt + "Cz - uo_2. u2+ ... + nCtLuun.
5. Putr = 0 in equations ofsteps 1,2, 3,4.
6. Put z = 1, 2, 3, 4 inlast equation of step 5.
7. Discuss the two cases when z is even and when z is odd.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
+Exanple 1. If y n*"^ *, show that
-
=
(1 - x2) y*r- (2n + 1) xy,+1- 1n2 + m2) y,= 0 and calcutate !,(0)-
(A.K.T.U. 2016)
Sol. Here, ...( 1)
-m nry

,lt _ ,. lt= ...(2)

'170 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Squaring both sides, we have

(l
- x2) y? = m2y2
Differentiating w.r.t. r, we have
1'x2) 2yl2- 2ry 12 = 2m2yyt
Dividing by 2y, we get
(1-
x2) Yr- xYr= m2Y ...(3)
Differentiating z times by Leibnitz Theorem, we get
(! - xz)y, * r- 2nxy n * r- n(n - l)y,- xyn * r- nyn= m2yn
(l - x2\y, * r- Qn + 1)xy, * r- h2 + *')y^= o ...(4)
By putting r = 0, in (1), (2), (3) and (4), we get
!$)=e^'ntz
! r(.0) ='m . e* 2

! 2(0) = m2 . Y(0) = rruz . e^ 2

y,*2rc)=(*+m2)y,(0) ...(5)
Putting z =l,2,3,4,... in (5), we have
y = 12 + m2)y, (O) = - m(12 * *21n^'t2
e(.0)
y (22 + mz)v, (0) = m2(22 + m2)en nn
a(0) =
on
:15(0) = (32 + m2)y, (O) = - m(12 + m2)(32 + m2)e*'
2ar,'d.so on.
16(o) = (42 + m2)y n(0) = m2(22 + m2)(42 + m2)e^
n''
In seneral- v (0) = l|-^.n^
(12 + m2)(32 +m2)...I@-2)2+m2l,whennisodd.
| -2.n*."t2 (22 + 7n21142 +m2)...1(n-Z)2 +m2l,whenziseven.
$/u pl"2.Ify = lsin t xt2. proue that
/ ^ d2u dv
\itt1-x2tii-r#-r=O (ii)(1-x2)y,+2*(2n+ 1)xyo*r-n2yn=Q.
Also, find the ualue of nth derivatiue of y for x = 0. IA.K.T.U. 2018,20141
Sol. y=(sin 1r)2
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. r,
Yr=2(sin t''' A ...( 1)
*"
r/1-
- x2)yl = 4 (sin- t x)2 = 4!.
Squaring both sides, (7
Differentiating again, 2(7 - x2) yryr- 2tyr2 = 4y,
Dividing both sidesby 2yr, (1-x2)yr-xyr-2=O ...(2)
Differentiating n times by Leibnitz Theorem,
(L - xz\y, *, + "Cry, * 1G 2x) + "Cry,(- 2) - xyn * 1- "Cry o= g
0 - x2)y n *, - (2n + l)xy, *, - nzy, = 0 ...(3)
Put r = 0 in (1), (2) and (3), then
J1 (0) = 0 and r2(0) =2,
and t1, * y(O) = nzY" (O) ...(4)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 171

Putting n = 1,2,3,4, ... in (4), we get

J3 (0) = 12 .11 (0) = a
!a(O:)=22.12(0)=2.22
/5 (0) = 32 'lv3 (0) = 0
!6@) = 42 . ta(0) = 2 . 22 . 42
r7{o)=52./5(0)=0
)s (0) = 62 . 16(o) = 2. 22 . 42 . 62.

In general,
When z is odd, y" (0) = 0.
Wlren z is even, y,(O)=2.22.42.62...(n-2)2.
Example 3.Ify = 61n 1 that (1 +x2)yo*r+2nxyn+n(n- 1) yn-l= 0-
x, proue
Hence d.etermine the ualues of all the deriuatiues ofy uith respect to x uhen x = 0
Sol. Here Y = tan-1 x ...( 1)

1
...(2)
l+ x"
!1(l+x2)=l
Differentiating n times by Leibnitz Theorem, we have
^ n(n -l\
yntr(7+xz)+nyn.'Zx+
, Jn 1.2=U
(l + x2) yo *, + 2nt yn + n(n - 1) y, - , = 0 ...(3)
Putting r = 0 in (1), (2) and (3), we have
y(0) = 0, y1 (0) = 1
and * ,Q) = - n(rt - 10"- r (O)
l, ...(4)
Putting n = 1,2,3,4, ... in (4), we get
y2(0)=-1.(0).y(0)=0
YBo) = -2. (1) .rr (0) =-2= (- l)t 2!
/a(0)=-3.(2).rr(0)=0
!5Q) = - 4. (3) .r, (0) = - 4. (3) . (- 2) = (- r)2 4 t

In general,
When z is even, y"(0) = 0.
l, _

,When n is orld. y,(0) = (- lt 2 n - lt'..

46xample 4. If jt = sin to sin-| x t. find y [A.K.T.U. 20t8,20tr)
^t0).
Sol. y = sin (a sin- 1 .r) ...( 1)

v, = cos (c sin 1r). -S ...(2)

,lt - *'
17?- A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

Cross-multiplying,

,[11 Yr= o cos (o sin- x)

1

Squaring both sides,

(1 - x21 y! = az cos2 (a sin- r)
1

= o2 [1 - sin2 (o sin-
1
x)l l'. cos2r = 1-sinzr
=a2(L_y2) I BY (1)
Again differentiating both sides w.r.t. r,
(L - x2) 2yryr- Zxyl = - 2 a)Y,
=) (l-x2)yr-xy,+ a2y =g ...(3) | Cancelling 2Y,
Now, differentiating (3) z times by Leibnitz theorem,
lt, * r(1 - x2) + "C r! o * rG 2x) + "Crt,G 2)1 - ll,, 1@) +'Crr, (1)l + a\,= g

= (!-x2)y,*r- (2n + 1) xyo*r- (n2- o'D,= 0 "'(4)

By putting r = 0 in equations (1), (2), (3), and (4), we get
Y(0) = 0
JlO) = a
lr(0)=-a2Y(O)=0
J, * 2(0) = (n2 - a2) Y,(o)
Puttirg z = 1,2,3,4, ... in (5), we get
Yr(O) = (72 (12 - a2) a
- a2) Y r(O) =
Y =
n(.0)
(22 ' a2) r(0) = O
Y

t u(O) = (32
- a2) (!2 - a2) a
lu(O) = (42
- a21 122 - a2) Yr(O) = 0

In general,
fo. when a is evenl
v (0)= {
llh -2\" - a"l lh - 4)" -a2l ...r32 -a2ttl2 -a2tu. whennisodd J

TESTYOURKNOWLEDGE
l lf y . exp (2i), determine (yn).. (M.T.U.2013)
= x2
Ify = sin-1 r, prove 1yra1 1l - x2) t,*s- (2n + l) xy.*r- n2 y,, = 0
Also frnd the value ofy, when r = 0.
.l
Ify = :, prove thaty, =.:r.-1)2yn-zforx=o.

(i) FindJ,tr(Ol. wheny = Iog,* t ,,[17,.

ng, - ar 19; .ut
(ii) Iffl*) = tan r, then prove that f") Q) - ltn -2) {01 + "6/to - ... = sln 2
-
[Eint, flr:) cos r = sin r.]
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
173

5. (i) lf y = [eg (r + fi* r' l]', noa .n the derivatives of v w.r.t. r, when r = 0.
(ii) Ify = (sinh 1r)2, prove that (1 +12)!n*r+(2n+7)tyo*r+n2y,=o.
Hence find y, when c = 0.

6. Ify = eo "h prove that (l - x2) y,*r- (2n + l) xy o*, - (nz + a2) yn = o.
",
Deduce that L1 btL = nz + 02. Hence frnd -vn
(0).
r)o ln
7. lf y = la L[t- -'V, fincl y, (o). @..K.r.u. 2013, 2018)
8. Prove that the value when r = 0 ofD" (tan-r:r) is 0, (n - 1) ! or - (n - 1) ! according as z is ofthe
forn2p,4p + l or 4p + 3 resPectivelY.
9. Ify = log (r + 1f,t*7), prorr" tt at(a2+xz)y,+xv,=0.

Dillerentiate this differential equation n times and prove tha t = -

)\-tr 5
10. Iflogy =fsn-r*, show that (1 +12)t,,r+12(n+l)x-lly,.r+n(n+1)y,=0andhencefindyr,
)nandyuatr=0.
Answers
l. (l)n= n(n - 1) 2-2
2. When z is even, y,(0) = 0
When z is odd, y,(0) = 12 . 32 . 52 .... (n - 2)2
4, (i) When n is even, y,(0) = O
o_.
When z is odd, y,(0) = (- 1) 2 12 .32 . 52 ... (n - 2)2

6, (i).(ii)whenn iseven.y,(0) =r-r,i ' 2 .22 .42 .62 ... \n - 2t2

When n is odd, y,(0) = 0
6. when n is even, ! = az (22 + a2)(42 + az) --- L@ - 2\2 + a2l
^(o)
When n is odd, y,( O) = a(12 + a\(e2 + az) ... Lh - 2)2 + a21
?. When n is even,y,(o) = m2 (m2 - 22)(m2 -42) ..- lm2 - (n - 2)21
When z is odd, y,(o) = m(mz - 72)(m2 - 3\ ... bn2 - (n - 2)21
10. (yrro = - 1, (y4)o = - 7, (J,s)o = 5.

ENVELOPES

2,52. FAmTLY OF CURVES

We know that x2 + y2 = a2 is a circle whose centre is (0, 0) and radius is 'a'. If we assign an
arbitrary number of numerical values to 'a" we get a set ofcircles ofthe same type (having a
common property that their centres are (0, 0) each,i.e., they are cocentric. The totality ofthe
circles thus obtailed for all possible values of 'a' constitutes a family ofcircles. The constant 'a'
r'hich is constant for one member but varies from member to member is called the pararneter
:fthe family. In general, the equation of any family of curves is ofthe form flx, y, s) = 0 Yrhere
'.r is a parameter. If cr, is a particular value of o, then the equation y, ch) = 0 represents a
rarticular member of the familyflx,y, d = 0. ^r,
174 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEHING IVIATHEI\,!AT|CS

For example:
(i) y = mx - 2am - om 3 determines a family of straight lines which are normals to the
parabola y2 = 4ax. Here, rz is the parameter.
(ii) The equation, cos s +, sin o = o determines a family of straight lines which are
tangents to the circle .r2 * !2 = a2. Here a is the parameter.
(iii) The equation (x - a)2 + y2 = c[2 determines a family ofcircles whose centres lie on X-
axis and which pass through the origin. Here, cl, is the parameter.

2.53. DEFINITtONS
family ofcurves and at each point is touched
(1) A curve which touches each member ofa given
by some member ofthe family of curves, called the envelope ofthe given family ofcurves.
is
For example, each member of the family of straight lines

y = mx + :d (where rz is a parameter and a is a constant)

touches the parab olay2 = Aay. 61rr, the tangent at each point

ofthe parabola y2 = 4ax is of the form y = mx + L . So. we

can say that the envelope of the family of straight lines

y = mx + 9 is the pa.abola y2 = 4r-

m

(2) The envelope of a family of curves is the locus of limiting position of the point of
intersection ofany two consecutive members ofthe family, where one ofthem tends to coincide
with the other which is kept frxed.
For example:
Consider the family of straight lin es y = p* * I ...( 1)

where rz is the parameter and a is some constant.

Let the two consecutive members of this family be
a
Y=m$+
-n4 ...(2)
-
and \t = (m1+ 6m1) x + --+- ...(3)
m1+ dml
We know that m is fixed for the same member. Here, 1et us take m, as fixed, and 6rn, a
variable quantity. The line represented by (3) tends to (2) when 6m, --: 0.
The point of intersection of (2) and (3) is
a(2m, + 6m1)
mr(m, + 6m"r) ' 'v= ,
m1lm1 + dm1l

When 6rn, -+ 0, the point of intersection be"o-".

r\ = t = Clearly this point
[, A, #).
satisfies (2) and is called the limiting position ofthe point ofintersection ofline (2) with any
line ofthe family when the iatter tends to coincide with (2).
 DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
175

we get such points on different lines ofthe family. The Iocus ofthese points is called
the envelope of the given family of lines.

Clearly the coordinates of such a point lying on (1) are r a 2a

'= *'''=;
Elimination of m of these two gives
!2 = 4ax
which is a parabola and is the envelope ofthe family of straight lines given by (1).
In general,
Let flx, y, o) = 0 be a given family of curwes, a being the parameter. For any two
consecutive values o and o + 6or ofthe parameter, the two consecutive members ofthe family
one
l\r'Y'rl-)=0 ...( 1)
and flr,y, cl + 6o) = 0 ...(2)
The locus ofthe point ofintersection of(1) and (2) when 6tr -+ 0 is called the envelope of
the family of cuwes represented by (1).

2.54. DETERIUII{ATION OF ENVELOPE

Let the given family of curves be
l\x, y, a) = o ...( 1)
where o is the parameter.
For any two consecutive values ct and cr + 6o, of the parameter, the two consecutive
members of the family are
flx,Y'a)=0 ...(2)
and flr,y,a+6o)=0 ...(3)
Let the point of intersection of (1) and (2) be Pr. Then, P, will satisf! the equation
flx,y, a + 3o) - fl*, y, a) = 0
and therefore also the equation,

f(x, y.u + 6u) - ftx, y, at

ticr =l)
-
Proceeding to the iimit as 6a -+ 0, let P, -'; P. Then, p will satisfy the equation
f(rc.J-0 + 6_a)-/{.r,y.0) _
-lim
60+0 6Cr
0

or $ fl,, r, o, = o ...(4)

Also, P will satisfy (1) as P lies on (1). The locus ofp will be obtained by eliminating o
between (1) and (4).
Also, the elimination gives an equation ofthe type
0(r' Y) = o
which is the required envelope.
176 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

2.54.1. Working Rule

Ifflr,y, c) = 0 is the given family ofcurves, where cr is the parameter, then the elimination of
s between the equations
(1)
l\x, Y' a) = 0 ...

a
and -
.la
flr, .Y, q) = 0 ...(2)

gives the envelope ofthe given family of curves.

Note. Solving (1) and (2) for x and y, we obtain r= 0(u), y = \r(cr)
which are the parametric equations ofthe envelope where (, is the parameter.

2.55. ENVELOPE WHEN \x, y,a) lS A QUADRATIC tN cr

Let the equation ofthe family ofcurves be

flx,!,a)=Aoz+Btx+C=0 ...( 1)

where A, B and C are functions ofr andy.

Differentiating (1) partially with respect to c, we obtain
2Aa+B=0

= *=-+
2A
Eiimination of a between (1) and (2) gives
...(3)

Af-gl*e[-a)*c
\2N \ 2Ai =o
82-4AC=0
which is the envelope of the given family of curves.
Hence, the envelope ofthe family of curves
Aa2+Ba+C=0
where A, B and c are functions of .r and y is obtained by equating the discriminant of the
equation to zero, i.e., by 82 = 4AC.

2.56. ENVELOPEWHEN'(x' y' tx) = o ls oF THE FORM acos o + Dsin ct = c

Equation ofthe family of curves is
Acoscr+Bsin0=C ...( 1)

where is the parameter and A, B, C are functions of .r andy.

cr

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. o, we get

...(2)
-Asino,+Bcoss=0
To eliminate u between (1) and (2), square and add, we get
L2 +82 - C2
which gives the equation of the envelope.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 177

2.57. ENVELOPE TOUGHES EAGH MEMBER OF THE FAMILY

Let the equation ofthe given family ofcurves by
flr,Y,a)=o ...( 1)
where o is the parameter.
The envelope of the family (1) is obtained by eliminating the parameter s, between the
a
; lix,y. cl) = 0
equations (l)and ...Q)
Solving (1) and (2), we get
5 = Q{a)J,
say ...(B)
J = v{cr }J
which are the parametric equations ofthe envelope.
Clearly, the values ofr andy given by (3) satisfy (1) identically, i.e., for all values ofcr.
dx
From (3), . d'(a)
dd =
...(4)

and .:dy = v tdj ...(5)

dy _ dy/da _ V'@)
dx - dxlda - Q',rr) ...(6)

= Slope ofthe tangent at any point (*, y) given by (3)

Differentiating (1) with respect to c, treating r and y as functions of o, we obtain
L 4 -Y gL*?t =o
dx dct fu rh ic

= ,'to,{*rr/tsl{=r-r
dx dy
lUsing (2), (4) and (5)
DfDr _ ylor ...(7)
Atldy O'(c)

Slope ol the tangent line dra*n at tr. y) .{{ ...(8)

= 0'(a) " =
From (6) and (8), we find that the two slopes ofthe tangent to curve and the envelope at
the common point are equal. Ttris means that the curve and the envelope have the same tangent
at their common points, i.e., they touch each other at these points.

ILLUSTRATTYE EXAMPLES
a
Example l. Find. the enuelope of the family of straight lines y = m"x. + uhere m is a
m
pardmeter-

Sol. We have Y=mr,+ *a ... ( 1)

177

Differentiating both sides of (1) partially with respect to m, we get

a
U=.r- 2
...(2)
m
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

From (2), E ...(3)

\i;
From (1) and (3),
6
.l-.r+d
!r
J"* *
"G
2J;
Squaring, we get 12 = 4ax
ririch is the required equation ofthe envelope.
Aliter. We have

Y=*'* 9
n7

= m2x-rny + a=O
Comparhg with Arn2 +Bm + C = 0, we get A = x,B = -! and C = a
Now 82 = 4AC
:+ (-y)2 = 4(r) (a)
.2 - 4ax
J_
Example 2. Find the enuelope of the family of curues y = mx + am/, where m is the
paranneter.
Sol. The equation of the family is
Y=mx+amP ...( 1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. n, we get
O=r+aprn!:\
O=ruc+apm!
tnx
dmp ='- p ...(2)

Substituting the value of oml in (1), we get

! =mx -U,p
+ py = mx (p - 1) ...(3)
Raising both sides to powerp,
p! ye = np 3tp (p - Llp

tTls
f yP=-.-.
ap
xP.(p-1P I From (2)

O'- I .xp .(p-t)p

=-
p -r ap lFrom (3)
af yt-l = -1xt (p - 1Ft
af 5P-r + (p - 1)P{ = 0.
yo
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I
179

. .Example 3. Fl
m is the parameter.
nd. the enuelope of the family of straight tines y = mx - 2am - ami, where
Sol. We have y=mx-zqm-am, ...( 1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to m, we get
O=r-2a-3am2

m=X ...(2)

From (1), y=l(x-2a)-am2lm

E _?, 2(x - 2a)
=+l*-u-o(x-20)f
L \ 30 /l Vs,
= lJi Jiy =x2(x-2d3n
Squaring, we get
27aY2=41a-2o1s

F.lxarrrple 4. Obtain the enuelope of the family of curu""

4G-* 2
k- = 1, where ais the
-s'
parameter and interpret the result.
22
r.+
Sol. -l =1
clz h' - tt2
= (h2
- a2lyz * a)2 = sz 1Pz - 0.z1
+ a4-(x2 -y2 + h2)a2 + k2x2 =o which is quadratic in a2.
The envelope is given by
B2 = 4AC
= l- G2 - y2 a Pz11z = 4(t) (h2x2)
= -y2 + k2)2 - (2hr)z = O
(x2
(x2 y2 + h2 + 2kx) (x2 y2 + h2 2h:.) 0
= - - - =
:+ I@+h)2_y2ll(x_k)2_y2l=o
:+ (x + y + k) (x y + h) (x + y k) (x y k) 0
- - - - =
which represents the four lines
r+y+k=0; x*y +k=0; x+y-h=0; x_y_k=O
which form a square.
Example 5. Find the enuelope of the following family of curues
x cos ma + y sin ma = a(cos no)*/", where a is the parameter-
Sol. We have
x cos md + y sin ma = a(cos na)^/" ...(1)
Putt=rcos0 and y = rsin 0, weget
r cos 0 cos mo + r sin 0 sin rzc = o (cos na)^/"
= r cos (0 - nzo) = a(cos na),,/" ...(2)

=+ logr + log cos (0-ma) =lsgg * 2 log"o"ro

n
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
180

Differentiating partially with respect to o, we get

(- sin ns)
{- sin (o ma)} (* m) -
- - .
cos (0 - m0) n COS ng.

tan (0 - rrcr) = - La,,r nd

g-ma=-na'
J- " (3)
o= -
m-n
From (2) antl (3), eliminating o, we get
( mg\ ( ,e )'"'
r cos l0--l
\ nL-n) =o icos-l
\ n-nt
ino\ ( os \^'^
rcos i-l
'--- \m-n) =d icos.-l
\ m -n)
/
"o)
r=olcos-l "
\ m-n)
tL
,-- - o^-" "o" I\m-n)
" l
(r, ,)'
where (r, 0) are the polar coordinates of
Example 6. frnd tn ,iop' oS tni x2 + y2 - zax cos o - 2ay sin 0 = c2 ' uhere 0 is
the paramete\. lnterpret lhe
"n
result "ircles
Seorwtrrcdtly'
Sol. The given family of curves is
...(1)
x2 + Y2 - Zax cos o - 2aY sio' 0 = c2
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to 0, we get
...(2)
2axsir.0-ZaYcos0=0
(1) can be rewritten as
...(3)
za'x cos O + 2oY sin 0 = x2 + Y2 'c2
Squaring (2) and (3) and adding' we get
...(4)
4a2 (x2 + y2) = (x2 + y2 - c2)2

which is the required equation ofthe envelope'

InterPretation
The equation (4) can be rewritten as
(x2 + yz) + ca = 0, which is quadratic in (r2 + J2)'
1yz + yzlz - 212a2 + c2)

z(2a2 +cz)x1+(zo' +"')2 - 4"'

x2 +y2=

= l2o2 + c2) ! ,ltzo' * " = (2a2 + c2) 1:2a

radii ( j:a).
Hence, the required envelope consists of of
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 181

Example 7. Show that the erutelope of the straight lines

y cos o- r sin o = a - a sin g log tan (Z - ;)

where 0 is the parameter. is the curue y=, -* (;)

Sol. We have

y cos o-r sin o = a -a sin r a* o" [] -

fl ...(1)

Dividing throughout by sin 0, we get

y cot 0-r = o cosec 0 -, l"ctr" (;+ ;) ..'(2)

Differentiating (2) partially with respect to 0, we get

1
-y cosec2 e = - o cosec o cot 0 - a.
j--l;\ ** (; - ,
tanl\2,+-l l)
4)

- a cosO _ ocos0
- a _
=) 'VCOSeC"0= --sin'O +
. (^ + n) sin2 g cos0 - sin20cos0
srn
-
[u ,J
d
...(3)
' cos 0
Substituting this value ofy in (2), we get
(e+ n)
o cosec 0 - x = a cosec e - o loS tan
[; -nJ
* (g r'l
-+ - =togtan l,t+ZJ
. (g n) ...(4)
e"" = tan
= lr+ i)
.
e-no = cot
tO r\ ...(5)
= \r+ 4)
Adding (4) and (5), we get
. (s+ r) (o n\
exto + e-4ta = tan
[, Z..J
+cot
[r+-aJ = .(e r) (o
srnl-+-lcosl-+-l r\
\2 U \2 4t
e +e
2 ,.t" (;.;) *.(;.;)
/r) 1 _ ,
cosh l-l
\o,/ = .-7 --;T - cosO=ta
sinlt +-l
\ 2.)
,="*"n(l)
182 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Example 8. Proue lhat the enuelope ofthe circles drawn upon the central radii uectors of
lhe rectangular hyperbola x2 - y2 = a2 (or f cos 20 = a2) is the lemniscate f = a2 cos 20.
Sol. The coordinates of any point on the rectangular hyaerbola are (o sec 0, a tan 0).
Equation ofthe circle described on a central radius of the rectangular hlperbola is
(r - 0) (x - a sec 0) + (y - 0) (y - a tan 0) = 0
+ ay tan9=x2 +y2
a.z sec 0 + ...( 1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to 0, we get
arsec0tan0+aysec20=0
+ xtang +y sec 0 = 0
= rsine+y=Q
sin0=-l ...(2)
x
Eliminating 0 between (1) and (2), we get
/",\
+av
'l i-412 1 =12 +12
\vf -y 2l/
r-
a,lx' - y' =x2+!2
ze
"ry6"
o^[*, ZO =,
12 = a2 cos 20.

Example 9. Flnd the erutelope of the farnily of curues

a" cos 0 b" sin e
parameter.
Sol. Equation ofthe family ofcurves is
3
x3
3
sec0+fcosec0=1 ...( 1)
d
Differentiating partially w.r.t. 0, we have

,3
sec 0 tan e -$ "o"""
g cot 0 0
=
"'
133sin0
sin0 _ &"e
o'"o"'e b3 sin2 e
AXB
ay a
tan0= _yh
bx x,la

12 . yZ
lx
whence sec0= , cosec 0 =
l"'* b'
L
b
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I I.,.t

Substituting in (1), we have

12 2 12 2
lx -y lx -v
*' \o'' b2 . y3 \a2' b2
aoxb"l
Zo
tL,f 2 1'
2\3/2
I

= |\o,*:rl
o)
=1

*2 n2
+ . +:;
a" b" =1
Example lQ. Find. the enuelope of the straight lines

y sin t + Jc cos t=a+a cos t log tan

"2 l.

Sol. The equation of the straight line isy sin I + r cost = a + acos t log tan Iz

+ $+ ! tant = asecl +a logtan I2 ...( 1)

Differentiating (1) partialb, w.r.t. t, we have

seczt6 1 dsint d
v sec2t=a secrtanr+a z ' L =*"T-+'. =
d
"
| ! - g6s21 sin I sin, cos2 ,
tan -2
Yaa ..- /-
g6s2; - sinf cos2t sint ".(2)
Putting the value ofy in (1), we have

x+c sec, =asect+alostan I

"2
= * = ologtun L2

:+ ta[ L :
22= enla and cot = P-rld
tt
.'. erta +e' " =tar, - +cot -
22
etla +e-rla t y
From (2)
2 sin, a
I

/ --\
= al
"n"nl\a/ = a
I
Y=a-cosh B
184 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEI\4ATICS

12
Example L1.. From any point on the ellipse . ^\)2
= 7, perpendiculars are draun to
V 7
the axes. Show that the line joining the feel of the perpendiculars aluays touches the curue
/ - 2/3 ,2t3
Ill
\o./
*lll \.b) =1.
Sol. Let P (a cos 0, b sin 0) be any point on the B p
P (^
(a cos e
6 sin 0)
6)

x\l22
j=+:-
ellinse = 1- Let PM and PN be the
do
A'
perpendiculars from P on the axis of .r and y
respectively.
Then the coordinates ofM are (o cos 0, 0) and
those ofN are (0, b sin 0).
. . Equation of li-ne MN is

x - ! ...(1)
acos0'bsinO=-r'
Differentiating (1) partially w.r"t. 0, we have
j. .iro- --/" coso=o
a cos'0 bsin'0
tty
o
-.-iii;-=-

"o"'
o b sin3 o

sin3 o
"o"'e
x v
a b

cos 0 sin 0 cos2o+sin2e

2tB , ,2/3
Ir I lll
-1ri=r'u3=
\b/
*[,Ivl
["./
, .7/3
Ivl
l.r]
cos0= and sin 0 = , -213
*.lvl
[rJ
Putting in (1), we have
213

x
.(rJ
^rJJ =
a
Ivl
tt,t
, x\\ 213I vl.213
t;l .[;]
I
=1
DIFFERENT!AL CALCULUS _ I
185

22
xy
Example L2. Show that the enuelope of the polar of points on the ellipse NR

.x.y 22 nx Rv
utith resoect to lhe ellipse ^ + ., -1:^
L:-l
o' b' ao
22
j=+? I
Sol. Any point on the ellipse = 1 is (h cos 0. sin 0).
h" h"
22
xy
Polar of(ft cos e, fr sin 0) with respect to the ellipse =1is
ao
xft cos 0 vk sil 0
---.'.-__ + -------;- = r ...( 1)
ao
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to 0, we get
-.rh sin 0 3'fr cos 0 (r\
2=J
clo
Squaring (2) and (3) and adding, we get

h2*2! h2 y2
------ -!
-
on b4
Examole 13. Show thot the enuelope of the family of curues AXs + 3BL2 + 3C]" + D = 0'
where ),is thi paramzter and A, B, C, D are functions of x and. y' is
(BC - AD)2 = 4(BD - gzl (AC - B2).
Sol. Equation of the family of curves is
A-1"3+381,2+3C1,+D=0 ...( 1)

Differentiating (1) partially with respect to X., we get

3A),2+68),+3C=0
+ A1,2+281"+C=0 ...(2)
To find the envelope, we shall eliminate i. between (1) and (2).
Multiplying (2) by l. and subtracting from (1), we get
Bl"2+2C1"+D=0 ...(3)
From (2) and (3),

x2r1
zsD_ze-BC-AD-zLC-282
. BD_C2andl= BC -AD
t"= rac-82)
o"-92
BD_C2 (BC _ AD),
AC-82
(BC - AD)2 = 4(BD - C2) (AC - B'z).
186 A TEXIBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Example 14. Show that the radius of the curuature of the enuelope of the lines x cos a + I
sin a =fla) isl(s) + f "(a).
Sol. The given family of lines is
,cosct,+ysino=fla) ...( 1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to the parameter d,'we get
-r sin cr +y cos tx' = /'(o) ...(2)
To firrd out the envelope, we shall elisminate cr between (1) and (2).
Solving (1) and (2) for r and r, we get
"r = flo,) cos d -/'(0) sin (I 1 ...(3)
y=fl(t,) sin0,-/'(cr) sin0 J

Equation (3) represent the parametric equations ofthe envelope.

dx
::r
From (3), =f'\ct)cos o,-r1s)sin d-f'kt) sin s - f'(G) cos 0.

= - sin all(o) + /'(s)l ...(4)

dy
da
= /'(o) sin d + cos ct + f"(cL) cos o - f'(o) sin o
^o)
= cos cr trIcx) + /" (tr)l ...(5)
Squaring (4) and (5) and adding, we get

d.!
311 -l | Ylat + 1"tat12 ...(6)
\d,a) \da./ =
I

Now, (1) is a straight line, the perpendicular from origin to which makes an angle c
with X-axis.
V=90'+cr
da
_
d.y
=l ...(7)

Again,
ds ds dn ds
Using (7)
" drV da dty da I

W. =1,)+r(a)
Example L6. Show that the enuelope of a circle whose centre-lies on the parabola f =
I Using (6)

4ax and uhich passes through its uerlex is the cissoid. yz l2a + x) + d = 0.
Sol. We know that any point on th e parabola y2 = 40* is given by (om2 , 2am) . The arcle
passes through the origin and has its centre as (am2 , 2am) . Hence the radius of the circle is

a2m4 +4a22
m
Therefore the equation of the circle is
(x - am2)2 + (l - 2am)2 = a2m4 + 4a2m2
+ x2 + y2 - 2am2x - 4ayrn = 0
+ 2axrnz + 4aym - (x2 + y2) = O
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 187

The above equation being quadrate in rz, we get the envelope by equating the
discriminant to zero. Thus the envelope is
l6a2yz + 8ax (x2 + y2) = 0
(x2 + y2)x + 2ay2 = g
=
x3 +y2(x +2a)=0.
=

TEST YOIIR KNOWLEDGE

1. Find the envelopes of the following families of curves:
(i) r cosec 0 -y cot 0 = c, where 0 is the parameter.
(ii) r cos a +y si1 s =p, where o is the parameter.
(iii) x cos o. + ! sin o = I sin o cos ct, where o is the parameter.
(iu) r cosa 6 + y sin3 0 = c, where 0 is the parameter.
(u) lr cosn 0 +y sin" 0 = o, where 0 is the parameter.
(ul) r cos 0 ty sin 0 = a(1 + cos 0), where 0 is the parameter.
2. Find the envelopes of the following families of curves:
.. o2
(i) - cos 0 -:b2sin 0 = "- .

x y "2, where 0 is the parameLer.

az'
(li) r sin 0 -y cos 0 = o0, where 0 is the parameter.
(iii) 12 sin o + y2 cos o = o2, where c is the parameter.
(iu) y = 1zv - st, *aere , is the parameter.
(u) or sec c - by cosec a = a2 - b2, where d is the parameter.
(vi) y2 = 2a(x - a).
(ujl) or cos 0 + by cot 0 = o2 + 62, where 0 is the parameter.
3. Find the envelopes of the following families of curves:
(i) tx3 + t|y + o, where , is the parameter:
(ii) y = ', E^' . b' ,n being the parameter.
7n16

(iii\ (x - a)2 + (y - a)2 = 2o, o being the parameter.

(iv) (x - a)2 + y2 = 40! o beirg the parameter.
(u) r a sin (0 q).
= - J = 6 cos 0.
(ui) y = *, - o tF * *', m being the parameter.
(uii) cy2 = x(x + c)2, c being the parameter.

4. Find the envelope ofthe family oftrajectories y =x tan o is the parameter.

"- |ffi,*lere
5. Find the envelope ofthe circles drawn upon the central radii vectors ofthe ellipse
x' y'
=1as
a" b'
diameters.
6. Find the envelope ofthe circles described on the radii vectors ofthe parabolay2 = 4a, 41.*"*.".
7. Find the envelope of the circles which always pass through the vertex of the parabola "" y2 4sa.
=
and whose centres lie on the it.
8. (r) Find the envelope of the circles whose diameters are the double ordinates of the parabola
Y2 = 4ax'
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(ii) Fincl the envelope of the circles whose diameters are the doubled ordinates of the ellipse
*2 ,2
o2 b2
9. A series ofcircles have their centres on a given straight line, and their radii are proportional to
lf," airtut of tft"ir corresponding centres from a given point in that line' Find the envelope'
""
12 v2
I
10, Find the envelope of the circles which pass through the centre of the ellipse 2 + = al:d
b2-

have their centres upon its circumference

22
ll. From any point on the ellipse'12
+.!, m' = I, tangents are drawn to the ellipse \ -Lb' =t'
*2 u'
Show that the envelope of the chords of contact is 12 - +m'z7 =l'
From any point on the curve y = ola, perpendiculars one drawn to the axes' and the feet ofthese
p"rp""a]""f..t are joined. Sirow thai the straight line thus obtained always touches the curve
27y+4ax3=0.
13. Show that the straight line joining the extremities of a pair of semi-conjugate
diameters of the
22 xzy2
ar- 1
= 1. alwavs touches the similar ellipse -
ellipse'7 +
fz- ? = Z'
Show that the enevelope of the straight lines of given lerrgth l, which slide with extremities
't orl.'
4.
two fixed straight linei at right angle s, i3 xa3 + y2t7 = l2t3 '

15, Astraightlineofgivenlengthlslideswithitsextremitiesonanytwofixedshaightlinesatright
arrgles."Find th" envelope ofthe circles drawn on the sliding line as diameter'
Answers
1. (i)x2-12=s2 (ii) 12 + y2 = Pz ,ri;1 ,zs * ,zt =lu3
2 2 2_
111 (vi) 2ott
uu, _--F f ;---t b) r2_t +yz_n =a2 ^ r,2 + Y2 =
x' y' c-
4 ,4
aoc 4
(ii) x = a cos 0 + a0 sin 0,y = @ sin 0 - a0 cos e
rcya
(iu) 4xs = 27y (u) (ar)a3 + (bfiza = (az - $zyzlt
llttl x' + Y" = d-
(vi)y=txrD (vii) (ar) 3
- (by\2t3 = (a2 + b2) a

22
(i)x6+4aY=0 rii) +++
t7t)
= 1 (iii) (x + y + 1)z = z(xz + Y2)

(iD)y2-4x-4=0 (v)x=Xa (ri) x2 + Y2 = ctz

(uii) y2 = 4trz

-22
tpx u
4. Y+; ZU, ---Ats 5. (xz + y2)z = a2x2 + b2y2

6. ay2 + x(x2 + y2) =o 7. xz +y2(x+2a)=0

A. (.i) y2 = 4a (x + o,) (ii) b2x2 + (o.2 + b2\ y2 = b2(a2 + b2)

9. kzx2 = (l - h2)y2 ]:O. (x2 + y2)2 = 4(a2r2 + b)2) 16. 12 + y2 = 12.

 189
DIFFERENTIAL CAI.,CULUS _ I

2.58. TWO PARAMETERS GONNECTED BY A RELATION

...( 1)
Let the family of curves be fl1, y, tl, p) = 0
which contains two parameters o and B connected by the relation
g ...(.2)
O(ct'' P) =
Then, to finil out the envelope of(1), we apply the following procedure:
We regard P as a function of cr.
Differentiating (1) and (2) partially with respect to o, treating r andy as constants' we

af*9IdE=o ...(3)
Dc d0 dot
ad a0 dB
.r+j:-u ...(4)
3o 3P dc
Eliminating o, p from (1),(2), (3) and (4), we get the required equation of the envelope'

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

x1)
Example l. Find the enuelope of the family of lines ab = 7, uhere q and. b are

connected by the relation a" + b = cn .

Sol, We irave
L*!
do =t ...(1)

an + b" = c" ...(2)

Regartl b as a function of o and differentiate (1) and (2) partially with respect to o,
treating x and y as constants, we get

-L-L&=o
o' b2 da
...(3)

_db
l
and na"-t + nbu -, =0
...(4)
cltl
(fb b2 x ...(5)
From(3t. 1=--
dq a2y
From (4) and (5),
L2\D f,I
I
ndn-l + nbn t l- a, !.) =0 I

\
dn+1 4n+r - - = 0
1t

=
x
------
_v ...(6)
v a o
x \txv
From (6), _s_ .b a b 1
lUsing (1) and (2)
t ,n
a o a +o c'
'1
90 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

1
lcI :3 (c"x)A
n +1 a=
ac I
xl
and
oa
b=G"iA
From (2), (c'r )"
*' + lc"y)"nt
=qn

cn+
t lxn+r +vn+t)
=4
n2

)cn*\ +Yn+t = g 'r+l

xA +YA = -
""tt
Example 2. Find the equation of the enuelope of the family of curues *dD - * = ,,
where a and b are connected, by the relation ap + bp = cp.

Sol. ...( 1)
ao
ap + bp = cp ...(2)
Regard 6 as a function ofo and defferentiate (i) anrl (2) partially with ,""p""i to o, *"
get

- mx^ _ my^ db
=0 ...(3)
am+1 bn+1 da

pac-l +pbF
ff =0 ...(4)

bl
db a
From (4), ...(5)
d" bp-r

From (3),
x^ ao-| y*
+1 ' bp-1 1 =0 I Using (5)
am bn+

x^ v
a ^*, l)

xy xy
ao
^* AD 1
I Using (1) and (2)
aP be aP +bP cP

a v^1
a'-*"
 '191
DIFFEBENTIAL CALOULUS _ I

I
am+p =cpxtn + a= (cprn)n+p
I
and b,n+b 1 g=(styn)m+t
=ceyn
--L ,L
From (2),kP x* )^ * P + lcPy*'1**P =pt

mP o- P'
m+P
-,
xm-P +lt^t P
mpL
*i'o rr^*c = c^rp -
Example 3. Find the ennuelope of the family of curues , = 1 when ab = P .
E P,
Sol. Let a and b be the function of some third arbitrary parameter /. Then,

Differentiating
Etr
. = 1 w.r.t. 1, we get
i; il
r Ji da 1. ,li db
...( 1)
2 nBt2 dt 2 b3t2 dt
ag!4!
-
dudt - - o
oE a
3/2
...(2)

Differentiating ob = c2 w.r.t. r, we get

db d.a -
aA+ dt b =t) ...(3)

da
jl dt
dbb=_9
...(4)

dt

From (3) and (4),

lYa d
b3t2 J; b
r,1/2
ly-
112
0' !.xD

F F Efr
V, !a !r'Va 1
I From (1)
1 1 1.1 2

G 1
=-and
E1
!" 2 !b 2
J; = 2J; = a=4a
and Ji = 2Ji =+ b=lq
Putting these values ofa and b in (3), we get
4t'4y=s2
toxY=c'
192 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEHING MATHEMATICS

Example 4. fizd the enuelope ofa systetn of concentric and coaxial ellipses of constant
ared.
22
Sol. The given family i" I, * ! = f ...( 1)
ao
where area = constant
+ ,rab = constant
=3 ob = constant = l. (say) ...(2)
1
From (2),6 = -l put the value ofb in t l),
d

22
xv r.2 av
22
-__= T _____;- t
-
a' ),"" AL
2
a
+ a4y2 _ d2P + ),2x2 =o
This is a quadratic in o2. Hence the envelope is given by
B2 = 4AC
+ (.:)\2)2 = bz)\2x2

2xY = t)".
=
Example 5. Proue that the enuelope of the ellipses hauing the o,xes of coordinates -as thc
principal axei and the sum of their semi-ates constant dnd equal to c is the astroid xm + y 3 = C/3 .
Or
22
Find, the enuelope ofthe family of etlipses \-* = I uhere a + b =c.
ao
22
Sol. Thecur'.ve is a +4 - t = o ...( 1)
ao
The relation is o + b =c ...(2)
q
Let us assume that arrd.b. both, are fulctions of some third abitrary parameter,.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. ,, we get
2xz da zv2 db
=U
o" dt b" dt
--+_1-
ddldt _ _ !2
(tZ
...(3)
dbldt *,bt
Differentiating (2) w.r.t. ,, we get
dn. db _n j doJdt
...(4)
dt dt =-1
-+- dbldt
From (3) and (4), we get
!a 23
-ya =1
{b" = -
xo " =1
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 193

,'lo' _ y'/b' _ *'lo' +!2lbz _1 From (1) and (2)

I
a b a+b
x"v'1
o'bBc
a3=cx2,b3=cy2
o="tl3y2/3,g=c By s
a +b = c 3(x 3+y B) I From (2)
c = cua (xal + y%3)
ca.-x4.+v4o
L.€.' an astroid is the envelope.

TEST YOI'R KNOWLEDGE

1. Find the envelope ofthe family ofstraight lines -+-

xv
= 1, where a and b are connected
ab
by the relation
(i)a+b=c (ii)a+b=l
ltttl a" + b' = c' Gt)) as + bB = c3.

2. Fintl the envelope ofthe family ofstraight lines 1 * = f, *n"r" a and b are connected
f
by the relation (Here c is a constant)
(i) ab = c2, (ii) a^b" = c^*" (iii) a^ + b^ = c.

3. Find the envelope ofthe family ofcurves - 1, when

J/o "E
^E !b =
(i)a"+b"=c" (ii) a + b = c, where c is any constant.
22
4. Find the envelope ofthe ellipses ! *! =t *f,",
ao
(i)a2+b2=1 ltl) a' + b" = c" (iii) a" + b" = c"
(iu) a*b" = cm + " whete d, b are parameters and c is any constant.
5. Find the envelope of the ellipses having the axes of coordinates as principal axes and
the sum of squares of their semi-axes constant.
Answers
l. (i) xn +yfr =cn tiD Ji +.ly =t
(iii) xa1 + Y2ts = sa7 (io) raa a y?ta = fla
1

(i) $.Y = (ii) (m + nY+" x^r" = mnnncm+L . . x ,+1 +y

ttttt
c2 "*l = c "*1

. . 2*1 +y 2"*1
trt 2"A (ii) rffi
x =c + yv3 = ,u
194 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEIVIATICS

4. (i)t+y=l (ii)x+y=s
2,t 2n 2n
...,
tlut x i,z . i't
+.v =c ,.t ,,.,
ltut \m
tnt''n x'"
..r,n..rn
j''=c'--r,n'rn
-_i-
5. x+y=.|i.
2.59. ENVELOPE IN POLAR COORDINATES
As we know that a curve which touches each member ofa given family ofcurves and at each
point is touched by some member of the family of curves is colled envelope ofthe given family
of curves.

ILLUSTR"A.TIVE EXAMPLES

Example l. Find the enuelope ofthe straight lines draun through the extremities of and
at right angles to the radii vectors of the cardioicl r = a(.1 + cos 0).
Sol. Let P(r, 0) be any point on the cardioid, P is the extremity of the radius vector OP.
Let Q(R, 0r) be a point on the line drawn through P perpendicular to OP.
From right triangle OPQ, the equation of line PQ is
Rcos(0r-0)=r
= Rcos(0r-0)=a(1 + cos 0) ...( 1)
Taking logarithms ofboth sides of(l), we get
log R + Iog cos (0, - a + iog (1 + cos 0)
0) = 1og

Differentiating partially with respect to 0, we get

_-sin (0,- -0).(_t)-. -sin0

cos (0, - 0) 1+ cos 0

tan (0,,2
- 0) = - tur9

e,-0=r-iA - ,=20t-2n
Substituting 0 = 20r - 2tr in (1), u,e get
R cos (0, - 20, + 2n) = all + cos (20, - 2n)l
R cos 0, = o(l + cos 20r)
R cos 0, = 2a cosz 0,
R=2ocos0r
.'. Locus of (R,0r) is
r=2acos0,
Example 2. Find the enuelope of the circl.es d,escribed on the radii uectors of the curue
* = a" cos n0 as diameters.
SoL Let P(r, 0) be any point on the curve
r'' = a" eos n0 ...(1)
206 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Answers
t. 27 a!2 = 4(x - 2a)3
(i) (ax)13 _ (by)2/3 = k* + b2)2t3 GD x2ts _ y2r3 = (.20)2/3 (iii) x B-y 3=(2) g

4. 27 lyz = -
2(2:a l)3.

ASYMPTOTES

2.62. BRANGHES OF A GURVE

Consider the equation ol the ellipse

*' y1
'o2b2* = L.
Solving for y, we get

y=a,E-\
-2 ...(1) or ,=-a./r-f
-j (9\
I o" \a'
These two equations (1) and (2) represent explicity the two branches ofthe ellipse which
in ordinary language we cali the upper and lower half ofthe eilipse. It is to be noticed that the
ellipse lies inside the rectangle whose sides are x = ! a and y = t b. Thus we see that both the
branches of the ellipse lie whoily within a finite part of the r-y plane and we say, therefore,
that both branches ofthe ellipse are finite.
Now let us consider the rectangular hyperbola x2 - y2 = a2.
Solving for y, \4'e get y= ory=-
Ilr + t -,y also tends to t-. In this case both the branches extend to infinity al]d. ate
said to be the infinite branches of the rectangular hyperbola.
Again, Iet the cr;we x2y2 = x2 - y2, be considered. Solving fory, we have
x x
or J=- j=.-:.
{.r" + 1 f*'+1
Noli, as.r + -, -I + 1 and as * + - -, y -+ - 1, along the first branch. Also in the case of
second branch, asr -+ -,y -+ - l and asr ) **,y -+ 1. Here both the branches are infrnite,
and r
is capable of taking arbitrarily large values whereas y remains finite.
We are already familiar with the symbols x -, t - andy + t -. But what does P --> -
stand for, P being a point on an infinite branch of curve. We give the following definition:
Definition. A point P(x, y) on an infinite branch of a curue is said to tend to infinibr
along the curue if either x, or y or both tend to + * or - - as P trauels alnng tlte branch of
the curve.

2.63. ASYMPTOTE
Definition L. A straight line, at a finite distonce from the origin is said to be a (rectilinear)
a.strrtnpl,ote to an irufinite branch of a curue, if the perpendicular distance of a point P on that
braruch from the straight line tends to zero, as P tends to infinity along the branch.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 207

Definition 2. A (rectilinear) aslrmptote to an infinite branch of a curue is the limiting

position of the to.nge t uhose point of contact tends ta infinity along the bru,nch, but which
itself remains at a finite distd,nce frorn the origin-
Definition 3. If a straight line cuts a curve in two points at an infinite disiance from the
origin and yet is not itself wholly at infrnity, it is called an as).mptote to the curve.
Note 1. In the discussion q,'hich follows, we drop the word. rectilinear ar.d.a.se sir ply dsymptote
to mean rectilinear as],nptote, unless otherwise stated.
Note 2. The asymptotes may be parallel to either r-axis or the y-a-,ris and accordingly they are
called horizontal arrd oertical asyroptotes. Ifan asymptote is not parallel to y-axis; it is called an obllgue
aslmptote,

2.64. ASYIUIPTOTES PARALLEL TO AXES OF COORDINATES

(i) To find the q.symptote p{rrallel to y-axis, of the curue y = f(x).
Let the Iine *_L ...( 1)
parallel to y-axis be an aslanptote to the curve y =
Then it is required to determine the vaiue offr. ^s).
Let PM be the distance of a point P(*, y) on the curve
from the equation ofline (1), then
pM=1a_6;
Now by definition of asymptote, if iine (i) is an
asJ,,mptote to the curve, then PM + 0, as P -+ -.
.'. AsP-+-, PM=(x-k) -+ 0 orx -+ft.
If P(r,y) tends to infrnity as r + &, only y co-ordinate tends to infinity (i.e., + - or -- ),
and this gives
Lt x=k i-e-, x--sk asy-)F ...(2)

Hence to find the asymptotes parallel to y-axis, we find from the giuen equation, the
definitcualu,esh,hr,kr,..-towhichxtend,s,oslJ+6or-€.Thenx=ht,x=h2,x=h",.."are
the asymptotes parallel lo y-oxis.
(ii) Asymptotes paralkl to x-axis. Proceeding as above, we arrive at the following method
offinding asymptotes parallel to r- axis. Fron the giuen equation, find, the definite ualue d.r, dr,
d",...touhichytendsasx-)+*or-*ithen!=dt, y =dz,y = de, ... are aslmptotes parallel
to the x-axis.
As5rmptotes parallel to co-ordinate axes for algebraic curve f(x, y) = 0.
Case (i) Asl,mptotes parallel to y-axis.
Now let the equation of the algebraic alwe flx, y) = 0, after arranging in descending
powers ofy, be
!" Qx(x) + yn-t O1(r) +y" 202(r) + ... + Q,(x) = 0 ...(3)
rvhere Qo(r),01(r), Qr(r), ...,0,(x), are poly'nomials inr.
Dividing equation (3) throughout by y' ('.' y --e -), we get

olr) * 1 or(x) + ] Q2(r) +... * 4 o,trt = o

208 A TEXIBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEI\,IATICS

Taking limit as y -+ - and r -+ A lFrom (2)l

we get Oo(e) = 0 ...(4)
Eliminating A from eqns. (1) and (4), combined equation ofasymptotes parallel toy-axis
is Qo(r) = 0.
Thus we arrive at the following worhing ntle for finding asymptotes ll to y-axis.
Rule. To find asymptotes parallel to y-axis, equate to zero the co-efficient of
the highest power ofy, present in the given equation of the curve. Resoh;e it nou into
real linear factors.
Ifthe co-eIficient ofthe highest power ofy is either a constant or not resoluable into real
linear factors; then there are no asymptotes parallel to y-axis.
Case (ji) Asymptotes parallel to x-axis for the curve flr, y) = 0,
By interchanging y and r in Case (i), we arrive at the following rule:
Rule. To find asymptotes parallel to x-axis, equate to zero the co-efficient of
the highest power of r, present in given equation of the curve. Resolve LHS into real
liirear factors.
Ifthe coefficient ofthe highest power of* is either a constant or not tesoluable into real
linear factors, there are no as)mrptotes parallel to *-axis.

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES

Example l. Find. the asymptotes, parallel to the axes for the curue:

(i) x2y2 = a2(x2 + y2) .... o2 b2

(Ir)
x'"- y'"=I.
Sol. (i) The equation of the ctrve is xzyz - a2(x2 + !2) =0.
Equating to zero the coefficient ofr2, the highest power ofr, we get
Y2-a2=0otY=111,
which are the asymptotes parallei to r-axis.
Again equating to zero the coefficient ofy2, the highest power ofy, we get
x2-a2=Oorx=!a,
which are the as)rynptotes parallel to y-axis.

(il) The equation of the curve is4-t =,

*2 y2
or a2y2 -b2x2 = x2y2 or xzyz + b2x2 - d2y2 =o
Equating to zero the coeffrcient of.r2, the highest power ofr, we get
Y2+b2=0 ot Y =.Lib,
which gives imaginary values ofy, and therefore there is no asymptote parallel to.r-axis.
Again equating to zero the coefficient ofy2, the highest power ofy, we get
x2-a2=0 or r=ta,
which are the asymptotes parallel to y-axis.
 A TEXIBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.77. MULTIPLE POINTS

A point on a curue through which more than one branch of the curue passes, is called a multiple
point of the curue. In particular a point on a curue is called a d.ouble point if tuo branches of the
curue pass through it, a triple point if three branches pass through it and so on. In general, if r
branches ofthe curve pass through a point, that point is called a multiple point oflh ord.er.ln
general, a cuwe has r tangents (real, coincident or imaginary), at a multiple point of rth order,
one for each of the r branches. Thus a curve has two tangents at a double point, one for each
branch, and these tangents may be real and different, real and coincident or imaginary.

2.78. TYPES OF DOUBLE POINTS

There are three kinds of double points.
(i) Node. A double point on a curve through which p ass two real branches of the curue
.a'd the tangents at which are real and distinct, is called a node. Thus, point p in the figure (j)
is a node.
(ii) Cusp. A double point on a curve through which pass two real branches of the curve
arrd the tangents at which are real and coincidcnt is called a cusp. Thus, the point e in the
frgures (il) and (lii) is a cusp.

Fig. (l) Fig. (il) Fig. (ill)

(iii) Conjugate point or Isolated point. If there are
no real points on the curve in the neighbourhood of a point R
on the curve, then R is called a Conjugate point or an iso-
lated point. For example, (2, 0) is a conjugate point on the
curve y2 = (x- 2)2 (x - 5) because (2, 0) satisfies the equation
ofthe curve, but for all value ofr very close to 2, y2 is negative
and hencey is imaginary i.e., there is no point on the curve in
the neighbourhood of (2, 0).
Remark. Since there is no other point in the neighbourhood ofcon-
jugate point R, the tatugents at R are generally im.aginary but in some ofthe cases the tangents at R may
be reol. In such cases the nature ofthe curve in the neighbourhood ofthe point under consideration, has
to be examined. Ifthe branches ofthe curve are irnaginary, then the poini is a conjugate point.

2.79. TANGENTS AT THE ORIGIN TO AN ALGEBRATG GURVE

The equation to the tangent or tangents dt the origin is obtainedby equating to zero the terms of
louest d,egree in the equation of the curue.
DIFFEBENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 233

2.8O. UIORKING RULE FOR FINDING THE NATURE OF ORIGIil IF IT IS A

DOUBLE POINT
(a) (i) Write the equation oftangents at the origin by equating to zero the lowest degree terms
in the equation ofthe curve. If origin is a double point, then we shall get two tangents which
may be real or imaginary.
(ir) If the tuo tangents are imaginary, t'her, origin, is a coniuEo.te point i.e., an isolated,
point.
(iii) If the two tangents are real and distinct, ther. origin is either a node or a. conjugate
poinf. To be definite, nature ofthe curve in the neighbourhood of the origin is to be examined.
If the curve has t wo real branches passing through the origin, then it is a ruode otherwise it is a
conjugatc point.
Remark. The tangents may be real at a coqiugate point'
(b) Method for testing the nature of the cun;e at the origin.
Ifthe tangents at the origin are y2 = 0, solve the equation fory, neglecting the third and
higher powers of y. If for small values of r, the values ofy are real, the branches of curve
through the origin are real otherwise they are imaginary.
In case the tangents at the origin are *2 = 0, solve the equation of curve for x, neglecting
terms involving powers ofr above the second and proceed similarly.
In other cases, solve either fory or r, whichever is more conYenient.
Remark, It is to be carefully aoted that while neglecting higher powers ofy or r, the reduced
equation of curve, may not coincide with that of the tangents or two branches of the curve may not
coincide.

Cor. Nature of double points other than the origin

If the point (ft., A) is a double point ofthe curve known in advance, shift the origin to the
poir,.t (h, k) 0.e.,putt = X + h andy = f 1ft)' 16e double point is the origin now and its nature
can be studied by proceeding as in the above article.

Exanple. Find the nature of the origin for the curue y2(a2 + P) = x2 (a2 - x2).
Sol. The equation of the curve isx4 +x2y2+a2y2-a2x2=0.
Equating to zero the lowest degree terms, the tangents at the origin are
a2y2 - a2t2 = 0 or y2 - x2 = 0 i.e., Y = ! x.
Because there are two tangents at the origin, therefore origin is a double point.
Since the two tangents are real and distinct,
.'.the origin is either a node or a conjugate point.
Solving the equation ofthe curve fory, we get
f
. ra2 x2
.r _ _-_\az
+x2
Since for small values ofr + 0, (a2 - x2) is positive,
.'. y is real in the neighbourhood of the origin. Hence origin is a node.
234 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEIVIATICS

2.8I. GONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENGE OF A MULTIPLE POINT ON A CURVE,

AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF DOUBLE POINTS

The necessary and sufficient cond,itions for any point P(x, y) on the curue f(x, y) = 6 7o 6" o
multiple poirut are
{=o
Dr u.,a !l=o
ay
.. .( 1)

.'. Those of the simultaneous solutions of equations (1) which satisfy equation
f(x, y) = 0 determine double points or multiple points on the curue.
Classification of double points
A double point will be a node, cusp or a conjugate point, according as
.^.2
l a't 1 azr a2r
= or < .2' ,2
I Sxdy / o.^ o'
Note l. The condition (2) is not a sure fesf for the point (r, y) to be a node, a cusp or a conjugate
point. This is, in fact, the condition for two tangents at the double point to be real and distinct, real and
coincident or imaginary. This result may, aotnetimes,lead to an incorrect result. To be absolutely cor-
rect, we have to examine the nature of curve in the immediate neighbourhood ofthe double point (r, y).
-2t ':2r \2f
Note 2. If
;i, =*h=# = 0. at rhe poinr Prr, yr. then P will be a multiple point oforder
higher than two. -
.2. , 2 -r^ , -r-
Note 3. Equation ,-,1"! ) +2 {l !!++ = 0 g:rves us rhe slopes of the tangenls ar the
dy' \ dx I dxdy dx dx.
double point (x, y).

2.82. WORKING RULE FOR FINDING THE POSITION AND NATURE OF DOUBLE
POINTS ON A CURVE

l. Write the equation of the curve in form flx, y) = 01.e., make the R.H.S. as zero.

2. Finrl frve partial derivatives

q !.1. u'[ u'f
.
ax' Ay' ax2 ' dy''a*Ay'
.

3. Solve the equations

$ =0."a$ =o
All the pairs ofvalues ofr, y obtained by solving the above two equations are the pos-
sible double points. Out ofthese, only those which satisfy the equation ofthe curve are the
double points.
.^.2
4.Ateach doublepoint. calculate D=l a'! ) -YyI
[dxdyl dx" dy"
(o) IfD is +ve, double point is a node or conjugate point.
(b) If D is 0, double point is a cusp or conjugate point.
(c) If D is -ve, double point is a conjugate point.
5. For cases (o), (b) of step 4, when D is +ve or 0 ; test the nature of the curve in the
immediate neighbourhood of the double point (r, y).
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
235

2.83. XINDS OF CUSPS

we klow that at a cusp two branches of a curve have a common tangent and therefore a
common normal. A cusp is called a single cusp or a double cusp according as the tuo branches
ofthe curve lie e;ntirely on one side ot on both sides ofthe common normal '
Species of Cusps. A cusp, single or double. is saiil to be of first species or of second
species, accordin g as t:ne two brancft.es of the (xrr.ve,lie on opposite or same side of the comrnon
tangent.

o
E
zo
i

il/
| ,/.,/
t
zr-'/
I Tanoent

Fig. (;) Fig. (ii) Fig. (lil)

Single cusp offirst species Single cusp ofsecond species Double cusp of frrst species

Point of oscul-inflexion. A double (xtsp with the change of species on the two sides of
the common normal rs called a point of oscul-infl.exion [See Fig. (u)J.

Fis. (iu) Fig. (u)

Double cusp of second species Point of oscul-infl exion

2.84. WORKING RULE FOR DETERMINING THE NATURE OF A CUSP AT THE

ORIGIN

Case l.When the cuspidal tangents are y2 = 0, i.e.' x-axis.

Solve the equation of the curve for y, neglecting terms containing powers ofy higher
than two.
(i') lf for only one sign of x, the cusp is a single cusp.
tlne roots are real
(ii) If t}re roots are real for both signs of x, tine crrsp is a double cusp.
(iii) If the roofs a re opposite in sign, then the cusp is of the f;rst species.
(iu) Ifthe roots dre of the same slgz, then cusp is of the secorud species'
236 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Case 2. When the cuspidal tangents are x2 = 0, i.e., y-axis.

Solve the equation of curve for r, neglecting terms containing powers
ofr higher than
two and distinguish between different cases that arise on similar lines, as in case 1.
Case 3. When the cuspid,al tangents are of the form (ax + byf = g.
Letp be the length of perpendicular from any point (r, y) ofthe curve on the tangent
lir;'e ax + by = 0-

Then

or p is proportional to ax + by.
Let us put p = ut + by and then eliminate y between this equation and the equation of
the curve, we shall get a relation between p and r.
Solving this relation for p (neglecting ps and higher powers ofp), we shall be able to
decide the nature ofthe cusp liom the real or non-real values ofp and the signs ofp (like those
ofy in case (1) for small values ofr, positive and negative.
Note. Ifit is more convenient to eliminate r (instead of,) betweenp = al + 6y, and the equation
of the curve, then a relation between p and y, found by eliminatiag r, also serves the same purpose,
when small values ofy are considered.
Corollary. The z dture of the cusp at a point other thd.n origin, canbe found by transfer-
ring the origin to that point and proceeding as above.

2.85. CONCAVITY AND GONVEXITY

Let P be a point on curve y =^r), where the tangent PTis not parallel toy-axis. Then the
curve is said to be
(i) Concave upuards or conuex downuards at P , if in the immediate neighbourhood of P,
the curve lies above the tangent PT on both sides, las in Fig. (1)]; and

Fig. 1 Fig.2
(ii)
Concaue downwards or conuex upwards atP,if inthe immediate neighbourhood ofP,
the curve lies below the tangent PT on both sides [as in FiS. (2)].
Note. When the tangents at P are parallel to y-axis, we may define concauity to the right or
conoexitl to the left, and concauity to the left or conuexibt to the right (as atP, and P, respectively in the
adjoining figure) on similar lines.

2.86. CRITERIA FOR GONGAVITY AND GONVEXITY

At a point P on the curue y = f(x), the curue is

(i) Concuue upuards (or in the positive d.irection of y-o.xis) if f"e)o, tlrO,ord.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I

(ii) Concaue dounuards (or in the negatiue direction of y-onis)

d2v
Ll I lx) or
*jrscu.
In general, the curue y = f(x), is concaue upwards or clown-
uards point P(x, y) according as f"(x) is positiue or negatiue and n is
euen.

ILLUSTRATIYE EXAMPLES
Example L, Show that the curue y = er is euerywhere concaue upwards.
d,y- o.'4
SoI. we have y = s' .'. a u.,d = ,'
dx= dx'
,,
Since
d-{ is always positive, .'. the curve is concave upwards ever}'where.
ax
Ex;a:lrrple 2. Find, the interuals of x for whbh the graph of the furutinn l(x) = (d + 4x + 5) e ' is
(i) concaue upwards (ii) concaue downwards.
Sol. f,*) = 62 + 4r + 5) e-a
,'. f'(x)=(r2+4x+5).e x (-l)+e-x (2x + 4)=-(x2-Zx+ l)e *
and f"(x)=-(x2 +2x + l).e-' (-L)-e . (?.x + 2) = (x - L)(x + l) e- ".
Since e-'>0 for each r, +ve or -ve, hence the sign ofl"(r) depends upon the sign of
(r-1)(r+1).
Now /"(*) > 0 implies (r - 1)(r + 1) > 0, which is true only if r does not lie between - 1
and I i.e., if r < -1 or r > 1.
/'(r)
Further <0 impiies (r- 1Xr + 1) < 0, which holds true if * lies between - l and
Li.e.,if-1<r<1.
Thus,ifr<-1or.r>1l.e.,if*isintheinterval(--,-1)or(1,*),f'(r)>0sothatthe
graph of /is concave upwards.
Again, if - 1 < r < 1 i.e., if x is in the open interval (- 1, 1), then / "(r) < 0 so that the
graph oflwill be concave downwards.
Hence the graph of /is concave upwards in the intervals (- -, - 1.1, 11, -) and is concave
downwards in the interval (- 1, 1).

2.87. POINT OF INFLEXION

Definition. A p oint on a curue dt which the curue changes frorn
concauity to conuexity or uice uersa is called o point of inflexion.
Since a change from colcavity to convexity or ulce uersa at a
point is possible only if the curve crosses the tangent at that point.
Therefore, we may also deftr;'e the point of inflexion as a point on
the cun)e at which the curue crosses the tangent.
Remark. It is to be noted that the curve at a point of inflexion
exhibits an extra-ordinary or unusual trehaviour, for the curve does not
ordinarily cross the tangent, as it does at a point of inflexion. Hence a
point of inflexion on a curve is also a singular point.
238 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING IVIATHEMATICS

2.88. CRITERIA FOR A POINT OF !NFLEXION

By definition at a point of inflexion, the curve chalges from concavity to convexity or uice
UETSA,
,,
d-y
.. i" positive on one side of the point of inflexion P and negative on other side
,1r--t

otY. Also ff continuous at P, it can pass from positive values to negative values or uice
fris
uerso, only by passing through zero value of P.
Hetce a point P is a point of inflexion, il
,12 ,
U)- i =0 al this point. and
dx-
.. d2v . ti
, iit sign i n passing through this point i."., + 0. at this point.
Ti "hongr"
=
Note. If 4 becomes infinite, then '12' does not exist and the points of inflexion are found by
d,( ;i
,1.2,
considering = its change ofsign.
;7 O
-a
2.89. CURVE TRACING
Let us consider the problem oftracing curves 1.e., offrndiag approximate shape of curves from
their cartesian, polar or parametric equations without having to plot a large number ofpoints
on them. We shall consider mainly those curves whose equations can be solved fory, r or r. In
the following article, we shall explain the various steps which are helpful in tracing a curve.
But these steps and (particularly their order) is by no means rigid and some steps can be
omitted and their order can be varied to suit the particular problem.

2.9O. PROGEDURE FOR TRAGING GURVES HAVING GARTESIAN EQUATIONS

I. S5rmmetry
(l) The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis, if the equation of the curve remains
unchanged when y is replaced by - y i.e., if the equation of the curve contains only even
powers ofy.
e.g., !2 = x2 + 4 is symmetrical about r-axis, whereas y2 + yr = x2 is not symmetrical
about r-axis-
(li) The curve is symmetrical about the y-axis if the equation of the curve does not
change when r is replaced by - r i.e-,1f the curve contains only even powers ofr.
e.g., x2 = 4ay is symmetrical abouty-axis, whereasy = rB - 3or2 is not symmetrical about
y-axis.
(lil) The curve is symmetrical about the Line y = r if the equation ofthe curve remains
unchanged when r is changed to y and g is changed to r.
e.g., xB + yt = Saxy is s)irnmetrical about the line y = rc, whereas .r5 + y5 = 5ax2y is rrct
symmetrical about the iine y = r.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
239

(iu) The curve is s,T nmetrica] about the Liney = -r ifthe equation ofthe curve remains
unchanged when r is changed to - y and y is changed to - r.
e.g.,xa+ya=4a2ry\ss),rnmetricalabouttheliney=-r,whereasrc3+y3=Sotrisnot
symmetrical about this line.
(u) The curve is s},mmetrical in opposite quadrants ifthe equation ofthe curve remains
unchanged when .r is changed to - x ar,d' y is changed to - y.
e.g., x5 + y5 = Saxzy is symmetrical in opposite quadrants, whereas x3 + ys = 3ory is not
s5rmmetrical in opposite quadrants.
II. Origin
(o) Find whether the curve passes through the origin. Ifthe constant term is missing
from the equation ofthe algebraic curve, then it passes through the origin.
If the algebraic curve passes through the origin, then write down the equation of the
tangents at the origin by equating the lowest degree terms to 0.
If the origil is a double poirut (1.e., there are two tangents at the origin); then frnd its
nature whether a nod,e (lf the tangents are real, distinct) or a cusp (if the tangents are real'
coincident) or a conjugate (or isolated) point if the tangents ate imaginary. If a czsp, frnd its
type.
A cusp is called a single cusp or a double cusp according as the two branches ofthe
curve lie entirely on one side or on both sid,es of the comrnon normal.
A cusp slzgle or double is said to be ol fitst kind or second kind accordirlg as the two
branches ofthe curve, lie on opposite or same side ofthe cornmon tangent.
(b) Position of curve w.r.t. tangent at the origin
Find y" - !7 br y"2 - yr2 if square roots are there), where yc ar,d, yt are -respectively
the ordinates of a point on the curve and a point on the tangent at the origin for the same
value of r.
Then discuss the two cases namely r > 0 andr < 0.
lf (y.-yr) is + ve i.e., y" >J, ;then the curve lies above the tangent and if (y" -/r) is -ve
i.e., y" < lt ; then the curve lies below the tangent.
III. Aslmptotes
Find all the asymptotes ofthe curve. The curve will not go beyond its asymptotes.
(i) Position of the curve w.r.t. as,'mptotes ll to x'axis.
Let the asymptote parallel to x-axis be y = 11.
Find the value ofy - o from the equation of the curwe.
(Generally, (y - o) will occur as a factor in the equation ofthe curve.)
Now in the R.H.S. of this value ofy - c, pnty = a.
Then discuss the two cases when r is > 0 (Near -) and r < 0 (Near - -).
If (v - a) is +ve, the curve lies above the asymptote y = o
and if (y - o) is -ve, the curve lies below the asymptote y = o.
(ii) Position of the curve w.r.t. asymptotes ll to y-axis.
Let the astmptote parallel to y-axis be x = a.
Find the value of .r - o from the equation ofthe curve.
(Generally (r - o) will occur as a factor in the equation ofthe curve).
Now in the R.H.S. of this value of x - a, plrt' x = a.
Then discuss the two cases wheny > 0 andy < 0.
240 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(It may be noted that y > 0 in First and Second Quadrants andy < 0 in Third and Fourth
Quadrants.)
If (r -o) is +ve, the curve lies to the right of the asymptote:r = a and if(r -a) is -ve, the
curve lies to the left ofthe asymptote r = o.
(iii) Position of the curve w.r.t. oblique asJrmptotes
Write the equation of the cuwe or one ofits branches is in the form
y =rnx+c* 4*4 *...,
xx'
then y = 7nx1 + c is the asymptote to the curve.
O
:. !,_yo=i+,. 4 * ... where y- and y^ stand ibr the ordinates of a point on the
curve and a point on the as,'rnptote (both having same abscissa). Now discuss the two
cases namely r > 0 and.r < 0.
If (y" - y,) i. positive, curve lies above the asymptote.
If (y" - y,) i. negative, curve lies below the asymptote.
IV. Points of Intersections. (These can be obtained by solving the two equations).
Find intersections of the curve (i) with the r-axis (y = 0); (ii) with the y-axis (r = 0)
(iii) with the line y = x particularly if the curve is symmetrical about it.
(iu) With the line y = -rc particularly if the curve is symmetrical about it.
(u) With the asymptotes (ifnecessary).

V. Region. Find regions in the four quadrants to which the curve is limited. This is
usually done by solving for y or for r (or for each of the t*,o) separately and considering both
positive and negative values ofr (ory). Values ofr (ory) which makey (or r) imaginary are to
be rejected.
Again, such values which make the left and right members of an equation opposite in
sign are to be rejected.
Note. Ift2 (a2; then-o (r ( o. If12>o2;lbeneilherr>aorr<-o.
If (r - oXr - p) < 0 ; then r lies between cr and p.
If (r - cr)(r - p) > 0 then r does not lies between ct and p.

VI. Special points (or singularities)

(o) Find S [{ ,upru"".rts the slope ol the tangent to the curve at the point rx. yt ]
ds\dx )
Find the points where
dt
(i) 0 i.e., tangents are ll to r-axis
dx =
(ii) dv = - i.e., tangent are ll toy-axis
i;
..... :L
(iii) dv
is positive i.e.. the function is increasing i.e., the curve is rising.

riut 4dx is negative i.e., the curve is falling.

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 241

-2
find 4,2 (Ifnot tedioust and find the poinrs where
ars

,;1
s+ is +ve i.e., the curwe is concave upwards.
da'
. ... dzv
(ii) :-4 is -ve i.e.. the curve is concave downwards.
cla-
(iii) AIso find points of Inflexion.

At a point oflnflexion. curye crosses the tangent. At a point ofinflexion {J=Ouna

dx'
:id3v+ 0- or :-{
d2v
changes sigrr while passing through it.
dx"
Remark. The steps of Art, 1.49 can be remembered as;
R-SOAP
where S = Symmetry, O = Origin, A=Asymptotes;P = Points and R = Region,
Note. Sometimes inconvenient steps may be omitted without any disadvantages.

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES

Example l. Trace the curue y2(2a - x) = .c (Cissoid). (A.K.T.U. 2016)

Sol. The equation of the curve is y2(2a - x) = xs " (1)
1. Synmetry. Since equation (1) contains only even powers ofy, the curve is syrnmetrical
about r-axis.
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin. The tangents at the origin are given
by y2 = Q i.s., y = g, J = 0. Since the two tangents are real and coincident, .'. origin is a cusp.
3. Asymptotes. Equating to zero, the co-effrcient ofyz, the highest degree term iny, the
asymptote fl toy-axis is * - 2a = O i.e., t = 2a. There is no other asymptote ofthe curve.
We can discuss the position ofthe curve w.r.t. asymptote r = 20.
4. Points of intersection with axes. The curve meets .r-axis and y-axis at the origin
only.

(1), y =a t
5, Region. From
2a-x
when r < 0,y is imaginary.
.. No portion of the curve lies to the left of the line.r = 0 i.e., y-axis.
When0<r<2o,yisReal.
When r > 2o,y is Imaginary.
.. No portion ofthe curve lies to the right oftheline x = 2a.
6. Special points
x3/2
From (1), ...(2)
242 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING TIATHEMATICS

d.y _Jitca-D
d.x (2a - x)3/2

Now, !{=6 lyhsn Jx,3a-rJ=o

dx
or x=0, x=3a
Rejecting x = 3a, because when r = 3a, from (2), y is
imaginary.
When r = 0, y = 0 .'. Tangent at (0, 0) i.e., at origin
is ll to x-axis i.€., the tangent at origin is x-axis.

When 0 < x . 4
is oositive.
Zo-
dx
.'. For positive values ofy, y is an increasing function of x i.e., the curve rises for
values ofr between 0 and 2o.
Thus, the approximate shape of curve is as shown in the above figure.
Exanple 2. Trace the curue: y2 (u. + x) = P (3a - x). (A.K.T.U. 2018)
Sol. The equation ofthe curve is
y2(a+x)=12(3a-r) ...( 1)
1. Symmetry. Since equation (1) contains only even powers ofy, the curve is s).rnmetrical
about *-axis.
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin (0, 0). The tangents at the origin are
given by
Y2 = 3x2

= Y= t."lix
which represent two non-coincident straight lines.
Hence we may expect a node at the origin.
3. Asy'mptotes. Equating to zero, the co-efEcient ofy2, the highest de$ee term iny, the
asymptote parallel to y-axis is
a+x=0
J x=-a
4. Points ofintersection with axes. The curve meets r-axis at (0, 0) and (3o, 0) while
it meets y-axis only at (0, 0).
5. Region. Equation (1) can be rewritten as
3a- x
! =x a+x (.1
Ifrc=0, then y=0.
When r is positive and small, y is real

Also 3a - x .3a i.e., < B

d,+ x a
v<J3*
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I
243

Hence eurve lies below tangent y = ./3 r.

At x=\a, .!=0
When .r > 3a, y is imaginary
When r=a, !=a
When x =2a, y=4^ =t.ra (nearly)
v!J
If we transfer origin at (3a,0), then by equation (1), r = 0 will be tangent.
- Takir]g all these above points in consideration, the approximate shape of the curve is
shown in adjacent figure.
Example 3. Trace the curue: Py2 = * - a2.
Sol. The equation ofthe curve is r2y2 = x2 - a2 ... ( 1)
1. Syrnmetry. Since equation (1) contains only even powers ofy and only even powers
- therefore, the curve is s),mmetrical about
ofr, both the axes. Also the curve is symmetrical in
opposite quadrants.
2. Origin. The curve does not pass through the origin because (0, 0) does not satisfy the
given equation.

- 3. Asymptotes. Asymptotes llto x-axis are glvenby y2

the asymptotes.
-l = 0 ... y=1andy=_1are
Asymptotes llto y-axis is x = 0 .
Oblique Asymptotes. |a(m) = *2.

|t(m) = 0 gives m = 0 and this value ofm gives asymptotes pararel

-have already to r-axis (which we
obtained).
4. Points of intersection
With x-axis. Putting y = 0 in (1), x2=a2 ,'. x=ta.
.'. The curve meets the r-axis in the points (o, 0) and (- a, 0).
Also x = a and x = - a are the tangents at the points (o, 0) and (_ a, 0) rgspsg1lyg1r.
With y-axis. Putting r = 0 in (1), we get 0 = a2, which is impossible.
-
.'. The curwe does not meet the v-axis-
5. Region
r"
,lx' - d'"
-
From (1), ...(2)
(This value of, corresponds tothe part ofthe curve in first two quadrants.)
Fory to be real, 12 - a2 must be positive i.e., x2 > a2.
.'. x>d or x<_d.
.'. No portion of the curve lies between the lines lr = o and .r = _ o ... (3)
Again from (L), x2(l - y2) = a2
a
,lt - t'
For rto be real, 1 - y2 > O i.e., y2 <\. ... -1<r<1.
.. The curve lies entirely between the linesy = 1 and y =
- 1.
244 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

6. Special points
x=a
From {2), +=
clx
i v= t
x
dv
4 o"',r". 5""o-"" ,".o. --1 rs always posrtrve.
dx i---.-
I --; *,Nhst az - oz = g i.e., x=td
dx
For r=ta, y = 0from(1)
.'. Tangents at the points (a, 0) and (- o, 0) are parallel to y-axis'
Thus, the shape ofthe curve is as shown in the adjoining figure'
Example 4. Trace the following curue:
xy2 =az(a-x). [I9itch ofAgnesi]
Sol. The equation of the curve is
ryz = 0}(a - x) ...(1)

1. Spnmetry. Since (1) contains only even powers of y, so the curve is symmetrical
about r-axis.
2. Origin. Ttre curve does not pass through the origin.
3. Points of intersection with axes. The curve meets
X-axis at the point A(4, 0). The curve does not meetY-axis. Shift-
ing the origin to A(4, 0), (1) transforms to
(X+a)Y2 =azla-(X+a)1
+ (X+o)Y +o2X=0
Equating to zero, the lowest degree terms, the tangent at
the new origin is X = 0 i.e., new y-axis.
Hence, at the new origin, i,e., at A(a,0), the tangent is
-L to r-axis.
4. Asymptotes. The only asymptotes is * = 0.
5. Region. From (1),

when r < 0 or when

'="8
r > a, y is imaginary. Thus, no portion ofthe curve lies to the leIt ofy-axis
and to the right ofr = a.
When, = o, y = 0. As r decreases from a to 0, y increases from 0 to -.
Hence, the shape of the curve is as shown in the above figure.
Example 5. Trace the following curue :
y2(ct-x)=x2(a+x). (Strophoid)
Sol. The given curwe is
y2(a - x) = y2(a + t) ...(1)
1. Symmetry. Since powers of y are even, therefore the curve is s)'rnmetrical about
r-axis.
2. passes through the origin. The tangents at the origin arey =
Origin. The curve tx'
Since the tangents are real and distinct, therefore origin is a node.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 245

3. Axes intersection. The curve intersects.t-axis

at (0, 0) and (- o, 0). The curve intersects y-axis at (0, 0)
only. The tangent at (- a, 0) can be found to be r + c
=0.
4. Asymptotes. The only asymptote is t = o.
5. Region. From (1),

''..--
-^ Et!
l"-*'
For r
> a or x < - o, ! is imaginary. Hence, the
curve does not exist for r > a ot x<-a.
The shape ofthe curve is as shown in the frgure.
Example 6. Trace the following curue:
(Astroid)
Sol. The equation o?the curve is
t% +Y s =a 3' ...( 1)

l. Symmetry. The curve is sJrmmetrical about both the axes. The curve is s,ryrmetrical
about the linesy =x atd,y =-x.
2. Origin. The curve does not pass through the origin.
3. Axes intersection. The curve meets X-axis at the
poinis (a, 0) and (- o, 0). The curve meets Y-axis at the points
(0, a) and (0, - a).
4. Asymptotes. The curve has no asymptotes.
5. Special points. From (1),
dY Y'''
dx= - xltg
.dy
-- 0, wheny = 0.
dx =
From (1), Wheny = 0,x=*a
Hence, the tangents to the curve are parallel to r-axis at the points (t o, 0).

Asain. @ r = o.
--, o. when
ax
From(1),Whenr=O,y=ta
Hence, the tangents to the curve are parallel to y-axis at the points (0, t a).
6. Region. From (1),
ym=(a 3
-x%3)
If lxl>a,y zis -ve
.'. y2 is -ve
.'.y is imaginary.
Hence, the curve does not lie beyond the lines r = t o.
Similarly, the curve does not lie beyond the linesy = t a.
Again when x =O,y = a. Asr increases from 0 toa,y decreases from o to 0'
Hence, the shape of the curve is as shown in the figure.
246 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Example 7. Trace th.e following curue and write its asyrnptotes:

f +Y3 = 3111Y. (Folium of Descartes)
SoI. The equation ofthe curve is
x3+Y3=31aY ...( 1)
1. Syrnmetry. The curve is s),rnmetrical about the liney = r.
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin. The tangents at origin are r = 0, y = 0.
These tangents being real and distinct, origin is a node.
3. Axes intersection. The curve meets the axes only at the origin (0, 0).
4. Asymptotes. The only asymptote is
.r+Y+o=0.
5, Special points. The curve (1) meets the line of s).rnmetry y = r, where
Zr3 = Saxz
=) x2(2x-3a)=o
ata
r=0, T
3q,
Y=O,
i
.'. The two poinLs of intersection are (0, 0) +, +1.
""d f\2 2)

Slope of the tangent A

. (za aa)
.
^f ,, z z )

Differentiating (1) *.r.t. ,, we get

3x2+3v24=r,(
" ,4] *")
dx \ dx ")
= *="'-,-f
dx y- _ o,x

AtA f!e.lsl,
\2 2)
*dx =-t
= tany=-1 = V= 135'
Hence, the tangent at A to the curve makes an angle of 135' with the axis ofX.
6. Region. r andy both cannot be negative, because that will make L.H.S. of(1) nega-
tive arrd RHS of (1) positive.
No portion of the curve Iies in the third quadrant.
=
.. The shape ofone curve is as shown in the figure.
Example 8. Trace the curue y2(x - a) = x2 (x + a)-
Sol. The equation of the curve is y2(r -a) = x2(x + a). ...(1)
1. S,'mmetry. The curve is sJrmmetrical about the r-axis only.
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin and the tangents at the origin are given
by r! + y2 = 0 ory = t lr. which are imaginary.
.. Origin is an isolated point.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 247

3.Asymptotes. There is no as5rmptote ll to r-axis.

Equating to zero, the co-efficient ofy2, the as;mptotes parallei to y-axis is r - a = 0.
Let us find oblique asy,rnptotes.

,'.*l,r*1')
- ---]--! f,, aJ1,-a1-l
From (1), "nz-x2\x+at
x-o = "z
\ x/r x)
".['-X)
. .u2 . -- 1/2

,=rr[1+g]
\ r,/ [r-e]
\ x) 'l
l, io 7 oz+ lt a Jo2
OI Y=txLr+ z*-E ? '.]Lr+r+8 ,+ 'l
" t "x*4*...f=.f,*,-
g'"....1
or ,=.*[r- 2x' I L 2x' l
Taking +ve sign, equation ofone branch is
o2
y =x + a * * ..,
2*
.'. Equation of the asymptote is y = y .' s
a2
Yc-Ya= 2x + ...
which is > 0 for large* > 0 and < 0 forr < 0.
Thus, the curve lies above the asymptotey = 5 1 s fsrr > 0 and below the asymptote for
r<0.
Taking negative sign, equation of another branch is

y o'
=_x_d_ 2x_..-
.'. Equation of the asymptote isy =-xc-d.
-d'
2x
which is < 0 for larger > 0 and > 0 forx < 0.
.'. The curve lies below the asymptote y = - x - d for x > 0 and aboye the asymptote for
r<0.
4. Points of intersection
The curve cuts the.r-axis, where puttingy = 0, we get
x2(x+a)=O i.e., x=0 or -o.
Thus, the curve passes through (0, 0) and (- o, 0).
The curve meets y-axis, where putting r = 0, we get - ay2 = 0
y = O i.e., at (0, 0)
(1), y x,+d
5. Region. From =r xc-a
Whenr < -c, y is Real.
248 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

When - o < x < d, ! is imaginary. Hence no portion of the curve lies between the lines
x=ia.
When .r > a, y is Real.
6. Special points

From (1), Y=x ...(2)

dy *2 -ax-a2
dx=G;flrc-tro
Now, :dv
= O- when
dx
xB -ax -a2 = 0 or, when.r =
ttu"rlBl"-
/ - /=\
Whenx = l+
lz )
I a,fromt2).y is imaginary.

So the tangent is ll tor-axis whenr ='*f2*' o.

Thus, the approximate shape ofthe curve is as shown in the above frgure.
Example 9. Trace the curue: y = xs - 3a# .
Sol. The curve is y = xB - 3ax2 ...(1)
1. Symmetry. No symmetry.
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin.
The equation of tangent at the origin is y = g ;.s.,
,r-axis.
3. Asymptotes. No as5zmptotes.
4. Points of intersection
Intersection uith x-orjs. Puttingy = 0 in (1), we get
xB -3ax2 = 0 or xz(r- Ba) = 0
r=0 or x=3a
. . Intersections with r-axis are (0, 0) and (3o, 0).
5. Region
From (1), y=)c2(x-3q)
When r < 0,y is -ve
. . No portion of the curve lies in the second quadrant.

When0<*<3o,yis-ve.
.'. The curve lies in fourth quadrant for values ofx s.t. 0 < r < Ba.
When r > 3a, y is +ve.
.. The curve lies in the first quadralt for values ofr > 3o.
6. Special points
n"
From rl). Y =3x2 -6ax = Jx\x -2a) ...(2)
dx
rJl
f=0gt'""t=0ar,d'x=2o'
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 249

When r = 0, then from (1) y = 0 .'. Tangent at (0, 0) is r-axis.

when x=Za,from (1) y = 8os- l2a7 =-4a3
.'. Tangent at (2a, * 4a3) is parallel to r-axis.
Whenx < 0, then fiom tzr, {dx is +ve.
.'. y increases as r increases i.e., the curve is rising.
When 0 < r.
-ve; .'.* is
Zo,'dr The curve falls in this portion.

Whenr> 2o,!k*u..
'dt .'. Againy increases asi increases. (Vx>2a)

From (2),
fi =u*-u"=6(x-a)

fr=o*uu,*="#=u
At x=a, ,,I =u*o
dx"
.'. x = a gives a point ofinflexion.
When r = o, then from (1)
y = x3 - 3ar2 = ao - \as -- 2a3
:. (a, - 2a3) glves a point ofinflexion.
When r d-v
> d- ------: rs Dosltlve-
dxz
.'. The curve is concave upwards for values of.r > o.
When r:
d'v
< a- ------1 ts negattve.
.'. The curve is concave downwards for values ofr < a.
The shape ofthe curve is as shown in the above figure.

Example lO. Shetch the graph y = 1 - -J----

" 1+.r'
Sol. The equation of given cur-ve is

", = 1- --l-
1+ x'
... ( 1)

1. Symmetry. The curve is symmetrical abouty-axis.

2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin. Equa-
tion (1) can be written as
x2Y+Y=Y2
Tangents at the origin are given by
r =0
3. Asymptotes. Asymptote parallel to r-axis is
y-L=0
r=7
250 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

4. Points ofintersection, Curve meets the axes only at the origin (0,0)
5. Special points.
tc: -2 -1 0 1 2
y| 4/5 l/2 0 ll2 45
Hence the approximate shape ofthe given curve is shown in the figure.
Example ll. Trace the curue y2 (x + 3a) = x (x - a) (x - 2a)-
Sol. 1. Symmetry. The curve is symmetrical about r-axis.
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin, where the tangent is , = 0'
3. As,'mptote and Region. The equation of curve is already solved fory, considering
only the (+)ve values ofy, we find that
(a) Whenr = 0,y = 0 ; when 0 <r < a,y is real ;

whenr
laal x=i.y=
o,y = 0 again lwhen {app.l; and wheno <x < 2o. y is imaginary.
=
lzJ) I
whenr= 2a,y =g and when.r >2a,yisreal.
Tarrgerrt at (2a , O) is parallel to y-axis obtained by shilting origin to it and then equating
Iowest degree terms to zero.
When.r = 3a, y = 11 and when x = 4a, y = 1.8a.
When, + -,y ) *i.e. wher\x,y are very large,

, 6a 20a2
xx'

y -1 .3o,11a'z, )
x(x2x')
y=x-3,a* lla2 *... ...(1) I Leaving (-)ve values ofylr
Z,
-T' = r- 3o is an asymptote and the curve lies above this as}-rnptote in the I quadrant.
r
lb | \Vhen is negative and nume cally less than 3o. y is imaginary. Therefore the
;ur-e does not exist between r = - 3o and r = 0.
\l-lren.t = - 3o, the expression fory becomes meaningless butr -+ - 3 a fromleft, y2 -: *.
i: -acr : = - 3a is an asymptote.
\\henr----v'---
Eor Iarge valuel ofr andy, taking (-)ve values ofylr from (1), we get

l].a2
y=_)t+3a__+...
.. -\' = 30 - r is an as),rnptote and the curve lies above the asymptote in the II quad-
r ant.
. . ,r' is very large in the neighbourhood of x = - 3a in II quadrant and is again very
iarge s-hen .r is (-)ve and numerically large.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 251

Considering all these points, approximate shape ofthe curve is given below.
Y

5a

(- 3a,

-10a -5a
-*'-P

Example 12. Trace the curue: xl/2 + y1t2 = d1t2

Sol. The equation of the curve is
,cln+y1/2=a1/2 ...( 1)
1. Symmetry. The curve is symmetrical about the (0, a)
line y = 1.
2. Origin. The curve does not pass through origin.
3. Asymptotes. No asymptotes parallel to coordi-
nate axes.
4. Points of intersections, When r = 0, y = a
When !=O,x--a
Hence the curve meets the coordinate axes at (0, a)
and (o, 0).
5. Special points.
al4 al2 3al4 0

y: 0 al4 ( "12-t)- , l-l

t2t a a
\12 )
The approximate shape ofthe given curve is shown in the above frgure.

TESTYOURKNOWLEDGE
Trace the following curues:
1. y2 = 13 (semi-cubical parabola) 2. a2y2 = i621az - *21
3. a2y2=va12s-11 4. a4y2 = a,2a4 - va
5. y2ta2 + x2l = xz taz - x2t or x2(x2 + y2t = o,2t)(,2 - y2t
6. (i) 9w2 = x(x - 3a)z (ii) 4ay2 =x(x-2a\2 (u.P.T.U. 2014)
7. y2(x2 + y2) + a2(x2 - y2 1 = 0 or x2(1,2 + a2) + !2Q2 - a2) = o.
252 A IEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

8. y2=(r-z)2(x-5) g. dzx2 = y3(2a y)

-
10. y2=(r-1)(x-2)(r-B) ll. xy2 = 4az 12q - ,1
12. (a) xzyz = (.a + y)2 (a2 y2)
- \bl xa" = \a" + Y"l h' - Y"l
13. y(xz+4az)=8a3
14, y2x=a2(r-a) 15.y2(x2-7)=x
t2 +l
16. \a):y = x"-1
"
(b) xzYz = az a 1

L7. x)2=az{12-*21 18. yz(a + r) = x2 (a - x) or x(x2 + y2) = a(xZ - y2)

19. x6+y6=o,2a\,2 20., = rs (cubical parabola)
21. !=x3*x (u.P.T.U. 2014)
22. x3y-x-7=0
25. (x2+a2)y=q2L 24, (r2 - a2)92 - b2) = o2b2
26. Y3=x3+ax2 26, x3 + y3 = azx
. .213 , .213
27, (i)y=(x-2)(x+L)2 (i,)Jf l -l+l = l. (Hr"pocycloid)
\a] lb/
Answers
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 253

6. (, Y

(0, a)

12 . (a)
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING [/ATHEMATICS

15. 16. (a)

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 255

27. (i)

/\
M
(-a,01-,'

\t/
lo \(a,0)

B. - b)
I(0,
Y
256 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEIVATICS

2.9,I. POLAR CO-ORDINATES

If we have horizontal line OX called lhe initial line and. P (r, e)
another line called the revolving 1ine, makes an angle 0 with
the initial line, then the polar co-ordinates ofa point P are
(r, 0), where OP = r arc (r, 0).
The point O is called the pole and the angle 0 is called o lnitial line
t}re uectorial angle ofthe point P and the length r is called its Pole
radius uector .
Note 1. Representation of (- r, g), wheu r > 0.
Polar radius r is considered positive if it is measured from
the pole along the halfray bounding the vectorial angle.
Let P be the point (t 0). Produce OP backwards and cut off
OP' = OP. Then P'is (- r, 0).
Remark. For 120, (*r,0) is the same pointas(r,0+n)
or (r, 0) is the same point as (- r, 0 + r).
Note 2. In polar co-ordinates 0 = ct is the equation of the
half ray OP passirtg through the pole and making an angle o with
the initial line. The equation ofthe other halfray OP is e = r + o. 'P'(- r, e)
Note 3. r = a is the equation ofa circle having centre at the pole and radius a.

2.92. PROCEDURE FOR TRAGING GURVES HAVIIiIG POLAR EQUATIONS

1. Symmetry. A curve is s5rmmetrical about the ray 0 = o if on changing 0 to 2o - 0,
the equation remains unchanged.
In particular:
(l) The curve is symmetrical about the initial line 0 = 0 (i.e., r-axis) if the equation
remains unchanged on changing 0 to - 0.
For example, 7 = a1 (1 + sss Q), r = o cos 30 are symmetrical about the initial line.

(il) The curve is synmetrical about the half ray 0 = ! fi.n-, y-axis) if the equation
"2
remains unchanged on changing 0 to (n* 0) e.9., r = a(.1 + sin 0) and r = a sin 30 are
7t
slmmetrical about e =
r.
If the equation of the curve remains unchanged when 0 is charuged to - 0 {rnd r to - r,
81'en then the curve is s]rynmetrical about the hal f ray O =
! .

For example, r0 = o is symmetrical about e = .

f
'irl r The curve is symmetrical about the pole (i.e., symmetrical in opposite quadrants)
I the equation remains unchanged on changing r to - r or 0 to n + 0.
2. PoIe or ongp, (i) Find whether the curue passes through the pole or zor. This can
be done b1' putting r = 0 in the equation and if on doing so, we get some real value
or values) of 0; then the curve passes through the pole.
Ifit is not possible to frnd real value ofO for which r = 0, the curwe does not pass through
the pole.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 257

(ii) ?ind the tangents at the pole. Putting r = 0, the real values of 0 give the tangents
at the pole.
For example, consider the curve r = a (1 - cos 0). Putting r = 0,weget cos 0 = 1 .'. 0 = 0.
Hence the curve passes through the poie and the line 0 = 01.e., the initial line is the
tangent at the pole.
Again, consider r = a (3 - sin 0).
Putting r = 0, we get sin 0 = 3, which does not give any real value of 0 t .' lsine l<11'
Hence the curve does not pass through the pole.
(iii) Find the points, where the curve cuts the initial line and the line 0 = ,r/2.
3. Asymptotes. If 0 -+ 0, (some finite value) when r -+ -, then there is an asymptote.
We frnd ali the asymptotes of the curve.
4. Points of Intersection. Find some points on the curve for convenient values of 0'
(especially for values of0 = a for which the curve is slT nmetrical).
5. Region. Solve the given equation for r or 0 (ifpossible). Find the regions in which the
curve does not lie. This can be done as :
(i.) Iffor 0, < 0 < 0,, r is imaginary, then there is no portion ofthe curve between the lines
0 = 0r and 0 = Ori Considtr r2 =o2 cos 20. Forn/4< 0 < 3nl4, cos 20is negative. .'. r2is -ve and
so ris imaginaiy. Hence the curve not lie between the lines 0=rJ4 atd'g =3tt14'
does
(ii) Ifthe greatest and least numerical values ofr be respectively a and b, the curve lies
entirely within the circle r = a and entirely outside the circle r = b.
(iii) Trace the variations of r when 0 varies in the intervals (0, -) and (- -, 0) making
the values of0 for which r = 0 or attains maximum and minimum values. Plot the points so
obtained.
Note, When r is a periodic function of 0, the negative values of0 need not be considered. We may
consider values form 0 = 0 to those values ofO, where the values begin to repeat.

6. Value of Find tan 0 = r$ and q. (0 is the angle between the tangent and radius
O. 'dr
vector). Find the points, where Q is 0 or l.2
Again. r increases as 0 increases ifS is nositiue and r decreases as 0 increases ilS i"
negative.
Note. Conversiorl into cartesians. Transfotm the equation into cartesians, when tracing of
the curve becomes easy on transformatio[ to cartesian system of co-ordinates.

ILLUSTRATTVE EXAMPLES

Example l. Trqce the curue r = a(l- cos 0). [Cardioid]

SoI. The equation of the curve is r = a(1 - cos 0) ...(1)
1. Symmetry. The curve is s}'rnmetrical about the initial line because the equation of
curve remains unaltered when 0 is changed to - 0.
2. PoIe or origin. (l) When 0 = 0, r = 0 hence the curve passes through the pole and the
tangent at the pole is the line 0 = 0, i.e., the initial line.
 258 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(il) The curve meets the initial line 0 = 0 at (0, 0) and the lines 0 r/2 and n in the points
=
h. n/2) ancl { 2c. ,r } respectively.
3. As5rmptotes. Since for any finite value of0, r d.oes not tend to infinity, ... the curve
has no asymptote.
4. Special points. The corresponding values of0 and r are given below:
e: 0 rTlS nl2 2n/3 n
r: 0 alZ a 3al2 2a.
lwe need not trace the curve for va]ues of 0 from n to zn the curve is svmmetrical
about the initial lir:e.l ^s
5.Region.(j)... I cos0 I <1... From(1),r<2a.
.'. The curve lies entirely within the circle r = 2o.
(ji) When 0 increases from 0 to rr, r remains positive and increases from 0 to 2o.
When 0 increases from n to 2tr, r is positive and decreases from 2a to 0.
6. Value of g.
d.r
!'rom (1). . =osin0.
.lH

.'. tan0= r-de r o(1- cos 0) O

clr =-7-----=-=tan_
osino
ldr\ 2
Iael
e
d=
'2 .

Now, q = 0 when 0 = 0 and O = tr|2, when} = n.

.'. At (2a, n) the tangent is perpendicular to the line 0 = n.
The shape ofthe curve is as shown in the figure.
Note. we will not consider the varues of 0 after 2n, because r is periodic with period 2r and
therefore we do not get any new point on the curve.
Example 2. Trace the curue:
f = a2 cos 20. (Bernoulli,s Lemnisca.te) (A.K.T.U. 2012,2015)
or (x2 + y2P = a2(i.2
- y2).
Sol. The equation ofthe curve is 12 = a2 cos 20 ...( 1)

1. S5.rnmetry. The curve is symmetrical about the initial line, the line g= I and pole.
2-
2. Origin or Pole. Put r = 0 in (1), we get

5\v cos20=0=*.(t;)
It
=+ 0= t Z,
which ate real.

Hence, the curve passes through the pole and the taagents at the pole are 0 t ].
= 4
Also. when 0 = 0, r = t a
Hence, the curve meets the initial at (t a, 0).
DIFFEHENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 259

3. Asy,mptotes. The curve has no asymptote.

n
4. Value of Q. d==+20
'2
when 0=o d=-1l
2
For e=0,r=+o
Hence, at the points (a, 0) and (- a, 0), the tangents are perpendicular to the initial line.
5. Special Points and Region
From (1),, = o $* Zg I Taking +ve root as the curve is sJ,rnmetrical about the pole
dr -osin20
dg Jcos 20

For 0<0<
ndr--:ls r decreases in this range
4do -ve
-, =
3z dr
For = r increases in this range.
7<0<rc,deis+ve
When 0=0,r=a
As 0 increases from 0 to 1. r decreases from a to 0.
4

For : < 0 < :j. r is imasinarv. Hence. no portion

44
of the curye lies between the lines e =
] ,"a e = f .

Again. as g increases Lo- !1 1o r, r is +ve and

4
increases from 0 to o. Thus, we can trace the part of
the curve about the initial iine. The part of the curve
below the initial line can be traced by symmetry. Hence,
the shape ofthe curve is as shown in the figure.
Example 3. Trace the equiangular spiral r = ae^o. [a, m are (.+)vel
Sol. The equation of the cur-ve is
r
= ae^o ...( 1)
1 Symmetry. The curve has no symmetry.
2. Pole. '.' r is not zero for any finite real value of0.
.'. The curve does not pass through the pole.
3. Value ofQ. Q is constant.
4. Region. (i) r is always positive but there is no limit
to its values.
(li)When0=0,r=a
.. (4, 0) lies on the curve.
(lli) As 0 increases from 0 to @,r remains +ve and
increases from o to -.
As 0 decreases from 0 to - -, r still remains positive and decreases from a to 0.
Hence, the shape ofthe curve is as shown in the figure.
260 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING I'ATHEMATICS

Example 4. Trace the curue r = d sin 30. (Three leaved rose)

Sol, The equation ofthe cuwe is r = o sin 30. ...(1)
1. Symmetry.
From (1), r =o sin 30 =a sin(n- 30) =a sin(3t-30) etc.
Itc \
or r=o sin30 =a sin 3 = o sin 3 (n-0) etc.
[;-4.]
.'. (1) remains unchanged when 0 is changed to 1- 0, or n - 0.

.'. The curve is symmetrical about the rays

r rf 3r)I -----
5n 7n 9n lln
"-6'2 l=.
e = -.-
[ 0.]'a'6'6'6
-
2. Pole or origin. Putting r = 0, we get sin 30 = 0
.'. 30 = nn, where n is zero or any other integer.

... r 2n 3n 4n
U=U.=. 5rc 6rc
-,.-,;.;,;.
3J3:JJJ
.'. The cuwe passes through the pole and the tangents at the pole are
n 2n 31t 4n 5n 6n
0=0,0=5,0= T,0= 3,0=T,e=T,0=T
11
3. Asvmototes. Puttins r = -: from ('l ''). u = a- sin
-
- 3e
u = 0 does not give any frnite value ofO.
.. No as1'rnPtotes.
4. Point of Intersection.
5n 7n 9n lh
When 0=0.'6lt-.-.-
3r. lRays of symmeLry)
6 6',6 6 6
From (1), r = 0, ct., * a, a, - a, a, - a.
5. Region. (i) From (1), r ( o numerically ['.' sin 30 < l numerically]
.. The curve lies entirely within the circle r = a.
(ii) Region w.r.t. tqngents dt the pole. Tangertts at the pole are
n 2n 3r. 4n 5n
0=0,0=E,e= a,e=T,0=3.0=T
When 0 < 0 < n/3 ; then 0 < 38 a n i-e., 30 iies in first or second quadrant.
.'. From (1), r is+ve [. sin Ois +veinlorll quadrant]

stmtlarlv.
.n2n < 0 <-.
when r ls -ve.
- !) !)

When 1aaga31.ris +ve: When '31 a6aal.7"is -es.

3333
When $=e=$,ris+ve: When $<e<9I ..i. -u".
.1 .1
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I
261

6. Value of0. From(1),r=osin30

dr 0 = 2rcl3
0=nl3
'1 m=3acos,o 0 = 5116
..9 = nl6
r 1
.. =-tan30
tand=.lalr\
I ae./
/ r\ 0 =7lr,16 0=11nl6
tan$=-lae.,0=;I
\ a/ 5rl3
0=
n 3lr 5n 7n 9n 1ln 0= 3rl2
for ^_
"- o'o'6'6' 6' 6
.. Tangent is perpendicular to the radius vector at the points

6'6'6'6'6 ' 6
Thus, the shape ofthe curve is as shown in the figure.
Remark we have not considerecl values of 0 outside [0, 2n] because r = a sin 30 is periodic,
Note.Thecurver=asinn0orr=acosn0consistsofnor2nloopsaccordingasnisodd
or even.
Example 5. Trace the curue f cos 0 = a2 sin 30.
Sol. The equation ofthe curve is I cos 0 = o2 sin 30 ...( 1)

1. Symmetry. On changing r to - r, equation (1) remains unchanged'

.'. The curve is slrmmetrical about the pole, i.e., the curve is symmetrical in opposite
quadrants.
2. Origin or Pole.
Putting r = 0 in (1), we get sin 30 = 0
.'. 3e = zrr when z is zero or any other integer.
. e =o L ?L'3n'4n'5n'6r
-"'s'B'3'g'3'B
.'. The curve passes through the pole and the tangents at the pole are

o=o.o= ; r=+,r= T''= +.r=+.'= T

Asymptotes. Putting r = :, from (1),
1
3.

cos e
u2= ,,,(2)
a2 sin 30
nBn
Let u -> 0. Therefore, cos 0 -+ 0, i.e., 0 -+ 22
Diff. (2) w.r.t. 0, 2, lv=!l
dg ,'l
- sin 30 sin 0 -
sin2 3o
cos 0 (3 cos 30 ,l
du (sin 30 sin 0 + 3 cos 0 cos 30)
dg
=- 2a2 u sin2 3g
262 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING I\,4ATHEMATICS

2ua2 sin2 3g
For 0, =
lE

;, Lt [-9.)
p=0-0r
\ dal
rt
=s-nt2 sin 30 sin 0 + 3 cos 0 cos 30
=0
u)0 r/ r0
.. The asymptote isp = 1sin (0, - 0)

or 0=rsinfl-e) i.e., rcos0=0 or r=0 ['.' r=rcos0J

\2 )
i.e., y-axis is an as)'mptote to the curve.
3n
Again. for 0, = J-axis is an asymptote.
;.
4. Points of Intersection. When 0 = 0; From (1), r = 0 (Also see step 2).

When
1r- 2a @
6', l; lvE
.'. rhe two poinr, ,," *n", u= 4, r = 0 asain.
[. ffi,t),
5. Region w.r.t. tangents at the pole.

From (1),
, a2 sin 30
cos 0

when 0<e<:-r2is+ve .. risreat.

when l<e<n
:, 2,
r ls -ve ". r rs Imaglnary.
.'. No portion ofthe curve lies between the two half-rays
7'
0= -and0=-.
TE

tc 2tt -.
-: <0<=rzis+ve .. risreal
when
9t
when :-: <o<,T rzis-ve
.'. r is imaginary.
.'. No portion ofihe curve lies between the halfrays
2n
Q= .J-- and0=x.
Hence the shape of the curve is as shown.
Note. We have not discussed the values of0 between n and 2r because the curve is symmetrical
in opposite quadrants.
Example 6. Trace the curue reciprocal spiral r0 = a.
Sol. The equation of the curve is r0 = o ...( 1)

Firstly, we consider positive values of0, i.e., values of0 in (0, -).
1. Sy'mmetry. Equation (1) remains unchanged, where 0 is changed to - 0 and r to - r,
therefore the curve is symmetrical abouL the line e = i.e., y-axis.
|
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 263

2. Origin. Since r does not become zero for any real finite value of 0, therefore the
curve does not pass through the pole.
3. Asymptotes. Equation (1) is r0 = a.
10e
Puttingr=
uuawe have -=a, u=
-,
u -+0gives 0 -+ 0 .. 0r=0
du1
dea
p= Lt (-de-'J = r-t Got=-a
o-01 e-o \ dul
Putting the values ofp and 0, inp = 7" si1 (0, - 0), the equation ofthe asymptote is
-o=rsin(-0)orrsin0=o
OI Y=d ('.' rsin0=y)
4. Points of intersection.
when e=o-.nrn2rSr-
_-._-r._.21r....
6'3'2 3 '2'
.'. From (1)
6a3a 2a 3a a2a a
;
n' n' n' 2n' x '2"'2"'"'
5. Region. (i) From (1), r =
f,
...
a
rsino =, srno=osine
g a, l.L0.le!9.J
or y <a ('.' y=rsin0)
.. The curve lies entirely below the asymptote
rsin0=a or y=a.
(li) For positive values of 0, r is positive.

(1), .= a d,r a
6. Value ofQ. From
e do
1dr is nesative for all values of 0.
dg
.',r decreases as 0 increases.
As 0 increases {iom 0 to -, r is +ve and decreases
liom - to 0.
, o( e'\
tand=.::--::--=_t__L=_0.
' fdr) 0l a)
t do./
Hence for positive values of0, the shape ofthe curve as shown by thick lines in the figure.

The part ofthe curve for -ve values of 0 (or here r also because from r = 9 , r is negative
0
when 0 is negative) is obtained by turning the curve for positive value ofO through two right
angles. This branch is shown in the figure by the dotted line.
264 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Exanple 7, Trace the four leaued rose r = a sin 20.

Sol. The equation of the given curve is
r = o sin 20 ...(1)

1. S5rmmetry. The curve is symmetrical about the line 0 = I42and the line g = 1.
2. Pole. Put r = 0 in (1), we get
sin2e=0
20=nn =.> 0= 11I , where n =0.t l. !2,!J,...
2'
= o=o.r tr.rn.+!I....
22
Hence, the curve passes through the pole and the tangents at the pole are 0 = 0, O = 1,
2'
because the other values of 0 give the same tangents.
3. Asymptotes. The curve has no asymptotes.
4. Special points and region.
(.i) '.' I sin 20 <1
.'. From (1), I r <d
Hence, the curve lies entirely within the circle r = o.
(ii) From (1),
dr d2r
dO=2o,or
2e and =-4asin20
#
dr
For r to be maximum or minim
um'
de =o
2acos20=0 f,_-,
cos20=0
20 = (2n + 1) 1. where n e I
2',
0=\2n + l)
tr.whereac
I
4
- n 3n 5rr
44 4
Forrtobemaximr , d': should be -ve andwe find that d'l i"*u"fo"e
- =!.5n
do2 dg2 4' 4 -...
"'
and the maximum value of r is

r*u* = rz sin (, i)= rsio-l =6

\ 4/ 2
The corresponding values ofr and 0 are given below:
lE
o: 0 .:-ll
4 24
ra 0 o 0 -o 0
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I
265

As 0 increases from 0 to 1. r is +ve and increases from 0 to a. As 0 increases from

Ito],
ris+veandd.ecreasesfromoto0.Thus,wegetaloopbetweenthelinesg=Out'de=*'

Similarly, we get aloop between the lines e = and o = nbut in opposite direction
|
(... r is -ve).
Thus, we trace the two iooPs I and II.

Since the curve is s).rnmetrical about the li

g
= the other two loops are traced by
"" Z,
symmetry. Thus, in all we get four equal ioops
Hence, the shape ofthe curve is as shown in the figure'
Example 8, Trace the curue xs + y5 = 5a2x2y'
Sol. The equation ofthe curve is
x5 + y5 = 5a2*y ...(1)

1, Symmetry. The curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants because equation (1)

remains unchanged when both r and y are changed to - r and -y respectively'
2. Origin. The curve passes through the origin. The tangents at the origin are rzy = 0
i-e., x = O, x = 0, y = 0. Hence y-axis is a cuspidal tangent.
In fact, the origin is a node as well as a cusp.
3. Asy'mptotes. Since co-efficients ofrs and y5 are constants, therefore, the curve has
no asymptotes parallel to axes.
Let us now frnd oblique asYmptotes:
From (1), 05(m) = 1+rn\,qo(m)=o
Putting Qu(m) = 0,wehavems +l=O ot m5=-l "' m=-L'
To find c, c$u'(m) + Qa(m) = 0
or c(\ma) = 0 or c=0.
.'. Equation of the asymptote is y=mx+coty=-x.
Position of the curue u.r.t. the d.symptote.In the second quadrant, r is negative and y is
positive;
.'. RHS of (1) is +ve.
.'. LHS of (1) namely y5 + 15 must also be +ve.
Hence, y should be numericallY > r.
Thus, the curve lies above the as;T nptote y = - r.
(in the
Because of symmetry in opposite quadralts, the curve approaches the other end
fourth quadrant) from below:
4. Points of Intersection.
(l) The curve meets the coordinate axes only at (0, 0).
(ii) lntersections uith the line y = r. Putting y = r in (1), we have
2xE = 5a2xg '
266 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

.r=o or -=xfz."
y=0 and u=x-E.o
\2
Point ofintersection are (0. O, , [, .E r. . ,
\ v2 -E
]
\2 )
(iii) Intersections uith the asymptote y = - r. Solving
(1) and y = - r, we again have (0, 0) as their intersection.
5. Region. Transforming to polars [by putting
r = r cos 0 andy = 7- si11 0 in (1), we havel
5a2 co"z o sin o
'., - 0+sins 0
"os5
For yalues of 0 between !1 ,rrd n, 12 is negative and so r is Imaginary.
4
Thus, no portion ofthe curve lies between the lines g = E anil 0 = n. Thus. the shane
of the curve is as shown in the figure. 4 -

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Trace the folloLoing curDes:
l. r = fll + cos 0) [Cardioid] (u.P.7.U.2015) 2.r=o(1 + sin 0)
3. r = o(1- sin 0) 4,r=2o cos0[Circle] 5.r=a+bcos0;a>b lLimaconl
6. a=1+cos0 [Parabolal '1. r' COS 28 = a" 8.r=acos26

9. r=ocos30 l0.r=ocos50 11.

"= 7+e'
io1
72, 13, x5 + y5 = 5s!ey2 14. r=a (1 + sec 0)
15. xa+y4=4qrrz 76, xa + ya = 4a2 sy 17.ya*xa+xy=O
18. r = o0 [Spiral ofArchimedes]

Answers

32)
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 267

4.
= n/2
e=t /a /a 0=0 0=rl2
o o
2a

0 = 3n/2

(a, r/2) C Br.*9 4.)

\ 2 3/ \2a, nl2)
Ia-b 2n\ D
\ 2, 3,/
x' (a+b,n) X A (a,0) X
(a-b,n)

or

9. 10.
0-n12

11al1O\')
, i\\ )'iznro
-_ - _l_\
15d'10
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Circular Aslnnptote r = o is shown

dotted. The part of the curve for
negative values is its reflection in the
initial line.

(
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS . I 269

2.93. TRACING OF GURVE GIVEITI BY PARAIIIIETRIC EQUATIONS

Letx = flt),f = Q(l), where f is the parameter in the equations ofthe curve.
Case I. If conveniently possible, the parameter is eliminated and the corresponding
cartesian equation is obtained and then the procedure explained earlier in Art. 2.90 is followed.
The following results may prove helpful:
1. x=d.cost, y=bsint. (Ellipse)

.. 4*{=.o",r+sinzi=1.
a' b'
x=acost, Y=asint. (Circle)
x2 + y2 = 02 (cos2 f + sin2 ,) = a2
r,=acos3t, Y=bsin3, (Hypo-cycloid.)
, ,213 ,2/3
.. Ial *lal
\c./ \b, =1.
4. x=dcos3t, .y=osin3, (Astroid.)
x2/3 + y2/3 = a2l3 .

5. x=t2, y=t-+tg
y = t(1-
+tz) = t(r - xl3)
yz = P(l - xl3)2 = x(l - x/3)2.
sin3.'
6. .r=osinz t, y-, (Cissoid)
cos ,
sinl - sin2, " xla.x2
'-"o"/* " t-l;;t" - t-*/o-
y2(a-x)=xB.
-
'1. x L-12 2t
(Circle)
Y=
l+ t' -n l'
l+
x'*!'=l'
"'
3al 3al2
8. .x= ------------,
v = -----------F
" - (Folium of Descarte's)
1+l' 1+1"
x3+Y3=3aYt'
Case II. Ifit is not conveniently possible to eliminate the parameter, then the following
procedure is followed:
1. Syrnmetry.
(i) If on changing tto -t or (tton-t);x (= flt)) remains unchanged andy{= 0(r)}
changes to - y; then the curve is qrmmetrical about x-axis.
e.g., The parabola r = dt2, y = 2d, is sJrmmetrical about r-axis.
(ii) Similarly, if on changing t to - t (ot t to n - t), r changes to -.r and y remains
unchanged, then the curve is s5zrnmetrical about y-axis.
e.9., (1) the cycloid x = q.(t + sin t), y = o(1 - cos f) is sy,rnmetrical about y-ais.
(2) The ellipse r = d. cos t, y = b sin t is symmetrical about y-axis. (Changing , to n - ,)
270 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING IVATHEMATICS

(ili)Ifonchangingtto-t1,xchangesto-randyto-y,thecurveiss,.rnmetricalin
opposite quad rants.

e.g., the rectangular hyperbola x =g7,y = 9 is symmetrical in opposite quadrants.

"t
2. Origin. If on putting r = 0 (or y = g; 2 ."r1 value ofl can be found out, which makes
J = 0 (or , = 0), then the curve passes through the origin.
or Put both r andy equal to zero and find values oft. If there is any common value ofl,
then the curve passes through the origin.
Asymptotes. Find asymptotes if any.
3.
4. Points of [rtersection. Find the points ofintersection ofthe cuwe with coordinate axes.
5, Region. If easily possible, frnd the gr:eatest and least values ofx andy and therefore,
the lines parallel to the axes between which the curve lies or does not lie.
For Exarnple. Ifthecurveis.r=ocos0,y=bsin0'thenthegreatestvalueofrisoand
the least value is - a. ( '.' greatest and least values of cos 0 are 1 and - 1)
.'. The curwe lies entirely between the lines r = t a.
Similarly, the curve lies entireiy between the linesy = t b.
6. Special Points. Find ll uta * and then consider the signs ot S una ! in
dtdt"dtdt
suitable interryals of f.
d!/!:].
Fi"d +(
dx \
- dx/dt ) ",'","
,o r he parameler / certain values and lind the corresponding

r.alues of r, y and the slope of the tangent namely 4. Pl.ot these points (whose cartesian co-
o:t
ordinates are known to us). Find those points on the curve tbr which !dx =O or-. Also find

* jr,
d'
and discuss lor concavity and points of inflexion.
dr'

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example L. Trace the cycloid x = a (g + sin 0), y = a(1 + cos 0).

Sol, The parametric equations of the cycloid are
x = a(.Q + sin 0), y = a(1 + cos 0) ...(1)
Let us trace this curve firstly for values of 0 in the interval l- x, nl.
1. Symmetry. On changing 0 to - 0 in (1), changes to -r andy remains unchanged.
. . The curve is symmetrical about y-axis.

2. Origin. Puttingy = 0, o(1 + cos 0) = 0

.. cos0=-lorO=n
For e = r, n = o(0 + sin 0) = an+ 0
.. The cuwe does not pass through the origin.
3. Asymptotes. The curve has no asymptotes.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 271

4. Points of Intersection
(i) Intersections with x-axis. Putting y = 0 in (1), we get 0 = n, which gives r = on.
.. Intersection with r-axis is (ar, 0).
(ii)Intersectionwithy-axis.Puttingr=0in(1),wehave0+sin0=0,whichissatisfied
bvonly0 = 0 andfor0 =0,y =a (1 + cos 0) = 24.
.'. Intersection with y-axis is (0, 2a).
5. Region. We know that - 1 ( cos 0 (1
1-1<1+cos0(1+1
or 03(1 +cos0)(2
0 (a(1 + cos 0) S 2a or 0 3 y 3 2a
.'. Curve lies entirely between the lines y = 0 and y = 2a
6. Special points. From (1),
dY dv
- = o rt+coso)and # =-, "i"
g

dy dyld| a sin 0 0
; =;-tdo = - otr*"o.er = -tan z
...(2)

Corresponding values of.r, y ar,.d dyldx for dlflerent values of 0 are given below:
0=-n -nlz 0 ril2 n

From(l), x=-an -,(;.r) o "(;.,

('rE

y=0 a 2a a0
(2). dY
From 'dx =* 1 o -l

... points on the curve are (- an,o,, (; - r, r"1,1"(;-r),,], r,r. or.

[- " i,,],
Tangents at the points [- on, 0] and [4n, 0) are parallel to y-axis. ( .' dyldx = * or ' *)
Tangent at the point (0, 2o) is ll to r-axis ('. dyld.x = 0)

(2). dY
From 'dxz = - a^o 9

,' t' "

Aoaindiff *...1.r. !) =_lsec,"0\1del:I
z)Zdx
ttxz \
d2v
-* -t SeCr^e-. I SeCz^e
_- de 1 ,e
... _=_sec-_
=
tu(' 2 22a
-
-2 dx2a2
d2v -l sec*,9_
_:=_
dxz 4(t 2
,2
.- a4 i" neEative for all values of0.
dxz
272 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEI/IATICS

.'. The curve is concave downwards.

For oalues of 0 > n or < - n, the same types ofbranches
of the curue uill be obtained.
The curve consists ofcongruent arches on both sides
ofy-axis which extend to infinity.
Hence the shape of the curve is as shown in the
figure.
Note. B is called vertex of the cycloid and Line AA i.e., the line joining the two end points is
called base of the cycloid and a is called the radius ofthe generating circle.
Remark We have taken 0 from - n to ,r to get one arch ofthe cycloid or one complete cycloid. We
will again take 0 from - n to n for the cycloid
r = a (0 + sin 0),y = a (1 - cos 0)
i-e., We take 0 in [- n, nl for the cycloids
r=a(0+ sin 0),Jl = o (1 t cos 0)
lYe will take 0 in [0, 2r] for the cycloids
r=o(0-sin0),r=c(1 t cos 0)
('.'
For these two cycloids, for values of0 < 0 or 0 > 2x, tlne same t,?es of branches of
the curve will be obtained.)
Exarnpfe 2. Trace the curue
x= alcost+ jbstan' =",,,, (Tractrix)
f,),,
Sol. The equations ofthe curve are

x=a cos t + 9 log tan2 t = a sin t ...(1)

f,,
1. Symmetry. (i) On changing I to - I in (1), r remains unchanged andy changes to -y.
.'. The curve is symmetrical about r-axis.
(ii) On changing , to r. - t iD (1),j,, is unchanged and r changes to
-.r.
.'. The curve is s3rmmetrical abouty-axis.
2. Origin. Puttingy = 0, we get sin, = 0 or / = 0 and then

)(=a+1loso=--.
2"
. .
The curve does not pass through the origin.
3. Asy'mptotes. When I = 0, r -+ - - andy = 0.
Thus y = 0, i.e.,.r-axis is an asymptote to the curve.
4. Points of Intersection. The curve does not meet *-axis.
The curve meets r-axis (putting r = 0), where

+ 1,o los" tan2 1 = 0. *hich is satisfied bv/ = t-2'1.

x. = a cost
2
/ -\
and then J = a sin I t ; I = t o. Thus, the curve meets y-axis in the points (0, a o).
\ LJ

5. Region. We know that - 1 S sin / < 1

a<osinr<a. or -a<!<a
Thus, the curve lies entirely between the iines y = t o.
DIFFEHENTIAL CALCULUS _ I 273

6. Special Points. (i) From (1),

dx I I ^ t sec-"t-.- I
dt =-osrn1*-o,:.2Lan-.
2 Lan'tlz 2 22
( | ) / 1) o cos2
= a | -surr+-2 sintl2 costl2 I - ol -srnf +-sin, | =
1

| ) \ / sin,
dy
dtc
=acos, -
dy
dv )t o cos,
...(2)
dx dx a cos" t
dt sin t
d!-
= *, when t= r
1
and thenr = o, y = r ct.

Thus, at the points (0, ta) the tangent is ll toy-axis.

1.2., y-axis itself is a tangent at the points (0, to).

* = o,*t.nt = 0 and, then r -+ -, v = 0, showing

that y = Q or r-axis is an asymptote as proved earlier.
dy
From (2), =tan/
dx

Diff. w.r.t. r,
d'v .. dt
--------=sec-r-
dx
sin,
. r. """"""'- sin I
= Sec- = -- -- ---
a cos' I a cos' I

. 4 * +ve for values of1 in [0, rl.

dxz
.'. The curve is concave upwards for values of, in [0, t].
The shape ofthe curve is as shown in the figure.
),
Example B. Trace the curue x = "Ariil, t =
i#
at (l+ t2) o.t ll' t2 )
Sol. We have, ...( 1) and -v = ,
1+ 1* 1+ t'
Let us eliminate I from equations (1) and (2) to form Cartesian Equation.
Dividing eqn. (1) by eqn. (2), we have
x 1+t2 o^-
-r-Y
...(3)
y l-i ' **Y
From (1), we have
x2(l + ta)z = a2t2 (! + t2)2 I Squaring
274 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Putting the value of t2 from (3),

,rl r*r* - yfl' - a2 tx - yt l r* x,+yl

- y )2
I lx*ytz) x+y [
yt2 * tx . yl2l2 o' ,,* - yll z*
or *z llx + - (r + l'
tx + )tta Y) [(r + Y).]
(tc2 + y2)2 = o,2(x2
-y2) ...(4)
1. Symmetry. Curve (4) is symmetrical both about r-axis andy-axis.
2. Origin. Curve (4) passes through the origin.
Tangents at the origin are a2(x2 - !2) = 0 (Equating lowest degree terms to zero)
But tt+O :. *2-y2=O or y2=x2 .'. !=tx.
Asymptotes. T?re curve has no as,'mptotes.
3.
4. Points of Intersection.
(i) Intersections with x-axis.
Putting y = 0 in eqn. (4), x4 = a2x2 or x2 (* - a2) = O

.'. Either x=O or x2=a2 i.e., x=ta

.'. Intersections ofthe curve (4) with r-axis are
(- a, 0) (0,0) and (a,0).
(ii) Intersections with y-axis.
Putting r = 0 in eqn. (4),ya =-a2y2
or ya +o\2 =O or !2(J2+a2)=0
:. y=0 ot y =x.ia
.'. The only point of intersection ofcurve (4)
with ry-axis is (0, 0).
Thus the shape ofihe curve is as shown in the figure.

TESTYOURI$IOWLEDGE
Trace the following curues:
1. * =a(0+ sin0),y =a(1-cos 0) 2. r=a(0-sin 0),y = a(1 + cos 0)
3. r =o(0. sin 0),y = a(1 - cos 0) (A.K.T.U. 17)4. r=r2,y =t- i t3

- a(!-t2) atlT-t2l
- 6.r =a [cos0-log(1 + cos 0)l,y =o sin 0
1+tz L+ t'

Answers
l.
0=-n afi A ar 0=7r
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - I 275

ASSIGNMEI{T II
1, Find y, ify = xn -7 (M.T.U. 2012)
r-1
2. What is the asFnptote ofthe curve y2 (2d - tt\ = x3? (M.T.U. 2012)
3. What is the (zn)th derivative ofy =(x2 - l)L'l
4. Find the eighth derivative ofy = 3r8.
5. Ify = sinh t then frnd yr, * r.
6. Find the zih derivative ofy = sin3 r.
7. Find the zth derivative ofy = 12 sin r. (u.P.T.U. 2014)

8. Find the nft derivative ofy = I + 1

x2 -4'
9. Find the nth derivative ofr2e ' at r = 0. (4.K.T.U.2018)
1o, Find the nth derivative ofy = ,sin-, r .1a = 0.
11. Ify= eo"in ", find the val:ue of (l-x2)y, x!r-a2!. (4.K.T.U.2016)
12. About which ofthe axes, the curve xa3 + la3 = q%a is symmetrical? (G.8.T.U.2011)
13. Write an asymptote ofa curve given by
:t2y - xy2 + xy + y2 + x - y = 0.
14, Ify = a sqs (lqgr) + b sin (logr), then frnd (y,)0. (G.B.T.U. 2012)
15. Ify e
= 'cos x, then find the value ofyn+ 4y.
16. (i) Find the 8th derivative ofr2e'. (G.B.,t.U. 2013)
(ii) If y -- r2e' then fiid, y (u.P.T.U. 2014)
17. Find all the asymptotes of ^. the cuwe ry2 4a2 (2a r).
= - (u.P.T.U. 2014)

18. Evaluate lim ,

(
x, r) -(O,O) x'"4+ y'"
276 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

-';
re. Showtharrheruncrion/*.r,=
{*' ;i:: li.ll:ll.3l
is not continuous at the Point (1, 2),
20. Find the envelope of the family of curv es y = n1'x.
21. Find the envelope ofthe family of straight lines r cos cx +y sin o = o sec o where ois a parameter'
Finrl the envelope ofthe straight lines ty - x = otz ' l1ere t is the parameter'

Find the envelope ofthe family oflines y = m;c + 9 where rz is a parameter'

Find the envelope of the family of straight lines y =-rt L wheremisaparameter'

25. Find the envelope of the family of (* - o)2 + y' = 2a where a is a parameter'
26. State two properties ofevolute.
y'
27. What do you unclerstand by an envelope? Develop a method of finding it from a curye F(r' c) =
0
wherecisaparameter.
28. Prove that any singular point of any curve ofa given family is a point on its envelope'
What is the geometrical relation ofthe envelope to the members ofthe family ofthe curves?
parameter'
30. Show that the family of straight lines 2y - 4r + cr = 0 has no envelope, where o is a
31. Find the envetoDe ofthe svstem ofstraight lines 2y Slr + al3 = 0 where f is the parameter' Find
ifilii,i""aiiiit".k ii," poii,i oi o"f the enveiope and the particu la r mem ber of the syslem
when J = 2.
"ortu*
'r:r, ,r,r,*,6.g, ..
Slro\ that the function flx, yr= lr+y ts drscontrDuous at the point (0' 0l'
(I O, r.r, y r -{0,0r
Show that the function l(r, y) = , -y is continuous for all (r, y) e R2'
3

34. Show that(r. lim 0) ^\ does not exist.

rr_'(0 rz + vo
35. Let A = {(r, y); A < r < 7, O< y< 7, x, y e R}. Let/: A + R be dehned by fl*, y) = * + y'

Sho*'that Iim lt,yl=!z

(''') -{,;)
Answers
1.0 2. i = 2.1 3.2n1 4.3(8)!
' nn\
5. cosh r 6. l"inlr+ III- t rar'sin l3x r":1 '1, \n o.
- n't sln
nlt
4 \ 2) 4 -
1
8' r ll4 n'. 3 t ''*'',,-r'
I
9. n(n - 1) (- 1)'
l';2f
ll2.r|z t 22)tl2 42 1......112 *tn 2121. whenn iseven
y,(0\=',2
10. ,i f re,t12 _12 1 i2 t tn-2121, whenn isodd
lr .1r
11. 0 12. both the co-ordinate axes 13.*+y=g
14. 0 15' 0 16. (i) e'(r2 + 16r + 56) (ii) el lx2 + 2nr + n(n - 7)l

17. r =0 18. does not exist 19. 4a2t (.t2 + 2) 2O.Y=A

21. y2 = 4ah - x) 22. y2 = 4qr. 23, y2 -- 4ax 24, y2 = 4*

25. t, -rl".l) 81. (4o,8a)