polymers

Review
Chitosan as a Tool for Sustainable Development: A Mini Review
Soundouss Maliki 1 , Gaurav Sharma 2,3,4, * , Amit Kumar 2,3 , María Moral-Zamorano 1 , Omid Moradi 5 ,
Juan Baselga 1 , Florian J. Stadler 3 and Alberto García-Peñas 1, *

1 Departamento de Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales e Ingeniería Química (IAAB), Universidad Carlos III de
Madrid, 28911 Leganés, Spain; [email protected] (S.M.); [email protected] (M.M.-Z.);
[email protected] (J.B.)
2 International Research Centre of Nanotechnology for Himalayan Sustainability (IRCNHS),
Shoolini University, Solan 173212, India; [email protected]
3 College of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Polymer Science and Technology,
Guangdong Research Center for Interfacial Engineering of Functional Materials, Nanshan District Key
Laboratory for Biopolymers and Safety Evaluation, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;
[email protected]
4 School of Science and Technology, Glocal University, Saharanpur 247001, India
5 Department of Chemistry, Shahr-e-Qods Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 61349, Iran;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (G.S.); [email protected] (A.G.-P.)

Abstract: New developments require innovative ecofriendly materials defined by their biocompatibil-
ity, biodegradability, and versatility. For that reason, the scientific society is focused on biopolymers
such as chitosan, which is the second most abundant in the world after cellulose. These new materials
should show good properties in terms of sustainability, circularity, and energy consumption during
industrial applications. The idea is to replace traditional raw materials with new ecofriendly materials



which contribute to keeping a high production rate but also reducing its environmental impact and


the costs. The chitosan shows interesting and unique properties, thus it can be used for different
Citation: Maliki, S.; Sharma, G.;
purposes which contributes to the design and development of sustainable novel materials. This
Kumar, A.; Moral-Zamorano, M.;
helps in promoting sustainability through the use of chitosan and diverse materials based on it. For
Moradi, O.; Baselga, J.; Stadler, F.J.;
García-Peñas, A. Chitosan as a Tool
example, it is a good sustainable alternative for food packaging or it can be used for sustainable
for Sustainable Development: A Mini agriculture. The chitosan can also reduce the pollution of other industrial processes such as paper
Review. Polymers 2022, 14, 1475. production. This mini review collects some of the most important advances for the sustainable use of
https://doi.org/10.3390/ chitosan for promoting circular economy. Hence, the present review focuses on different aspects of
polym14071475 chitosan from its synthesis to multiple applications.

Academic Editor: Luminita Marin

Keywords: chitosan; sustainable development; circular economy; biopolymers
Received: 31 January 2022
Accepted: 2 April 2022
Published: 5 April 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

1. Introduction: Necessity of Alternative Materials for a Circular Economy
with regard to jurisdictional claims in The new regulations promoted by numerous governments are trying to take care
published maps and institutional affil- of the environment by protecting actions and behaviors to develop a new sustainable
iations. economy. Some of the most important goals of these laws are aimed at the reduction
of the excessive consumption of non-renewable raw materials, especially those derived
from natural sources. The extraction and cleaning of raw materials are responsible for soil
degradation, biodiversity loss, water shortages, and global warming. The use of residues as
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
raw materials is a new concept derived from the circular economy which could definitely
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
contribute to the reduction of the huge amounts of trash accumulated in landfills. The
This article is an open access article
concept of a circular material means that a new product can be obtained from the old one
distributed under the terms and
which is acting as a raw material. The new product will exhibit the same properties and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
qualities as the previous one, i.e., materials will remain in a continuous cycle of life. In
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
general, a huge amount of this waste is composed of plastics whose versatility and wide
4.0/).
range of properties makes it difficult to get a competitive alternative in terms of costs.

Polymers 2022, 14, 1475. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071475 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 2 of 27

Some biopolymers being investigated by scientists and industry are biodegradable, and
specifically, obtained from agricultural and food processing waste. Chitosan is one of the
most studied biopolymers due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, adhesivity, and
bioactivity. Chitosan is the second most abundant biopolymer in the world after cellulose;
this arouses researchers’ interest in fabricated novel and sustainable materials based on it.
On the other hand, its low cost also makes it a good choice of material [1]. The chitosan
is used in a wide range of applications and industries, related to agriculture, pharmacy,
medicine, food, or textile among others [2–6]. Nonetheless, new developments involve
biomedicine, biotechnology, wastewater treatment, catalysis, packaging, or bioimaging
which are essential for a new sustainable era where chitosan can provide versatility, recycla-
bility, and low cost. The nature and properties of chitosan lend themselves to sustainability
criteria, due to its biodegradability, bioactivity, or the obtaining method, but there are
also some specific applications related to sustainability where the chitosan can play an
important role, in terms of efficiency, yield, and cost. Probably, the most important appli-
cations of chitosan in this field are associated with wastewater treatment, absorption of
pollutants, or their uses as a chelation agent, an antiviral agent, or a substitute material in
the paper industry [7]. Some of these recent advances involve chitosan for the preparation
of composites or functionalized materials, such as aerogels based on chitosan and soot.
Chitosan biopolymer can be functionalized by several function groups. Functional-
ization can be grafting, addition, coupling, crosslinking, etc. [8]. These were tested for
the adsorption of dyes and other pollutants, such as naphthalene, showing interesting
results [9]. The combination of chitosan with other materials such as collagen can also
increase the range of its features [10]; for instance, the preparation of tailored scaffolds
which allows adapting their properties to clinical demand [10].
The preparation of nanoparticles or nanocomposites also contributes to the circu-
lar economy, as a lower amount of raw materials is necessary for developing a specific
application-based sustainable materials. Nanocomposites with magnesium show great
activity against different pathogens developed in many plants, such as Acidovorax oryzae
and Rhizoctonia solani which both are rice pathogens [11]. A greater surface area can be
obtained through the production of thin films reducing the amount of raw materials and
consequently the volume of waste after use, but keeping the same properties of the origi-
nal films. Some of these developments can be carried out using chitosan, specifically for
the food packaging [12]. This mini review collects some of the most relevant points that
chitosan can offer for sustainable development. The new trends in science are focused on
green chemistry and the circular economy; this manuscript collects brief goals, methods,
and applications which are essential for understanding the importance of chitosan for
new generations.

1.1. Chitosan as a Renewable Material

1.1.1. Chitosan as a Biomaterial
Chitosan is obtained through the deacetylation of chitin, which is one of the most
abundant biomaterials after cellulose. This one is a polysaccharide which can be found
in crustaceans, insects, or fungi (Table 1) [13]. Chitin is considered a linear long-chain
homopolymer which is composed of N-acetyl glucosamine, and can develop three poly-
morphic forms known as α-, β-, and γ-chitin [14].
Commercial chitosan (Figure 1) is composed of D-glucosamine and N-acetyl glu-
cosamine and is produced by the partial deacetylation of chitin. This reaction carries out
the change of acetamido groups into amino groups. There are three kinds of this biopoly-
mer depending on its molecular weight: low molecular weight, high molecular weight,
and oligochitosans [15].
 Fungi
Insects
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475
Oysters 3 of 27

Clams
Table 1. Some of the main chitin sources and percentages [13].

Source Percentage (%)

Commercial
Shrimps chitosan (Figure
30–40% 1) is comp
cosamineSquids
and
Krill
is produced by the partial deace
20–40%
20–30%

the changeCrabsof acetamido groups15–30%into amino gr

Fungi 10–25%
ymer depending
Insects on its molecular
5–25% weight: low
Oysters 3–6%
and oligochitosans
Clams
[15]. 3–6%

Figure 1. Chemical structure of chitosan.

Figure 1. Chemical structure of chitosan.
1.1.2. General Features and Properties of Chitosan
The main properties which can contribute to a sustainable development that are exhib-
ited by the chitosan are non-toxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Nevertheless,

1.1.2. General Features and Properties of Chito

there are other interesting properties and characteristics which explain its versatility which
can be deduced from Table 2.

The main properties which can contribute

hibited by the chitosan are non-toxicity, biod
theless, there are other interesting properties a
tility which can be deduced from Table 2.

Table 2. General properties of chitosan [16, 17].

Property Conditions
Dilute acids
(pH < 6). Insol-
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 4 of 27

Table 2. General properties of chitosan [16,17].

Property Conditions Use References

Dilute acids (pH < 6). Insoluble in organic
Solubility Water treatment [18,19]
solvents and water
Antibacterial, antifungal mucoadhesive
Activity [20–22]
analgesic, and hemostatic properties
Depends on molecular weight and
Degradation [18,23]
deacetylation degree
Biocompatibility Physiological medium Biomedical applications [7,24]
The removal of heavy metals and dyes
Chelating properties Capability to bind and adsorb diverse ions [25,26]
from wastewater
Biodegradability Biodegradable to normal body constituents [24,27,28]
Hemostatic Stop a hemorrhage [29,30]
Catalyst Accelerates the formation of osteoblast [31]
Fungicide Stopping the development of fungi [32,33]
Spermicidal Reduce the mobility of spermatozoa [34]
Anticholesteremic Reducing agent cholesterol [35,36]
Anticancer Inhibiting the development of cancer cells [37]
Conductivity Ionic conductivity [38,39]
Interactions with negatively
Flocculating agent Water treatment [40]
charged molecules
Thickener Increase the viscosity [41]
Polyelectrolytes Acidic medium [42]
Adsorption Separation and filtration [43–45]
Clarifying agent Immobilization of enzymes [46]

From the presentation of Table 2, it can be deduced that chitosan is a sustainable

material as it is biodegradable and non-toxicity [47]. Another important reason for using
chitosan is the presence of a large number of hydroxyl and amino groups in its structure
which are suitable for chemical modifications [48]. This fact and the wide versatility of
chitosan makes this material especially interesting for the preparation of suspensions,
composites, functionalized materials, or (nano)hybrids for diverse eco-friendly purposes
and applications. The interesting polymorphic behavior exhibited by the chitosan [49],
together with the molar mass and degree of deacetylation, mainly defines its mechanical
properties. The molar mass will also play an important role for other properties such as
degradation degree or antibacterial activity as these are strongly affected by the changes in
molar mass.
On the other hand, the degree of deacetylation is associated with the content of ac-
etamide groups of polymeric chains. These groups will strongly affect the final features and
properties of the chitosan, in particular its capacity to be biodegradable and its immunolog-
ical activity. The deacetylation degree is defined between 50 and 99%, its content depends
on the preparation methods. The deacetylation degree must be higher than 50% for the
chitosan; below that value, it is considered chitin [18]. Some of the most important uses
of chitosan are associated with biomedical applications. Nevertheless, new developments
related to chitosan focus on agriculture, food packaging, textiles, or environmental applica-
tions [50]. The solubility of the chitosan depends on the medium being used to dissolve it; in
acid mixtures with water, it is soluble, but it is insoluble in common organic solvents [51,52].
The reason for its solubility can be explained due to the presence of amino groups that
transforms chitosan into a base, whose protonation produces a polyelectrolyte [53]. The
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 5 of 27

presence of different functional groups is responsible for the reactivity and the flexibility of
this polycationic polymer [54]. Chitosan biofilms show a semi-crystalline behavior, together
with high hydrophobicity and little flexibility [55].

1.1.3. Chitosan as an Ecofriendly Biopolymer and Its Applications

Chitosan is considered a natural biopolymer; it has received remarkable attention
from the scientific community due to the fact that it can be easily biodegraded. Its residues
are not toxic and can be easily eliminated and biodegraded by nature [7]. One of the
most important problems associated with the raw materials is that these are limited, but
chitosan is the most abundant biopolymer after cellulose. Furthermore, chitosan exhibits a
great biocompatibility, limited by its low solubility which can be solved through chemical
modifications and hydrolysis. Chitosan is a bioactive material which can be modulated and
used in many applications [56]. Some of these applications are associated with biomedical
purposes such as drug delivery systems, scaffolds, or membranes. Nevertheless, there are
other important uses such as in the textile industry, wastewater treatments, agriculture,
food, packaging, personal care, and biotechnology, among others. The adsorbent properties
of chitosan are very useful for removing different heavy metal ions accumulated in water
and derived from industrial processes such as Pb2+ , Hg2+ , and Cu2+ , among others [57].
These can be accumulated inside the body and produce numerous diseases [58]. Chitosan
can contribute to the agriculture by improving the harvest and productivity, being an
ecofriendly material. It is used as a coating for seeds, enhancing the properties of the
plants and the obtained products in terms of shelf life. This use as fertilizer is especially
useful for plant protection as it can stimulate the plant defense, but it can also act as an
antibacterial and antimicrobial agent [59]. Thus, chitosan acts as a plant growth-promoting
agent and plant protector [60]. For that reason, it is considered a pesticide by several
countries. The antioxidant properties of chitosan, together with its antimicrobial features,
are suitable for the production of films for food packaging. The preparation of hybrid
materials with chitosan allows modifying the permeability of those films depending on
the requirements [2]. The chitosan can also be used as a food additive, dietary fiber, and
functional ingredient [61,62].

2. Sustainable Production
2.1. Chitin Extraction
The extraction of chitin is necessary for the production of chitosan such as it was
previously explained. A huge amount of chitin is obtained from crustaceans, but there are
multiple advances in its production through insects or fungi and bacteria, thus avoiding the
use of animal derivatives [63]. In general, the extraction requires several steps starting with
the removal of mineral salts and proteins (Figure 2). It is commonly carried out chemically,
using acids and bases, which is not a sustainable process. These processes can destroy some
properties of chitosan, reducing its versatility. Currently, there are multiple advances in
natural deep eutectic solvents which could replace the hazardous solvents and preserve
the features of chitin. There is another option based on the use of microorganisms for
the extraction of chitin known as a biological method [64]. In general, these methods are
especially indicated for the treatment of fungi and bacteria whilst chemical processes are
related to the treatment of crustaceans. After removing the minerals and proteins, chitin
requires a depigmentation process which is generally performed using oxidizing agents.
The use of the enzymes could be a feasible way for removing the proteins, which can reduce
the degree of depolymerization in comparison with traditional methods. That chitin also
showed a better solubility in water probably due to a lower crystallinity of the product [65].
The specific use of the trypsin also induces the depigmentation, reducing the steps involved
in the extraction of chitin [66]. There is a lot of ground to cover in terms of sustainability
around processes for the extraction of chitin associated with environmental pollution, loss
of chitin properties, and costs. One of the main consequences of this extraction is the
polluted wastewater, which needs to be treated.
Polymers 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 28
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 6 of 27

Figure 2. Extraction of chitin. DES: deep eutectic solvents; HBA: hydrogen bond acceptor; HBD:
hydrogen bond donor.

2.2. Chitosan Production

Figure
Figure 2. 2. Extraction
Extraction ofofchitin.
chitin.DES:
DES:deep
deepeutectic
eutectic solvents;
solvents; HBA:
HBA:hydrogen
hydrogenbond
bondacceptor; HBD:
acceptor; HBD:
hydrogen
hydrogen bonddonor.
bond donor.
The production of chitosan requires the deacetylation of chitin; this process can be
modulated through 2.2. Chitosan Production
2.2. concentration,
Chitosan Productiontemperature, and time [7]. Scheme 1 shows the
The production of chitosan requires the deacetylation of chitin; this process can be
changes produced in chitin after being
The production transformed
of chitosan into
requires thechitosan.
deacetylation of chitin; this process can be
modulated through concentration, temperature, and time [7]. Scheme 1 shows the changes
modulated through
produced in concentration,
chitin after temperature,
being transformed and time [7]. Scheme 1 shows the
into chitosan.
changes produced in chitin after being transformed into chitosan.

Scheme 1. Deacetylation of chitin.

Scheme 1. Deacetylation of chitin.
SchemeThe1. Deacetylation of chitin.
traditional method to obtain chitosan from chitin was reported in 1980, which
promotes a high deacetylation due to rapid reaction rates at reduced temperatures [67].
The traditional method
Theare
There to obtain
traditional
different ways chitosan
method to carry from
to obtain
out the chitinfrom
chitosan wassuch
deacetylation reported
chitinaswas intreatment,
1980,inwhich
reported
alkali 1980,
the usewhich
promotes a high deacetylation
of enzymes,
promotes a high due
or a to rapid reaction
steam explosion
deacetylation [16,68,69].
due to rapid rates
The at reduced
degree
reaction rates at temperatures
of deacetylation will define
reduced temperatures [67].
the [67].
spectra of properties of the chitosan in terms of features such as solubility, viscosity, or
There are differentThere
waysare todifferent
carry out ways thetodeacetylation
carry out the deacetylation
such as alkali such treatment,
as alkali treatment,
the use the use
biodegradability, etc. [70]. There are numerous alternatives where the energy consumption
of enzymes,
of enzymes, or a steam or a steam68, explosion [16,degree
68, 69]. The degree of deacetylation will define the
can explosion
be reduced, [16,
contributing 69].toThe
a green of deacetylation
chemistry. Those methods will define
explore the use the
of
spectra of properties of the chitosan in terms of features such as solubility, viscosity, or
spectra of propertiesmicrowaves
of the chitosan in terms
and ultrasonic wavesof infeatures such asprocess.
the deacetylation solubility,
The useviscosity,
of ultrasonicor
biodegradability, etc. [70].the
waves leads to enhancing There are numerous
reactivity alternatives
of the deacetylation where
process [71].the energy
Some of theconsump-
new
biodegradability, etc.
tion [70]. There
can be reduced, are numerous
contributing alternatives where the energy consump-
approaches are displayed in Table 3,toshowing
a greensome
chemistry. Those
of the most methods
interesting explore
advances the use of
related
tion can be reduced, contributing
microwaves and to
to the sustainable a greenwaves
ultrasonic
production chemistry.
of in the Those
chitosan. methods
deacetylation explore
process. The the
use use of
of ultrasonic
microwaves and ultrasonic
waves leadswaves in thethe
to enhancing deacetylation process.
reactivity of the The use
deacetylation of ultrasonic
process [71]. Some of the
new approaches are displayed in Table 3, showing some of the
waves leads to enhancing the reactivity of the deacetylation process [71]. Some of the most interesting advanc-
es related to the sustainable production of chitosan.
new approaches are displayed in Table 3, showing some of the most interesting advanc-
es related to the sustainable production of chitosan.
 Table 3. New methods for the production of chitosan.

Treatment Disadvantages Advantages Referenc

Only for deproteination Depigmentation of treated
Trypsin (crustaceans) [66]
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475
step material 7 of 27
Streptomyces griseus Only for deproteiniza-
Better solubility [65]
(crustaceans) tion
Bacillus
Table 3. New mojavensis
methods for the production of chitosan.
A21
Treatment
Deproteinization
Disadvantages
re- Advantages Reference
or Optimized process [72]
quires NaOH
Balistes capriscus Only for Depigmentation of
Trypsin (crustaceans) [66]
(crustaceans) deproteination step treated material
Streptomyces griseus Only for Cheap, low energy con-
Rhizopus oryzae Better solubility [65]
(crustaceans) deproteinization
Fermentation sumption, and soft condi- [73]
(fungi)
Bacillus mojavensis A21 tions
or Deproteinization
Optimized process [72]
Balistes capriscus requires NaOH
2.3. Circularity
(crustaceans)
in the Chitosan Production
The traditional methods can also be adapted, Cheap, lowat least partially, trying to get
energy
Rhizopus oryzae
tainable production
(fungi)
of chitosan. For that purpose,
Fermentation consumption,it is
andnecessary[73]to reduce the e
consumption by reusing the hazardous reagents. soft conditions
The recovery of sodium hyd
used in the extraction of chitosan was reported in studies. The sodium hydroxide
of wastewater
2.3. Circularity and could
in the Chitosan be treated using ultrafiltration and nanofiltration mem
Production
recovering the sodium hydroxide
The traditional methods can also be adapted, for a new
at leastcycle of lifetrying
partially, [74, 75]. The
to get reuse of s
a sus-
hydroxide
tainable productioncan contributeFor
of chitosan. tothat
a decrease
purpose, theit is environmental pollution
necessary to reduce and reduci
the energy
cost ofbythe
consumption process,
reusing i.e., a lower
the hazardous amount
reagents. The of sodium
recovery hydroxide
of sodium will be
hydroxide required.
used
in the were
extraction of chitosan was reported in studies. The sodium hydroxide
also reports for the preparation of chitosan at ambient temperature, followi is part of
wastewater
generaland procedure
could be treated using ultrafiltrationdeproteinization,
of demineralization, and nanofiltration membranes recov-
and decolorization [76
ering the sodium hydroxide for a new cycle of life [74,75]. The reuse of sodium
fact could also be quite interesting, due to the reduced energy consumption. Th hydroxide
can contribute to a decrease the environmental pollution and reducing the cost of the
volving circularity in the production of chitosan can be very beneficial and econom
process, i.e., a lower amount of sodium hydroxide will be required. There were also reports
better.
for the preparation of chitosan at ambient temperature, following the general procedure of
demineralization, deproteinization, and decolorization [76]. This fact could also be quite
3. Applications
interesting, of Chitosan
due to the reduced energyfor SustainableThus,
consumption. Development
involving circularity in the
production of chitosan can be very beneficial and economically
Chitosan can contribute to sustainable development better. through its application
uses. This review tries to expose some of the most important applications related
3. Applications of Chitosan for Sustainable Development
contribution of chitosan to a circular economy and sustainability. Figure 3 depic
Chitosan can contribute to sustainable development through its applications and
diversified application of chitosan.
uses. This review tries to expose some of the most important applications related to the
contribution of chitosan to a circular economy and sustainability. Figure 3 depicts the
diversified application of chitosan.

Figure 3. Different uses of chitosan.

Figure 3. Different uses of chitosan.
3.1. Sustainable Use of Chitosan for Food Packaging and in Agriculture
3.1. Sustainable
Many biopolymersUseare of Chitosan
being for Foodin
implemented Packaging and in Agriculture
different coating materials due to their
excellent properties in terms of degradability and compatibility;
Many biopolymers are being implemented in different these biopolymers include
coating materials d
gums, their
starch, proteins cellulose, lipids, and their derivatives [77–83]. In this
excellent properties in terms of degradability and compatibility; these sense, chi- biopol
tosan is a promising material for that purpose due to several reasons associated with its
include gums, starch, proteins cellulose, lipids, and their derivatives [77-83]. I
biocompatibility and abundance [84,85]. The use of the chitosan in films can also provide
sense, chitosan is a promising material for that purpose due to several reasons asso
other superiorities because of its antibacterial and antioxidant properties [86–89]. In gen-
eral, chitosan is used in combination with other polymers due to some of its drawbacks
associated with its low mechanical properties. Another important problem associated with
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 8 of 27

chitosan is related to its water sensitivity [90]. The preparation of blends can diminish these
problems, thus obtaining films with a wide range of properties. The miscibility problems
between the mixtures of polymers can reduce the spectra of possibilities, but in general,
the preparation of these films is easy and cheap. The preparation of these systems could
be a good alternative regarding traditional films based on oil derivatives [91]. Table 3
displays some of the most promising blends of chitosan, based on the mixtures with other
biopolymers. There are other mixtures with synthetic polymer of chitosan that are not
included in this review, as those do not fit the sustainability criteria of the present review.
Numerous composites of chitosan have been fabricated with graphene, carbon nanotubes,
activated carbon, and metal nanoparticles [92–95]. One study suggests that poly(L-lactic
acid)-ZnO multilayered with cationic chitosan and anionic β-cyclodextrin can be used as a
promising material in applications for the active packaging of food [96]. A novel bilayer
food packing film of Ag-Metal−organic framework loaded p-coumaric acid modified chi-
tosan (P-CS/Ag@MOF) or chitosan nanoparticles (P-CSNPs/Ag@MOF) and polyvinyl
alcohol/starch (PVA/ST) was fabricated. The bilayer composite film revealed a relatively
smooth surface and higher tensile strength (27.67 MPa). The P-CS/Ag@MOF bilayer films
displayed better oil resistance and oxidation resistance, and the bilayer film had good UV-
blocking properties and transparency [97]. The diverse blend composites of chitosan have
been developed with various natural antimicrobial compounds and have been applied for
antimicrobial food packaging; such antimicrobial compounds include thyme oil, spirulina,
oregano essential oil, nisin, apple peel polyphenols, bamboo vinegar, cinnamon essential
oil, custard apple leaves, plum peel extract, etc. [98–104]. The antibacterial nanofiber films
were fabricated using gelatin, chitosan, and 3-phenyllactic acid (PLA) by electrospinning.
Under acidic conditions, chitosan and PLA interacted and formed hydrogen bonds, which
decreased the crystallinity of the nanofiber films. The nanofiber film had the best ther-
mal stability, water stability, water vapor permeability, and more effective antibacterial
effects against Salmonella enterica Enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus, suggesting that the
nanofiber film mat can be used as an active food packaging [105]. Similarly, Wang et al.
discussed various chitosan and gelatin edible films, their synthesis strategies including
casting, electrospinning, and thermoplastic method, and their properties in their review,
thus highlighting importance of chitosan-based food packing films [106]. In Argentina,
chitosan is produced from the waste of the shrimp industry; the synthesized chitosan has
similar physicochemical properties to those of analytical grade chitosan. The chitosan
coatings applied to processed lettuce at harvest increased nutritional quality and reduced
microbiological contaminants in minimal processed lettuce [107]. Panda et al. fabricated
ferulic acid-modified water-soluble chitosan and poly(γ-glutamic acid) polyelectrolyte
multilayers films. These film surfaces possessed a reduced amount of protein adsorption;
thus, these can be used as a potential good biomaterial for biomedical purposes to intensify
the bio-active surface [108], thus prompting the concept of circularity and sustainability.
Tables 4 and 5 show the effects of some films over the food due to the use of chitosan which
could modify its properties.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 9 of 27

Table 4. Selection of blends of chitosan with other biopolymers for food packaging.

Biopolymer Chitosan Characteristics Reference

Good mechanical properties.
Pectin (2% w/v) 2% w/v [109,110]
Antimicrobial activity.
Better mechanical properties
Carboxymethyl cellulose and permeability.
1% w/v [111–113]
(1–2% w/v) Antioxidant and
antimicrobial activity.
High elasticity. Antioxidant
Gum arabic (1.5% w/v) 1.5% w/v [114,115]
and antimicrobial activity.
Cassava starch (3% w/v) 0.5% w/v Antibacterial activity. [116]
Higher tensile strength and
Corn starch (5% w/v) (1, 2, 3, and 4% w/v) elasticity. Lower [117]
permeability.
Rice starch (2% w/v) Better barrier properties. [118]

Table 5. Effects of films based on chitosan over food.

Blend Food Effects References

Chitosan-glycerol film
(Good mechanical and Better preservation effect than the
Strawberry [119]
barrier properties. commercially available PE films.
Stability)
Gelatin/chitosan film with nanocarriers
High content of nanocarriers allows the
(FeIII -HMOF-5)
Apple cubes preservation of apple cubes during [120]
(Good results in mechanical properties
5 days.
and permeability)
Chitosan films (modified with mango
leaf extract)
Cashew nuts High oxidation resistance. [121]
(Higher hydrophobicity and
tensile strength)
Chitosan/gelatin film with silver
nanoparticles Antimicrobial properties and high
Red grapes [122]
(Better hydrophobicity and oxidation resistance.
antibacterial properties)
Polyurethane/chitosan/nano ZnO
composite film (Better mechanical Carrot Better shelf life than polyethylene film [19]
properties, low permeability)
Pullulan/chitosan film (good barrier Maintained the physiological and
Papayas [123]
to O2 ) nutritional attributes. High shelf life.
Chitosan-TiO2 nanocomposite film
Delay the ripening process and extend
(Better tensile strength and barrier Tomatoes [124]
the storage life.
properties)
Possess good antioxidant, antibacterial,
Cellulose/chitosan/polypyrrole film Cherry tomatoes [125]
and barrier properties
Baicalin-liposomes loaded polyvinyl Possessed effective antibacterial
alcohol-chitosan electrospinning Mushrooms properties, non-cytotoxicity, and [126]
nanofibrous films preservation performance
Active packaging films based on Good antioxidant and
Shrimps [127]
chitosan and sardinella protein isolate antibacterial activities
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 10 of 27

Table 5. Cont.

Blend Food Effects References

Inhibiting Salmonella typhimurium
ε-polylysine/chitosan nanofibers Chicken and Salmonella [128]
enteritidis on chicken
Chitosan films embedded with Apricot Better antioxidant, mechanical, and
Bread [129]
(Prunus armeniaca) oil antimicrobial properties
Addition of chitosan nanoparticle can
Zein active film containing chitosan increase the thermal stability of zein
nanoparticle encapsulated with Pork active film [130]
pomegranate peel extract Film can inhibit the growth of Listeria
monocytogenes on pork
Excellent anti-bacterial properties
Mahua oil-based
against Gram positive and
polyurethane/chitosan/nano ZnO Carrot [131]
Gram-negative bacteria
composite films
Increase shelf life of carrot
Carboxymethyl chitosan
Blueberry Extend the shelf-life of blueberry [132]
(CMCh)-peptide conjugates
Effective in delaying ripening and
Chitosan-based biodegradable bags Palmer’s mango [133]
preserving the quality
Composite films based on chitosan and Films exhibited higher density, water
Quail eggs [134]
syringic acid solubility, good preservation effect
Films based on quaternary ammonium Enhanced the UV–vis light barrier,
chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol, and elongation-at-break, and antioxidant,
Shrimp [135]
betalains-rich cactus pears (Opuntia antimicrobial and
ficus-indica) extract ammonia-sensitive properties
Chitosan coating with Extend the shelf life of beef
Beef [136]
vacuum packaging Inhibited S. aureus
Improve quality and extend shelf-life of
Chitosan coatings Lettuce [107]
minimally processed lettuce
Chitosan films incorporating litchi peel Coating treatment significantly
extract and titanium dioxide Watercored apple inhibited respiration rate, weight loss, [137]
nanoparticles and softening
Polylactic acid/chitosan films Indian white prawn Antimicrobial properties [138]
Edible coating as a natural antioxidant,
Chitosan-Gelatin (CHI-Gel) based
antimicrobial activity and inhibiting
edible coating incorporated with Shrimp [139]
melanosis, retain the quality and
longkong pericarp extract (LPE)
extend the shelf-life
Pink pepper residue extracts Shelf-life of the skinless salmon fillet
Salmon fillets [140]
incorporated in a chitosan film could be extended by 28 days
Improved mechanical, thermal, and
Chitosan film incorporated with citric
Green chilies antioxidant properties of the film were [141]
acid and glycerol
and increased shelf life

The chitosan can act as protector, coating material, stimulator of the growth, nutrient,
fertilizer, or pesticide in agriculture. It was also observed that the use of chitosan can
increase productivity. Furthermore, the use of chitosan could replace some dangerous
chemicals used as compounds of fertilizers in agriculture, protecting soil, aquifers, and
ecosystems [142]. It was reported that excellent antimicrobial activity was observed in
chitosan against many viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Nevertheless, its activity is higher
against fungi than bacteria. In general, the chitosan seems to inactivate the replication of
viruses [143]. Moreover, it is considered a potent elicitor which can induce plant defense
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 11 of 27

against diseases [144]. Table 6 shows some of the effects observed of chitosan over some
fruits and vegetables.

Table 6. Effects of chitosan and derivatives over some products.

Material/Use Plant Effects Reference

Plant defense (Enzymatic and
Chitosan with copper Tomato [145]
anatomical changes).
Disease protection and enhanced
Seed-priming with chitosan Cucumber [146]
plant growth.
Enhancement of the adverse
Foliar application of chitosan Sweet pepper effects of salinity and improved [147]
the growth and yield.
Chitosan solution (using a hand sprayer) Dracocephalum kotschyi Increase of antioxidant enzyme. [148]
Improvement in growth,
Chitosan (foliar spray or pre-sowing seed
Pea photosynthetic pigments, and [149]
treatments in Cd-stressed plants)
reduction in oxidative damage.
Mango (Amrapali
Chitosan (protective spray) Reduced malformation of mango. [150]
and Dashehari)
Chitosan nanoparticles Durum wheat Increase the leaf antioxidant pool. [151]
Improved the antioxidant enzyme
Chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) Tea plant (Camellia sinensis) activities and the content of [152]
chlorophyll and soluble sugar.
Preserved maize samples from
Chitosan nanoemulsion containing
Maize aflatoxin B1 and [153]
allspice essential oil
lipid peroxidation.
As a seed dressing agent found to
Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with have antifungal activity against
Wheat, oat, and barley [154]
garlic essential oil Aspergillus versicolor, A. niger, and
Fusarium oxysporum.
Inhibit postharvest berry
1.5% chitosan solution treatment Berry abscission of the ‘Kyoho’ [155]
table grapes.
Induced suberin polyphenolic
deposition at wound sites during
Preharvest chitosan sprays Muskmelons healing thus promoted wound [156]
healing and reduced
disease development.
Chitosan film containing Akebia trifoliata
Significant effect on the delaying
(Thunb.) Koidz. peel A. trifoliata fruits [157]
crack and mature of the fruits.
extract/montmorillonite
Significantly preserved the
Chitosan-based nanoencapsulated
Sorghum bicolor nutritional and sensory [158]
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. essential oil
characteristics of S. bicolor seeds.
Encapsulated peppermint essential oil in Biological efficacy against
- [159]
chitosan nanoparticles stored-grain pest control.

3.2. Sustainable Applications of Chitosan in Purification of Water, Paper-Making, and Green Chemistry
The chitosan is a good flocculant for water treatment, especially indicated for organic
matter, suspended solids, and ions (metals). Furthermore, the deposition rate is stimulated
when chitosan is used [160]. It is used over oil spills as it can preserve the integrity of the oil
mass. Its properties are also indicated for anionic waste where the chitosan can remove the
metal ions of the acid solutions. Some of the most attractive features of chitosan regarding
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 12 of 27

other flocculants are associated with its biodegradability and its adsorption and flocculating
ability, which show excellent results with oils [7]. However, there are many other pollutants
where the chitosan shows interesting results as can be observed in Table 7. Chitosan and
its composites demonstrate excellent adsorption properties for diversified environmental
contaminates ranging from organic pollutants to metal ions [47,161–165]. The mechanism
for the adsorption of toxic pollutants by chitosan and its composites involves various types
of interactions such as electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, π-π bonding, etc. The chitosan and
its composites had several hydroxyls and amino and carboxylic groups which are very
helpful for such interactions, thus making it more adsorbent.

Table 7. Examples of pollutants removed by chitosan and derivatives.

Pollutant Adsorbent Efficiency References

Chitosan/poly (vinyl alcohol)
Tetracycline 102 mg/g (maximum adsorption capacity) [166]
nanofibers
Ciprofloxacin Chitosan/biochar hydrogel 36.72 mg/g (uptake capacity) [167]
Magnetic polymer nanocomposite
Tetracycline was fabricated using chitosan, 168.24 mg/g (maximum adsorption capacity) [168]
diphenyl urea, and formaldehyde
Nanocomposite of
Tetracycline chitosan/thiobarbituric 215.31 mg/g (highest adsorption capacity) [169]
acid/malondialdehyde-Fe3 O4
Chitosan-grafted SiO2 /Fe3 O4
Antibiotics 100.74 mg/g (theoretical adsorption capacity) [170]
nanoparticles
Chitosan/Zr-MOF (UiO-66)
Ketoprofen Maximum adsorption capacity of 209.7 mg/g [171]
composite
Nitrilotriacetic acid modified
Tetracycline magnetic chitosan-based Adsorption capacity of 373.5 mg g−1 [172]
microspheres
Congo red Chitosan nanoparticles 99.96% [173]
Chitosan/κ-carrageenan/acid-
Maximum adsorption capacity for methylene
Methylene blue activated bentonite composite [174]
blue was 18.80 mg/g
membranes
Maximum adsorption capacity of the column
Azo dyes Glass beads coated with chitosan [175]
packed with GBCC was 108.7 mg g−1 .
Maximum adsorption capacity for MO was
Methyl orange Chitosan-lysozyme biocomposite [176]
435 mg/g
Bivinylbenzene cross-linked
Methylene blue chitosan/maleic anhydride Adsorption capacity for MB 503 mg/g [177]
polymer
Acid Orange 7 (AO7, monovalent), Acid Red
Acid orange 7 (AO7,
13 (AR13, divalent), and Acid Red 27 (AR27,
monovalent), Acid red 13 Chitosan–magnetite gel
trivalent) dyes with maximum adsorption [178]
(AR13, divalent), and Acid red microparticles
capacities, Qmax , of 1.71, 1.55, and 1.13
27 (AR27, trivalent) dyes
g-dye/g-dry adsorbent, respectively
Methyl orange dye Fe-loaded chitosan film Maximum adsorption capacity 205 mg g−1 [179]
Maximum adsorption capacity was
Methyl orange dye Chitosan/carbon/Fe3 O4 [180]
425 mg g−1
Magnetic/chitosan/graphene
Disperse blue 367 Adsorption capacity of 298.27 mg/g [181]
oxide
Chitosan tripolyphosphate/TiO2
Reactive orange 16 dye Adsorption capacity was 618.7 mg/g [182]
nanocomposite
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 13 of 27

Table 7. Cont.

Pollutant Adsorbent Efficiency References

Acid red 88 Phosphorylated chitosan Adsorption capacity was 230 mg g−1 [183]
Poly(glycerol
Methylene blue sebacate)/chitosan/graphene oxide Adsorption capacity was 129 mg/g [184]
nanocomposites
Magnetic sodium
Methylene blue ferrosilicate/carboxymethyl chitosan Adsorption capacity was 515.0 mg/g [185]
composite
Malachite green (MG), Adsorption capacities 166 mg/g for dye MG,
reactive red (RR), and Chitosan 1250 mg/g for dye RR and 250 mg/g for [186]
direct yellow (DY) dyes dye DY
Chitosan crosslinked with
metal-organic framework Maximum adsorption capacity for methyl
Methyl orange [187]
(MOF-199)@aminated graphene oxide orange 412 mg/g
aerogel
Chitosan-polyvinyl alcohol/fly ash Adsorption capacity of m-Cs-PVA/FA for
Reactive orange 16 [188]
(m-Cs-PVA/FA) RO16 dye removal was 123.8 mg/g
Methyl orange and Maximum adsorption amounts of MO and
Graphene oxide-chitosan composite [189]
methylene blue MB were 543.4 and 110.9 mg/g
Maximum adsorption capacity for phenol,
Chitosan modified nitrogen-doped
Phenol, BPA, and 2,4-DCP BPA, and 2,4-DCP was 254.45, 675.68, and [190]
porous carbon composite
892.86 mg g−1
Sunset Maximum adsorption capacity
Chitosan [191]
yellow 1432.98 mg g−1
Luffa-chitosan crosslinked with
LCsG and LCsE presented maximum
Allura red glutaraldehyde (LCsG) and [192]
capacities of 89.05 mg/g and 60.91 mg/g.
epichlorohydrin (LCsE)
Brilliant blue Chitosan Maximum adsorption capacity 814.27 mg/g [191]
Tartrazine Chitosan Maximum adsorption capacity 1065.55 mg/g [191]
Chitosan/porous carbon composite
Acid blue-25 modified in 1-allyl-3-methyl Maximum adsorption capacity 3333.33 mg/g [193]
imidazolium bromide ionic liquid
Adsorption capacity for morphine, codeine,
Morphine, codeine,
Magnetic chitosan-graphene ephedrine, amphetamine, and
ephedrine, amphetamine, [194]
oxide-ionic liquid ternary nanohybrid benzoylecgonine (7.2, 8.4, 9.2, 5.8, and
and benzoylecgonine
11.2 mg g−1, respectively)
Tartrazine Chitosan/polyaniline composite Maximum adsorption capacity of 584.0 mg/g [195]
Acetaminophen Polyaniline with chitosan Adsorption rate of 385.25 mg.g−1 [196]
Anthocyanins Chitosan beads Adsorption capacity was 216 mg g−1 [197]
Zirconium-loaded chitosan modified Maximum adsorption capacity of
Tetracycline [198]
by perlite (Zr/Cht/Pt) composites 104.17 mg/g
Levofloxacin, tetracycline Adsorption capacity of levofloxacin,
hydrochloride, and Chitosan tetracycline hydrochloride, and [199]
sulfamethoxazole sulfamethoxazole were 26, 22, and 67 mg/g
Graphene oxide, magnetic chitosan, Maximum adsorption capacity was
17α-ethinylestradiol [200]
and organophilic clay composite 50.5 mg/g
Surfactant-ionic liquid Adsorption capacity was found to be
Tartrazine [201]
bi-functionalization of chitosan beads 45.95 mg/g
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 14 of 27

The chitosan also showed good results associated with ions, as it can be observed in
Table 8. These are only some examples of the good results that can be achieved.

Table 8. Examples of chitosan for removing ions.

Ion Adsorbent Efficiency References

138.96, 69.27, and 68.31 mg/g for Cr(VI),
Polyethylenimine-grafted chitosan
Cr (VI), Cu (II), and Co (II) Cu(II), and Co(II), respectively [202]
electrospun membrane
(maximum adsorption capacities)
Zeolitic imidazolate framework-67 200.6 mg/g and 152.1 mg/g, for Cu2+
Cu2+ and Cr6+ modified bacterial cellulose/chitosan and Cr6+ , respectively (adsorption [203]
composite aerogel capacities)
Monodispersed chitosan
Cu2+ 75.52 mg/g (adsorption capacity) [204]
microspheres
Physically crosslinked 176.50 mg/g, 70.83 mg/g, and
Pb2+ , Cu2+ , and Cd2+ chitosan/sodium alginate/calcium 81.25 mg/g for Pb2+ , Cu2+ , and Cd2+ , [205]
ion double-network hydrogel respectively (adsorption capacities)
64.11 mg/g, 217.4 mg/g, and 52.48 mg/g
Chitosan-coated argillaceous
Cu2+ , Pb2+ , and Cd2+ for Cu2+ , Pb2+ and Cd2 , respectively [206]
limestone
(maximum adsorption capacities)
Terylene carbon-dots modified Maximum adsorption capacity was
Cr(VI) [207]
chitosan non-woven fabrics 203 mg/g
Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8
Maximum adsorption capacity of
Pb2+ (ZIF-8) on carboxymethyl chitosan [208]
566.09 mg/g
beads
Cellulose/chitosan composite
Cd2+ Maximum adsorption up to 110.3 mg/g [209]
spheres loaded with nZVI
Tripolyphosphate-crosslinked-
Adsorption capacity for Cu2+ and Ni2+
Cu2+ and Ni2+ chitosan-modified [210]
0.56 and 0.44 mmol/g
montmorillonite
Cr4+ Chitosan-lysozyme biocomposite Maximum adsorption 216 mg g− 1 [176]
Maximum capacities were 333.3 mg/g for
Chitosan/Mg-Al-layered double
Pb2+ and Cd2+ Pb2+ and 140.8 mg/g for Cd2+ , [211]
hydroxide nanocomposite
respectively.
Silica-stabilized magnetic chitosan Maximum adsorption capacity
Arsenic [212]
Beads 1.699 mg/g
Iron oxide/carbon Maximum adsorption capacity for Cr(III)
Cr(III) and Cr(VI) nanotubes/chitosan magnetic of 66.25 mg/g and for Cr(VI) of [213]
composite film 449.30 mg/g
Chitosan-coated magnetic Maximum adsorption capacity was
Cu(II) [214]
nanoparticles found to be 236.7 mg/g
Nano-graphene oxide-assisted Maximum adsorption capacity of
Cr(VI) [215]
hydrotalcite/chitosan biocomposite 42.64 mg/g
Schiff base based on porous chitosan-
glutaraldehyde/montmorrilonite Maximum adsorption capacity of Pb2+
Pb2+ and Hg2+ [216]
nanoparticles modified with and Hg2+ were 32.786 and 30.395 mg/g
3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane
Chitosan-silica composite containing
Re(VII) Adsorption capacity of 368.8 mg g−1 [217]
Mo-imprinted cavities
Chitosan-grafted adenosine
Uranium Adsorption capacity of 311 mg/g [218]
50 -monophosphate foam
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 15 of 27

Table 8. Cont.

Ion Adsorbent Efficiency References

Li+ H4 Mn5 O12 /chitosan Adsorption capacity reached 11.4 mg/g [219]
Zirconium (IV)-impregnated
Fluoride Adsorption capacity was 8.84 mg/g [220]
magnetic chitosan graphene oxide
U(VI) Chitosan-based aerogel U(VI) adsorption capacity of 160 mg/g [221]
Chitosan functionalized with N,N-(2- Maximum adsorption capacity of
Au(III) [222]
aminoethyl)pyridinedicarboxamide 659.02 mg/g
Cr(IV) Chitosan composite Adsorption capacity was 18 mg/g [223]
Maximum copper adsorption capacity of
Cu(II) Benzothiazole functionalized chitosan [224]
1439.7 mg/g
Chitosan-crosslinked-poly(alginic Maximum adsorption capacity
Cr(IV) [225]
acid) 26.49 mg/g
Maximum adsorption capacity of 196
Pb(II) Ninhydrin-functionalized chitosan [226]
mg/g Pb(II) ions
Adsorption capacity of fibrous chitosan
Co2+ and Sr2+ Fibrous chitosan biosorbent for Co2+ and Sr2+ was 31.3 mg g−1 and [227]
20.0 mg g−1
Maximum adsorption capacity of
Au(III) Benzothiazole-modified chitosan [228]
1072.22 mg/g
Polyacrylamide-modified kaolin
enhances adsorption of sodium Adsorption capacity of the adsorbent was
Cu(II) [229]
alginate/carboxymethyl chitosan 5.5157 mg/g
hydrogel beads
Chitosan-coated magnetic silica
Ag(I) 126.74 mg/g [230]
core-shell nanoparticles
Maximum adsorption capacity Cu2+,
Cu2+, Fe3+ and Pb2+ Chitosan Fe3+ , and Pb2+ were 462 270 mg/g, [199]
934 mg/g
Maximum adsorption capacity can reach
Sr2+ Carboxymethyl chitosan gel [231]
144.73 mg/g
MnO2 -strengthened WTRs-chitosan
As(III) Adsorption capacity of 36.911 mg/g [232]
beads
As(III), Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb(II) was
As(III), Cd(II), Cu(II), and Chitosan bead-supported MnFe2 O4
achieved maximum adsorption capacities [233]
Pb(II) nanoparticles
of 9.90, 9.73, 43.94, and 11.98 mg/g

Chitosan can be used for paper manufacture due to its mechanical properties which
can provide better resistance to recycled paper, reducing the consumption of chemical
additives [234]. Table 9 displays the various roles of chitosan in paper production.
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 16 of 27

Table 9. Effects of chitosan in paper production.

Material/Use Paper Application Effects Reference

Nanoparticles with chitosan Old corrugated Increase tensile and burst strength
[235]
and starch containerboard (OCC) Decrease tear resistance
Paper recycling
Chitosan and cellulose nanofibers Remove water-based inks [236]
(decolorization)
Microparticules with chitosan
Paper reinforcement Chitosan is a good dry strength additive [237]
and bentonite
Papermaking (aging stability Increase tensile strength.
Chitosan as additive [238]
of paper) Decrease the hydrophilicity of paper
Improve the mechanical properties
Chitosan with zeolite as filler Papermaking
of paper
Paper reinforcement (Kenaf Give a good mechanical and dry
Chitosan as additive [239]
paper (Hibiscus cannabinus)) strength properties
Paper-based strain sensor, the
Graphene ink from the exfoliation of
chitosan-graphene has the best resistivity
graphite in pullulan, chitosan, For strain-sensitive paper [240]
value and demonstrates the highest
and alginate
sensitivity towards strain

The chitosan can also be used as amino-functionalized structures for CO2 capture.
Many industrial processes could reduce their emissions using these systems. Furthermore,
there are many other options where chitosan can be used to reduce the greenhouse gas
emissions [241]. Table 10 displays the chitosan-based materials used for gas capture.

Table 10. Chitosan-based materials used for gas capture.

Adsorbate Adsorbent Effects References

Carbon dioxide Composite with chitosan and clay Adsorption capacity of 344.98 mg/g [242]
Arginine-containing CO2 gas adsorption was equal to
Carbon dioxide [243]
chitosan-graphene oxide aerogels 24.15 wt% (5.48 mmol g−1 )
340.3 mg/g and 203.9 mg/g for Pd
Palladium (II) and platinum (IV) Cross-linked chitosan and Pt, respectively (adsorption [244]
capacity)
Membrane with carboxymethyl Good CO2 selectivity and
Carbon dioxide (separation) [245]
chitosan and carbon nanotubes permeability
368 mg/g adsorption capacity
Carbon dioxide Acetic acid-mediated chitosan [246]
Good CO2 Selectivity
Carbon dioxide Chitosan as a porosity agent 280.5 mg/g adsorption capacity [247]
Chitosan crosslinked with
metal-organic framework
Formaldehyde gas 197.89 mg/g adsorption capacity [187]
(MOF-199)@aminated graphene
oxide aerogel
Chitosan-grafted multi-walled CO2 uptake capacity was found to be
Carbon dioxide [248]
carbon nanotubes significantly higher (1.92 ccg−1 )

4. Future Perspectives
It is expected that chitosan uses will increase replacing other traditional materials due
to its interesting properties and functionalities, but also due to it being abundant, it can be
extracted using green chemistry and easily treated as waste. For these reasons, chitosan
is considered a rich renewable resource where some of its shortcomings associated with
Polymers 2022, 14, 1475 17 of 27

solubility, mechanical properties, and porosity are being addressed due to the potential of
this source.
This article shows some of the most prominent fields where chitosan is an interesting
alternative to other conventional materials, but its properties will be reflected soon in other
many fields due to its versatility and properties. Some of the most promising applications
could be associated with specific areas such as medicine, food packaging, or biotechnology,
among others.
There is a lot of room to grow in terms of the production of chitosan, the current goal
of which is clearly focused on the removal of hazardous solvents and reducing the energy
consumption. On the other hand, chitosan can contribute to sustainability in terms of
recycling and waste management due to its degradability.

5. Conclusions
Chitosan shows an interesting range of properties which make it very useful for
sustainable development due to it being abundant, biodegradable, biocompatible, and
versatile. The production of chitosan is improving in terms of green chemistry, due to the
hazardous chemicals being replaced by eutectic solvents, lower energy consumption has
been achieved, and circularity can be applied to secondary processes. The use of chitosan
in films for food packaging shows better properties than traditional films composed of
polyethylene. The edible food packing with enhanced antimicrobial activity can be de-
veloped using chitosan. Numerous blends of chitosan have been developed with various
essential oils and extracts which are excellent antibacterial and antifungal agents. On
the other hand, the chitosan provides interesting and multiple features for a sustainable
agriculture, such as a protection for the plant and increasing the production. Finally, the
chitosan can contribute to green chemistry in multiple processes such as the paper industry
or the treatment of wastewater, reducing the impact and contributing to the circularity
of industrial processes. The chitosan-based composites, hydrogels, and membranes can
be used for the remediation of diversified pollutants including dyes, antibiotics, phenols,
metal ions, etc. Thus, being a second abundant biopolymer in nature, chitosan can be a
potential sustainable future material.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.G.-P. and G.S.; methodology, S.M. and M.M.-Z.; in-
vestigation, A.G.-P. and G.S.; resources, J.B.; writing—original draft preparation, A.G.-P. and G.S.;
writing—review and editing, A.G.-P., G.S., A.K., O.M. and F.J.S.; supervision, A.G.-P. and G.S.;
funding acquisition, J.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Author wants to thank the Erasmus+ KA107 scholarship.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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