Human nervous system

Human nervous system, system that conducts stimuli from sensory

receptors to the brain and spinal cord and conducts impulses back to other
parts of the body. The conduction of electrochemical stimuli from sensory
receptors occurs via organized groups of specialized cells, consisting largely
of neurons, various neural support cells, and tracts of nerve fibers, which
serve as a network channeling neural impulses to the site at which a
response occurs.
As with other higher vertebrates, the human nervous system has two
main parts: the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system (the nerves that carry impulses to and from the
central nervous system). In humans the brain is especially large and well
developed.

Anatomy of the human nervous system

The central nervous system

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, both
derived from the embryonic neural tube. Both are surrounded by protective
membranes called the meninges, and both float in a crystal-clear
cerebrospinal fluid. The brain is encased in a bony vault, the neurocranium,
while the cylindrical and elongated spinal cord lies in the vertebral canal,
which is formed by successive vertebrae connected by dense ligaments
The brain
The brain weighs about 1,500 grams (3 pounds) and constitutes about 2
percent of total body weight. It consists of three major divisions: (1) the
massive paired hemispheres of the cerebrum, (2) the brainstem, consisting
of the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus, midbrain, pons,
and medulla oblongata, and (3) the cerebellum.

Cerebrum
The cerebrum, derived from the telencephalon, is the largest, uppermost
portion of the brain. It is involved with sensory integration, control of
voluntary movement, and higher intellectual functions, such as speech and
abstract thought. The outer layer of the duplicate cerebral hemispheres is
composed of a convoluted (wrinkled) outer layer of gray matter, called the
cerebral cortex. Beneath the cerebral cortex is an inner core of white
matter, which is composed of myelinated commissural nerve fibers
connecting the cerebral hemispheres via the corpus callosum, and
association fibers connecting different regions of a single hemisphere.
Myelinated fibers projecting to and from the cerebral cortex form a
concentrated fan-shaped band, known as the internal capsule. The internal
capsule consists of an anterior limb and a larger posterior limb and is
abruptly curved, with the apex directed toward the center of the brain; the
junction is called the genu. The cerebrum also contains groups of
subcortical neuronal masses known as basal ganglia.
The cerebral hemispheres are partially separated from each other by a deep
groove called the longitudinal fissure. At the base of the longitudinal fissure
lies a thick band of white matter called the corpus callosum. The corpus
callosum provides a communication link between corresponding regions of
the cerebral hemispheres.
Each cerebral hemisphere supplies motor function to the opposite, or
contralateral, side of the body from which it receives sensory input. In other
words, the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and vice
versa. Each hemisphere also receives impulses conveying the senses of
touch and vision, largely from the contralateral half of the body, while
auditory input comes from both sides. Pathways conveying the senses of
smell and taste to the cerebral cortex are ipsilateral (that is, they do not
cross to the opposite hemisphere).
In spite of this arrangement, the cerebral hemispheres are not functionally
equal. In each individual, one hemisphere is dominant. The dominant
hemisphere controls language, mathematical and analytical functions, and
handedness. The nondominant hemisphere controls simple spatial
concepts, recognition of faces, some auditory aspects, and emotion. (For
further discussion of cerebral dominance, see below Functions of the human
nervous system: Higher cerebral functions.)

Lobes of the cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is highly convoluted; the crest of a single convolution is
known as a gyrus, and the fissure between two gyri is known as a sulcus.
Sulci and gyri form a more or less constant pattern, on the basis of which
the surface of each cerebral hemisphere is commonly divided into four
lobes: (1) frontal, (2) parietal, (3) temporal, and (4) occipital. Two major
sulci located on the lateral, or side, surface of each hemisphere distinguish
these lobes. The central sulcus, or fissure of Rolando, separates the frontal
and parietal lobes, and the deeper lateral sulcus, or fissure of Sylvius, forms
the boundary between the temporal lobe and the frontal and parietal lobes.
The frontal lobe, the largest of the cerebral lobes, lies rostral to the central
sulcus (that is, toward the nose from the sulcus). One import ant structure
in the frontal lobe is the precentral gyrus, which constitutes the primary
motor region of the brain. When parts of the gyrus are electrically
stimulated in conscious patients (under local anesthesia), they produce
localized movements on the opposite side of the body that are interpreted
by the patients as voluntary. Injury to parts of the precentral gyrus results
in paralysis on the contralateral half of the body. Parts of the inferior frontal
lobe (close to the lateral sulcus) constitute the Broca area, a region involved
with speech.
The parietal lobe, posterior to the central sulcus, is divided into three parts:
(1) the postcentral gyrus, (2) the superior parietal lobule, and (3) the
inferior parietal lobule. The postcentral gyrus receives sensory input from
the contralateral half of the body. The sequential representation is th e
same as in the primary motor area, with sensations from the head being
represented in inferior parts of the gyrus and impulses from the lower
extremities being represented in superior portions. The superior parietal
lobule, located caudal to (that is, below and behind) the postcentral gyrus,
lies above the intraparietal sulcus. This lobule is regarded as an association
cortex, an area that is not involved in either sensory or motor processing,
although part of the superior parietal lobule may be concerned with motor
function. The inferior parietal lobule (composed of the angular and
supramarginal gyri) is a cortical region involved with the integration of
multiple sensory signals.
In both the parietal and frontal lobes, each primary sensory or motor area
is close to, or surrounded by, a smaller secondary area. The primary sensory
area receives input only from the thalamus, while the secondary sensory
area receives input from the thalamus, the primary sensory area, or both.
The motor areas receive input from the thalamus as well as the sensory
areas of the cerebral cortex.
The temporal lobe, inferior to the lateral sulcus, fills the middle fossa, or
hollow area, of the skull. The outer surface of the temporal lobe is an
association area made up of the superior, middle, and inferior temporal
gyri. Near the margin of the lateral sulcus, two transverse temporal gyri
constitute the primary auditory area of the brain. The sensation of hearing
is represented here in a tonotopic fashion—that is, with different
frequencies represented on different parts of the area. The transverse gyri
are surrounded by a less finely tuned secondary auditory area. A medial, or
inner, protrusion near the ventral surface of the temporal lobe, known as
the uncus, constitutes a large part of the primary olfactory area.
The occipital lobe lies caudal to the parieto-occipital sulcus, which joins
the calcarine sulcus in a Y-shaped formation. Cortex on both banks of the
calcarine sulcus constitutes the primary visual area, which receives input
from the contralateral visual field via the optic radiation. The visual field is
represented near the calcarine sulcus in a retinotopic fashion —that is, with
upper quadrants of the visual field laid out along the inferior bank of the
sulcus and lower quadrants of the visual field represented on the upper
bank. Central vision is represented mostly caudally and peripheral vision
rostrally.
Not visible from the surface of the cerebrum is the insular, or central, lobe,
an invaginated triangular area on the medial surface of the lateral sulcus; it
can be seen in the intact brain only by separating the frontal and parietal
lobes from the temporal lobe. The insular lobe is though t to be involved in
sensory and motor visceral functions as well as taste perception.
The limbic lobe is a synthetic lobe located on the medial margin (or limbus)
of the hemisphere. Composed of adjacent portions of the frontal, parietal,
and temporal lobes that surround the corpus callosum, the limbic lobe is
involved with autonomic and related somatic behavioral ac tivities. The
limbic lobe receives input from thalamic nuclei that are connected with
parts of the hypothalamus and with the hippocampal formation, a primitive
cortical structure within the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.

Cerebral ventricles
Deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres are cavities filled
with cerebrospinal fluid that form the ventricular system. These cavities
include a pair of C-shaped lateral ventricles with anterior, inferior, and
posterior “horns” protruding into the frontal, temporal, and occipital l obes,
respectively. Most of the cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the ventricles,
and about 70 percent of it is secreted by the choroid plexus, a collection of
blood vessels in the walls of the lateral ventricles. The fluid drains via
interventricular foramina, or openings, into a slitlike third ventricle, which,
situated along the midline of the brain, separates the symmetrical halves of
the thalamus and hypothalamus. From there the fluid passes through the
cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain and into the fourth ventricle in the
hindbrain. Openings in the fourth ventricle permit cerebrospinal fluid to
enter subarachnoid spaces surrounding both the brain and the spinal cord.
Basal ganglia
Deep within the cerebral hemispheres, large gray masses of nerve cells,
called nuclei, form components of the basal ganglia. Four basal ganglia can
be distinguished: (1) the caudate nucleus, (2) the putamen, (3) the globus
pallidus, and (4) the amygdala. Phylogenetically, the amygdala is the oldest
of the basal ganglia and is often referred to as the archistriatum; the globus
pallidus is known as the paleostriatum, and the caudate nuc leus and
putamen are together known as the neostriatum, or simply striatum.
Together, the putamen and the adjacent globus pallidus are referred to as
the lentiform nucleus, while the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus
pallidus form the corpus striatum.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus lies below the thalamus in the walls and floor of the third
ventricle. It is divided into medial and lateral groups by a curved bundle of
axons called the fornix, which originate in the hippocampal formation and
project to the mammillary body. The hypothalamus controls major
endocrine functions by secreting hormones (i.e., oxytocin and vasopressin)
that induce smooth muscle contractions of the reproductive, digestive, and
excretory systems; other neurosecretory neurons convey hormone-
releasing factors (e.g., growth hormone, corticosteroids, thyrotropic
hormone, and gonadotropic hormone) via a vascular portal system to the
adenohypophysis, a portion of the pituitary gland. Specific regions of the
hypothalamus are also involved with the control of sympathetic and
parasympathetic activities, temperature regulation, food inta ke, the
reproductive cycle, and emotional expression and behavior.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum (“little brain”) overlies the posterior aspect of the pons and
medulla oblongata and fills the greater part of the posterior fossa of the
skull. This distinctive part of the brain is derived from the rhombic lips,
thickenings along the margins of the embryonic hindbrain. It consists of two
paired lateral lobes, or hemispheres, and a midline portion known as the
vermis. The cerebellar cortex appears very different from the cerebral
cortex in that it consists of small leaflike laminae called folia. The
cerebellum consists of a surface cortex of gray matter and a core of white
matter containing four paired intrinsic (i.e., deep) nuclei: the dentate,
globose, emboliform, and fastigial. Three paired fiber bundles —the
superior, middle, and inferior peduncles—connect the cerebellum with the
midbrain, pons, and medulla, respectively.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is an elongated cylindrical structure, about 45 cm (18
inches) long, that extends from the medulla oblongata to a level between
the first and second lumbar vertebrae of the backbone . The terminal part
of the spinal cord is called the conus medullaris. The spinal cord is
composed of long tracts of myelinated nerve fibers (known as white matter)
arranged around the periphery of a symmetrical butterfly-shaped cellular
matrix of gray matter. The gray matter contains cell bodies, unmyelinated
motor neuron fibers, and interneurons connecting either the two sid es of
the cord or the dorsal and ventral ganglia. Many interneurons have short
axons distributed locally, but some have axons that extend for several spinal
segments. Some interneurons may modulate or change the character of
signals, while others play key roles in transmission and in patterned
reflexes. The gray matter forms three pairs of horns throughout most of the
spinal cord: (1) the dorsal horns, composed of sensory neurons, (2) the
lateral horns, well defined in thoracic segments and composed of visceral
neurons, and (3) the ventral horns, composed of motor neurons. The white
matter forming the ascending and descending spinal tracts is grouped in
three paired funiculi, or sectors: the dorsal or posterior funiculi, lying
between the dorsal horns; the lateral funiculi, lying on each side of the
spinal cord between the dorsal-root entry zones and the emergence of the
ventral nerve roots; and the ventral funiculi, lying between the ventral
median sulcus and each ventral-root zone.

Human nervous system Function

Your nervous system’s main function is to send messages from various parts
of your body to your brain, and from your brain back out to your body to
tell your body what to do. These messages regulate your:
 Thoughts, memory, learning and feelings.
 Movements (balance and coordination).
 Senses (how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch
and feel).
 Wound healing.
 Sleep.
 Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
 Response to stressful situations, including sweat production.
 Digestion.
 Body processes, such as puberty and aging.