2.

1 Water properties

2.1.1 Source of water

Water is found in various sources on Earth, and it exists in different forms such as
liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor). Here is a list of the primary sources of water on
our planet:
1. Oceans: Oceans are the largest source of water on Earth, covering about
71% of the planet's surface. They contain salty seawater, which is not
suitable for most human consumption without desalination.
2. Rivers: Rivers are flowing bodies of freshwater that move across the land,
eventually emptying into oceans, lakes, or other bodies of water. They are
vital sources of freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and transportation.
3. Lakes: Lakes are bodies of freshwater that are generally surrounded by land.
They vary in size from small ponds to vast inland seas. They serve as
sources of drinking water, recreation, and habitat for aquatic life.
4. Groundwater: Groundwater is water stored beneath the Earth's surface in
aquifers, rock formations, or soil. It is a crucial source of freshwater for
drinking, irrigation, and industrial use, accessed through wells.
5. Glaciers and Ice Caps: Glaciers and ice caps are vast ice formations that
store freshwater in frozen form. As they melt, they release freshwater into
rivers and lakes, contributing to freshwater sources.
6. Atmosphere: The atmosphere contains water vapor, which can be condensed
to form clouds and precipitation. Rainfall and snowfall are vital sources of
freshwater that replenish rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
7. Snow and Ice: Snowfall in cold regions accumulates as snow and ice, which
can gradually melt and become freshwater sources as they feed into rivers
and streams during warmer months.
8. Reservoirs: Man-made reservoirs are created by damming rivers or streams.
They store freshwater for various purposes, including drinking water supply,
hydroelectric power generation, and recreation.
9. Wetlands: Wetlands, including marshes and swamps, are areas where water
covers the soil or is present near the surface. They serve as essential habitats
for various plant and animal species and can act as natural filters for water.
10.Desalination: Desalination processes, such as reverse osmosis and
distillation, are used to extract freshwater from seawater, making it suitable
for drinking and irrigation in regions with limited freshwater sources.
11.Rainwater: Rainwater harvesting systems collect and store rainwater from
rooftops and other surfaces for various uses, including household water
 supply and irrigation.
12.Underground Springs: Natural underground springs are sources of
freshwater that flow to the surface, often forming the basis for creeks or
small rivers.
13.Tundra and Permafrost: In cold regions, tundra and permafrost hold frozen
water, which can become a source of freshwater as it thaws during warmer
seasons.
These sources of water are interconnected and essential for sustaining life on Earth,
supporting ecosystems, and meeting the various needs of human societies around
the world. Conservation and responsible management of these sources are critical
to ensure a sustainable supply of freshwater for future generations.

2.1.2 Type of water

Water exists in various forms and types, each with distinct characteristics and
properties. Here are the primary types of water:
1. Liquid Water (H₂O):
 Surface Water: This is the most common type of liquid water found
on Earth's surface. It includes water in oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and
streams. Surface water is essential for drinking, irrigation, industrial
processes, and transportation.
 Groundwater: Groundwater is water that exists below the Earth's
surface, typically in aquifers or porous rock formations. It is a major
source of freshwater and is accessed through wells. Groundwater is
critical for drinking water supplies and irrigation.
2. Solid Water (Ice):
 Ice: Water freezes into solid ice at or below its freezing point (0°C or
32°F). Ice is found in glaciers, icebergs, frozen lakes, and polar ice
caps. It plays a crucial role in Earth's climate, acting as a heat reflector
and reservoir of freshwater.
3. Gaseous Water (Water Vapor):
 Water Vapor: Water can exist in the gaseous state as water vapor,
which is an invisible gas. It is present in the Earth's atmosphere and is
a major component of the natural greenhouse effect. Water vapor can
condense to form clouds and precipitate as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
4. Brackish Water:
 Brackish Water: Brackish water is a mix of freshwater and saltwater.
It is commonly found in estuaries, where rivers meet the sea, as well
as in coastal aquifers. Brackish water is often unsuitable for drinking
 without desalination but can be used for various purposes, including
agriculture.
5. Saltwater (Saline Water):
 Saltwater (Seawater): Seawater is the salty water found in oceans and
seas. It contains dissolved salts, primarily sodium chloride (table salt),
and various other minerals. Seawater is not suitable for drinking or
irrigation without desalination.
6. Mineral Water:
 Mineral Water: Mineral water is natural spring water that contains a
high mineral content, often considered beneficial for health. It is
typically sourced from underground springs and is bottled for
consumption.
7. Hard Water and Soft Water:
 Hard Water: Hard water contains high concentrations of minerals,
particularly calcium and magnesium ions. It can lead to mineral
buildup in pipes and appliances. It is often treated to reduce its
hardness.
 Soft Water: Soft water has a low mineral content, particularly in terms
of calcium and magnesium ions. It is preferred for household use as it
reduces the risk of scale buildup in plumbing and appliances.
8. Deionized Water (Demineralized Water):
 Deionized Water: This type of water has had most of its ions and
mineral impurities removed through a process called deionization. It is
used in laboratories, industry, and certain manufacturing processes
where pure water is required.
9. Distilled Water:
 Distilled Water: Distilled water is produced by boiling water and then
condensing the steam back into liquid form. This process removes
impurities and minerals, resulting in highly purified water often used
in laboratory experiments, medical equipment, and some household
appliances.
These different types of water are essential resources for life on Earth and have
various applications across industries and scientific disciplines. Proper
management and conservation of these water sources are critical to ensure their
availability for current and future generations.
 2.3 Hydrogen ion, Hydroxyl ion, pH scale and litmus test

2.3.1 A hydrogen ion, often represented as H⁺, is a positively charged ion that
consists of a single hydrogen atom (H) that has lost its one and only electron. This
loss of an electron leaves behind a single, positively charged proton, giving the
hydrogen ion its positive charge.
Hydrogen ions play a central role in chemistry, particularly in the field of acids and
bases. They are associated with the concept of pH, which measures the acidity or
basicity of a solution. In acidic solutions, hydrogen ions (H⁺) are more abundant,
contributing to the lower pH values. In contrast, in basic (alkaline) solutions, the
concentration of hydrogen ions is relatively low, resulting in higher pH values.
The behavior of hydrogen ions in solution is crucial in many chemical reactions.
They can interact with other ions and molecules, participate in chemical reactions,
and contribute to the acidity of a solution. In aqueous solutions, hydrogen ions are
often hydrated, meaning they are surrounded by water molecules, forming
hydronium ions (H₃O⁺), which are considered the active species in many acid-base
reactions.

Key points about hydrogen ions:

1. Charge: Hydrogen ions carry a positive charge due to the absence of an
electron, which is negatively charged.
2. Formation: Hydrogen ions can form when a hydrogen atom loses its sole
electron. This process is often associated with the ionization of acids in
aqueous solutions. For example, when hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissolves in
water, it ionizes to produce hydrogen ions and chloride ions (Cl-).
3. Acids and Bases: Hydrogen ions are a fundamental component of the pH
scale, which measures the acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a solution.
Solutions with a higher concentration of hydrogen ions are considered acidic,
while solutions with fewer hydrogen ions are alkaline (basic). Neutral
solutions, such as pure water, have an equal concentration of hydrogen ions
and hydroxide ions (OH-), resulting in a balanced pH of 7.
4. Biological Importance: Hydrogen ions are vital in biological systems,
including cellular processes and the maintenance of pH levels in the body.
Enzymes, for instance, often function within specific pH ranges, and any
significant shift in hydrogen ion concentration can disrupt these processes.
5. Chemical Reactions: Hydrogen ions are involved in many chemical
reactions, including acid-base reactions and redox (reduction-oxidation)
reactions. They can donate protons to other molecules, thereby influencing the
reactivity of those molecules.
In summary, a hydrogen ion (H+) is a positively charged ion formed when a
hydrogen atom loses its electron. These ions play a central role in acid-base
chemistry and have significant implications in various chemical and biological
processes.

2.3.2 Hydroxyl ions

A hydroxyl ion, often represented as OH⁻, is a negatively charged ion that consists
of one oxygen atom (O) and one hydrogen atom (H) bonded together. It is the
conjugate base of the hydroxide molecule (OH⁻), which is a diatomic ion composed
of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom bonded covalently.
The hydroxyl ion carries a negative charge due to an extra electron, making it an
anion. It is an essential component in various chemical reactions and plays a crucial
role in chemistry, particularly in the field of acids and bases. Hydroxyl ions are often
encountered in aqueous solutions and are associated with the concept of pH, which
measures the acidity or basicity of a solution. In a basic (alkaline) solution, hydroxyl
ions are more abundant, while in an acidic solution, they are relatively scarce.
Hydroxyl ions are involved in neutralization reactions when they react with
hydrogen ions (H⁺) to form water (H₂O). This process is fundamental in
understanding acid-base chemistry and the maintenance of pH balance in various
chemical and biological systems.

The litmus test is a simple and widely used chemical test to determine whether a
substance is acidic or basic (alkaline). It relies on the change in color of litmus paper,
a specially treated paper strip, when it comes into contact with an acidic or basic
solution. Here's how the litmus test works:
1. Litmus Paper: Litmus paper is typically made from paper that has been
impregnated with a natural dye called litmus. Litmus is extracted from lichens
and has the property of changing color in response to changes in acidity or
alkalinity.
2. Color Changes:
 When litmus paper is dipped into a solution that is acidic, it turns red. This
indicates that the substance is acidic.
 When litmus paper is dipped into a solution that is basic (alkaline), it turns
blue. This indicates that the substance is basic.
3. Neutral Solutions: In neutral solutions (neither acidic nor basic), litmus paper
typically remains close to its original color, which can vary depending on the
specific type of litmus paper used (usually a shade of purple).
4. pH Measurement: The litmus test is a qualitative test, meaning it tells you
whether a substance is acidic or basic but does not provide a precise measure
of pH (acidity or alkalinity). To determine the exact pH value of a solution,
more accurate pH testing methods and instruments like pH meters are used.
The litmus test is a quick and easy way to assess whether a solution is acidic or basic
and has been used for centuries in laboratories and everyday scenarios. It's especially
handy when a rough estimate of the solution's pH is sufficient. However, it has
limitations because it doesn't provide a precise pH value and may not detect acidity
or alkalinity outside of its pH range. For more accurate pH measurements, other
methods should be employed.

2.3.3 pH scale

The pH scale is a measure used to express the acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a

solution. It quantifies the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. The pH
scale typically ranges from 0 to 14, with lower pH values indicating greater acidity,
higher pH values indicating greater alkalinity (basicity), and a pH of 7 representing
neutrality.
Hydronium ion concentration in molarity is more conveniently expressed on a
logarithmic scale known as the pH scale. The pH of a solution is defined as the
negative logarithm to base 10 of the activity H a + of hydrogen ion. In dilute solutions
(< 0.01 M), activity of hydrogen ion (H+) is equal in magnitude to molarity
represented by [H+]. It should be noted that activity has no units and is defined as:
aH+ = [H+]/mol L-1

Thus, an acidic solution of HCl (10–2 M) will have a pH = 2. Similarly, a basic

solution of NaOH having [OH– ] =10–4 M and [H3O + ] = 10–10 M will have a pH
= 10. At 25 °C, pure water has a concentration of hydrogen ions, [H + ] = 10–7 M.
Hence, the pH of pure water is given as:
pH = - log (10 -7) = 7
Acidic solutions possess a concentration of hydrogen ions, [H + ] > 10–7 M, while
basic solutions possess a concentration of hydrogen ions, [H+ ] < 10–7 M. thus, we
can summarize that:
Acidic solution has pH < 7
Basic solution has pH > 7
Neutral solution has pH = 7
−logH+ − logOH− = − logKw. . . . . . . . ..(25)
and that pH + pOH = pKw
Since Kw = 1 × 10− 14 at 25°C, it follows that at this temperature pKw = 14.
pKw is a very important quantity for aqueous solutions and controls the relative
concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions as their product is a constant. The
term, widely used in chemistry, biology, and agronomy, translates the values of the
concentration of the hydrogen ion—which ordinarily ranges between about 1 and
10−14 gram-equivalents per litre—into numbers between 0 and 14.
You have already performed experiments on dynamic equilibrium between
unionised salt and the ions produced by it on dissolving in a solvent. In this unit we
will learn about shift in ionic equilibrium between unionised water molecules and
H+ and OH– ions. The conductivity experiments prove that even pure water ionises
to some extent although it has very low conductivity. On this basis it can be
concluded that ionic equilibrium exists in pure water also. This ionic equilibrium
can be represented as

Since H+ ion cannot have independent existence in water because of its positive
charge and small ionic radius, a better representation of this equilibrium is

This is self ionisation of water. Equilibrium constant for this chemical equation can
be written as follows:

. . . . . . . . ..(26)
Since water is in large excess, its concentration can be assumed to be constant and
combining it with K provides a new constant Kw , which can be written as follows:

. . . . . . . . ..(27)
Kw is self ionisation constant of water or simply ionization constant of water. It
remains constant at constant temperature. At 25°C value of Kw is 1.0×10–14 . Thus,
it is quite evident that at a given temperature in any aqueous solution, this product
i.e. [H3O + ] [OH – ] remains constant whether acidic, alkaline or neutral in nature.
If dissolution of a substance shifts the equilibrium in such a way that at equilibrium
the hydronium ion concentration is more than hydroxyl ion concentration then the
solution is acidic in nature. If dissolution of a substance shifts the equilibrium in
such a way that at equilibrium concentration of OH– ions is greater than the
concentration of hydronium ions, then the solution is alkaline in nature. Thus,
concentration of hydronium ion in an aqueous solution can provide information
about acidic, basic and neutral nature of the solution. The concentration of H3O +
ions in a solution is measured in terms of pH which is defined as the negative
logarithm of hydronium ion concentration and is given by the following expression.

Figure 13: pH scale

HOW STRONG ARE ACID OR BASE SOLUTIONS? We know how acid-base
indicators can be used to distinguish between an acid and a base. We have also learnt
in the previous section about dilution and decrease in concentration of H+ or OH–
ions in solutions. Can we quantitatively find the amount of these ions present in a
solution? Can we judge how strong a given acid or base is? We can do this by making
use of a universal indicator, which is a mixture of several indicators. The universal
indicator shows different colours at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a
solution. A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH
scale has been developed. The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning
power. On the pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14
(very alkaline). pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the
acidic or basic nature of a solution. Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower
is the pH value. The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 on the pH scale
represent an acidic solution. As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an
increase in OH– ion concentration in the solution, that is, increase in the strength of
alkali (Fig. 2.6). Generally paper impregnated with the universal indicator is used
for measuring pH.

2.3.4 Title: The Litmus Test: Unveiling the World of pH Measurement

Introduction
The litmus test is a fundamental concept in the realm of chemistry and science. It is
a simple yet powerful method used to determine the acidity or alkalinity (basicity)
of a solution. Often associated with a piece of paper that changes color when dipped
into a liquid, the litmus test has a rich history and continues to play a crucial role in
various scientific disciplines and industries.
History of the Litmus Test
The origins of the litmus test can be traced back to ancient times. It is believed that
ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians used natural dyes extracted from lichens as pH
indicators. However, it was not until the 17th century that the concept was refined
and studied more systematically.
In the early 18th century, a Swedish chemist named Carl Wilhelm Scheele made
significant contributions to the understanding of acids and bases. Scheele discovered
various substances that could act as pH indicators, including litmus, a blue dye
obtained from lichens. Litmus quickly gained popularity as a simple and effective
way to distinguish between acidic and alkaline substances.
How the Litmus Test Works
The litmus test operates on the principle of pH, which stands for "potential of
hydrogen." It measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. The
basic idea is that when litmus paper is exposed to an acidic solution, it turns red, and
when exposed to an alkaline solution, it turns blue. This color change occurs due to
the chemical properties of litmus.
Litmus paper contains natural pH-sensitive compounds derived from lichens. These
compounds can donate or accept protons (H+) depending on the pH of the solution
they are in. In an acidic solution, the litmus compound accepts protons, causing it to
turn red. In an alkaline solution, it donates protons, causing it to turn blue.
The pH scale, which ranges from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline), allows for
a quantitative measurement of acidity or alkalinity based on the color change
observed with litmus paper. A pH of 7 is considered neutral, corresponding to the
color transition point for litmus.
Practical Applications
1. Laboratory Chemistry: The litmus test is a quick and straightforward
method for determining the pH of a solution in laboratories. It helps chemists
identify the nature of substances and aids in the preparation of reagents with
precise pH levels.
2. Environmental Monitoring: Environmental scientists use litmus tests to
assess the pH of natural water bodies such as rivers and lakes. Changes in pH
can indicate pollution or other ecological issues.
3. Medical Diagnostics: Litmus paper has been employed in medical
diagnostics, including urine and saliva analysis, to detect abnormal pH levels
that may be indicative of certain health conditions.
4. Food and Beverage Industry: The food industry uses pH measurements to
ensure product safety and quality. Litmus tests help monitor the acidity of
foods and beverages, such as wine and dairy products.
5. Swimming Pools: Pool owners and operators use litmus tests to maintain the
pH of pool water within a safe range, ensuring swimmers' comfort and water
sanitation.
Conclusion
The litmus test, with its historical significance and practical applications, remains a
valuable tool in the world of science and industry. It exemplifies the elegance of a
simple idea with profound implications. As technology advances, the litmus test
continues to evolve, with digital pH meters and other sophisticated instruments now
available. However, the fundamental concept of using color changes to assess pH
owes its origins to the ancient art of dyeing and the scientific curiosity of early
chemists like Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Whether in a high-tech laboratory or a humble
backyard pool, the litmus test continues to serve as a trusted method for
understanding the acidity and alkalinity of our world.
2.4 Water softening

Water softening is a process used to remove minerals, primarily calcium and

magnesium ions, from hard water. Hard water contains high concentrations of these
minerals, which can lead to various issues such as scale buildup in pipes and
appliances, reduced soap effectiveness, and potential damage to water-using
equipment. Water softening helps alleviate these problems by reducing the hardness
of the water.
There are several methods for water softening, but the most common ones are ion
exchange and lime softening:
1. Ion Exchange:
 Ion exchange is the most widely used method for residential and
commercial water softening.
 It involves the use of a water softener unit, which typically contains a
tank filled with resin beads. These beads are made of a special material
called ion-exchange resin.
 The resin beads are negatively charged and attract positively charged
calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions from the water. As the
water flows through the resin bed, these ions are exchanged for sodium
(Na+) or potassium (K+) ions, which are released from the resin beads
into the water.
 Over time, the resin beads become saturated with calcium and
magnesium ions and need to be regenerated. This is done by rinsing the
resin bed with a concentrated solution of sodium chloride (salt). The
salt solution displaces the calcium and magnesium ions, and they are
flushed out, leaving the resin beads ready to soften water again.
 The softened water is then distributed for use.
2. Lime Softening:
 Lime softening is a chemical process used for large-scale water
treatment, especially in municipal water treatment plants.
 It involves adding calcium hydroxide (lime) to the water. The lime
reacts with the calcium and magnesium ions in the water, forming
insoluble precipitates.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 +H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  2Mg(OH)2 +2CaCO3 +H2O
 These precipitates, called calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide, settle out of the water and can be removed by sedimentation
or filtration.
 The water is then decanted or filtered to separate the clear, softened
water from the precipitates.
  Lime softening may require additional treatment steps to adjust the pH
and remove any excess lime.
Both ion exchange and lime softening effectively reduce water hardness, resulting
in softer water that is less likely to cause scale buildup and offers improved soap
lathering properties. The choice of method depends on factors like the scale of the
water softening operation, the water quality, and the desired outcome. Residential
water softeners typically use ion exchange, while municipal water treatment plants
may employ lime softening or a combination of methods to treat larger volumes of
water.
The ion exchange method for water softening is a popular and effective way to
remove calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions from hard water. Here's a
detailed explanation of the water softening process using ion exchange:
1. Ion Exchange Resin Bed: Water softening begins in a tank or column filled
with a special resin material called ion-exchange resin. These resin beads or
particles are typically made of polystyrene and have negatively charged sites
on their surfaces.
2. Hard Water Inflow: Hard water, which contains high concentrations of
calcium and magnesium ions, enters the resin tank from your water supply.
3. Ion Exchange Process:
 As the hard water passes through the resin bed, the calcium and
magnesium ions in the water are attracted to the negatively charged
sites on the resin beads.
 The positively charged calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for
positively charged sodium (Na+) or potassium (K+) ions that are
initially bound to the resin beads. The exchange process can be
represented as follows:

Resin (Na+) + Ca2+ --> Resin (Ca2+) + Na+ Resin (Na+) + Mg2+ --> Resin (Mg2+)
+ Na+

 Essentially, the resin beads "trap" the calcium and magnesium ions and
release sodium or potassium ions into the water.
4. Softened Water Outflow: The water that exits the resin tank is now softened
because it contains fewer calcium and magnesium ions and a higher
concentration of sodium or potassium ions.
5. Regeneration:
 Over time, the resin beads become saturated with calcium and
magnesium ions and need to be regenerated to continue softening water
effectively.
 Regeneration typically involves flushing the resin bed with a brine
 solution, which is a concentrated solution of sodium chloride (salt) or
potassium chloride. The brine solution is stored in a separate brine tank.
 During regeneration, the brine solution is drawn into the resin tank and
flows through the resin bed.
 The high concentration of sodium or potassium ions in the brine
displaces the calcium and magnesium ions from the resin beads,
effectively "cleaning" the resin. The displaced calcium and magnesium
ions, along with the excess brine, are flushed out of the system and
usually sent to a drain.
 The resin beads are now recharged with sodium or potassium ions and
are ready to continue softening water.
6. Rinse: After regeneration, the resin bed is rinsed with clean water to remove
any remaining brine and ensure that the softened water is free from excess
salt.
7. Service Mode: The water softener returns to its normal service mode, ready
to continue softening incoming hard water.
This cycle of ion exchange, regeneration, and rinsing repeats as needed to maintain
a constant supply of softened water. The frequency of regeneration is typically
determined by the water softener's control system and is based on factors like water
hardness, water usage, and the resin bed's capacity.

Figure 14: water softening organic ion exchange process

Types of Hardness
Hardness is classified into temporary hardness and permanent hardness.

1. Temporary hardness: This hardness results in water that contains

bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.

2. Permanent Hardness: This hardness is due to presence of chlorides and

sulphates of calcium and magnesium in water.

2.5 Potable water treatment

The treatment of potable (drinking) water is essential to ensure that it meets health
and safety standards by removing impurities and contaminants. The specific
treatment processes can vary depending on the quality of the source water and the
local regulations, but the general potable water treatment process typically includes
several key steps:
1. Screening and Intake:
 Source water is collected from a natural water body, such as a river,
lake, or reservoir.
 Large debris, such as leaves, sticks, and aquatic life, is removed using
screens or bar racks to prevent clogging of downstream equipment.
2. Coagulation and Flocculation:
 Chemical coagulants, such as aluminium sulphate (alum) or ferric
chloride, are added to the water. These chemicals destabilize suspended
particles, causing them to clump together (coagulation) into larger
particles (floc) that can be more easily removed.
 Gentle mixing or agitation (flocculation) encourages the floc formation.
3. Sedimentation:
 The water is then allowed to sit in a large basin or sedimentation tank.
During this time, the floc settles to the bottom due to gravity, forming
a layer of sludge.
 The clearer water, known as supernatant, is separated from the settled
particles.
4. Filtration:
 The supernatant water is passed through a series of filters, typically
composed of sand, gravel, and sometimes activated carbon. These
 filters remove remaining fine suspended particles and some dissolved
substances.
 Filtration helps improve water clarity and reduce turbidity.
5. Disinfection:
 To kill or inactivate harmful microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses,
and parasites), a disinfectant is added to the water.
 Common disinfection methods include chlorination (using chlorine gas
or sodium hypochlorite), chlorination, ozone treatment, or ultraviolet
(UV) radiation.
6. pH Adjustment:
 The pH of the water is adjusted to within a specified range to meet
regulatory requirements and minimize corrosion in the distribution
system.
 Lime or caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) may be added to raise the pH,
while carbon dioxide or sulfuric acid may be added to lower it.
7. Additional Treatment (if needed):
 Some source waters may require additional treatment steps to address
specific contaminants. These steps can include advanced filtration, ion
exchange, and adsorption processes.
 Water quality testing is essential to determine if any specialized
treatment is necessary.
8. Storage and Distribution:
 The treated water is stored in clear wells or reservoirs to ensure a
continuous and reliable supply.
 The water is then distributed to consumers through a network of pipes
and pumps.
9. Water Quality Monitoring:
 Continuous monitoring and sampling of water quality are conducted
throughout the treatment and distribution process to ensure that the
water meets regulatory standards and remains safe for consumption.
10.Residual Disinfection:
 A small residual concentration of disinfectant (e.g., chlorine) is
maintained in the distribution system to prevent the growth of harmful
microorganisms.
The potable water treatment process aims to remove impurities, improve water
quality, and ensure the safety of drinking water. It is critical to have skilled operators
and robust quality control measures in place to ensure the treated water consistently
meets health and safety standards. Additionally, regular maintenance and testing of
the treatment plant and distribution system are essential to maintain water quality
over time.

Water Purification For domestic purposes the water used must be slightly alkaline,
sterilised, clear and pleasant tasting.
1. To give alkalinity and to improve the taste of insipid distilled water, carbonates
of calcium and magnesium are used as a filter bed in a neutraliser.
2. To sterilise the water chlorine is used, this would normally be solutions of
hypochlorite or possibly the powder calcium chloride. About 0.25 to 1 kg of chlorine
would be required for every 1,000,000 kg of water.
3. To produce clear water it can be passed through a sand bed filter.
 Break point chlorination and desalination

2.6 Break point chlorination: It may be defined as the chlorination of water to such
an extent that not only living organism but also other organic impurities in water
are destroyed. When chlorine is added to water, it is used for different reactions
like oxidation of oxidizable substance, chlorination of organic substance,
destructive oxidation of organic substances and disinfection of pathogens.
Initially all the chlorine added is consumed and there is no free chlorine. This is
due to complete oxidation of oxidizable substances. As the applied chlorine
increases, there is steady increase in amount of residual chlorine. This stage
corresponds to formation of chloro-organic compounds and chloramines when
the dose of chlorine increase, destruction of chloro organic and chloramines take
place. Addition of chlorine in such dosages is known as break point or free
residual chlorination. The breakpoint chlorination ensures complete destruction
of organic compounds, which gives color, unpleasant odor and bad taste. In
addition to it a complete destruction of disease producing micro-organisms is also
ensured.

Figure 17: break point chlorination

2.7 Desalination

Water desalination is the process of removing salt and other impurities from
seawater or brackish water to make it suitable for drinking, irrigation, and industrial
use. Desalination is crucial in regions with limited access to freshwater resources.
The level of salinity of water can be expressed in terms of total dissolved solids, or
TDS concentration. Freshwater has a TDS concentration of below 500 mg/l. on the
other hand, seawater has a TDS concentration of around 35000 mg/l and brackish
water has a TDS concentration of around 1000-10000 mg/l. There are several
methods for desalination, with the two most common being distillation and reverse
osmosis.

2.7.1 Electrodialysis plant

The scientific principle that sustains electro dialysis (ED) is the electrical attractions
between ions and electrodes of opposite electric charge. This phenomenon suits
desalination since the dissolved particles in salted water are electrically charged
(positive and negative ions). In ED desalination selective membranes are used to
“shift” the ions. Some retain the positive ions and allow the negative ones to pass
through, while others perform with the inverse characteristic. Membranes with
inverse characteristic are placed alternately between the positive and negative
electrodes. This configuration yields two separate outlet fluxes, drinking water, and
brine. ED is mostly used to desalinate brackish water.

Figure 18: Electro dialysis desalination process

2.8 Reverse osmosis (RO)

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a semipermeable

membrane to remove a wide range of impurities and contaminants from water. It is
a highly effective method for producing clean, purified water and is widely used
for both residential and industrial applications. The term "reverse" in reverse
osmosis refers to the fact that it reverses the natural osmosis process by applying
external pressure to force water molecules through the semipermeable membrane,
leaving impurities behind.

Key points about reverse osmosis:

1. Semipermeable Membrane: Reverse osmosis relies on a semipermeable
membrane with extremely small pores that allow the passage of water
molecules while blocking the passage of most dissolved solids,
contaminants, and particles. The membrane acts as a physical barrier to
impurities.
2. Pressure Application: In reverse osmosis, pressure is applied to the side of
the contaminated water that contains a higher concentration of solutes
(impurities). This pressure is used to overcome the natural osmotic pressure
and force the water molecules to move through the membrane against the
concentration gradient.
3. Purification: As water is forced through the membrane, contaminants such as
dissolved salts, minerals, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and other
impurities are effectively trapped and separated from the purified water. The
purified water, also known as permeate, passes through the membrane, while
the rejected impurities, called concentrate or brine, are flushed away.
4. Versatility: Reverse osmosis is highly versatile and can remove a wide range
of contaminants, including those that affect taste, odor, and water quality. It
is often used to desalinate seawater, purify drinking water, produce ultrapure
water for industrial processes, and treat wastewater.
5. Water Efficiency: While RO is effective at producing clean water, it is
relatively water-efficient compared to some other purification methods. A
significant portion of the incoming water becomes concentrate and is
discharged as waste. The water recovery rate (percentage of incoming water
converted to permeate) can vary depending on the system and application.
6. Residential and Commercial Use: RO systems are commonly installed in
homes and businesses to provide high-quality drinking water. They are also
used in industrial settings for processes that require ultrapure water, such as
electronics manufacturing and pharmaceutical production.
 7. Maintenance: Reverse osmosis systems require regular maintenance,
including membrane replacement and periodic cleaning to ensure optimal
performance and longevity.

Figure 19: Reverse osmosis

In summary, reverse osmosis is a water purification process that uses a

semipermeable membrane and pressure to remove impurities from water, resulting
in clean and purified water suitable for various applications, including drinking,
industrial processes, and more
Osmosis phenomenon:
Osmosis is a fundamental phenomenon in chemistry and biology that refers to the
movement of solvent molecules, typically water, through a semipermeable
membrane the pure solvent moves from the solution of lower concentration to that
of higher concentration until both the solutions acquire the same concentration.
Application: To generate freshwater form seawater.
Osmatic pressure:
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property of a solution and is related to the
movement of solvent molecules across a semipermeable membrane to equalize the
concentration of solute on both sides of the membrane. It's a measure of the
pressure required to prevent the flow of solvent molecules into a more
concentrated solution through the semipermeable membrane. Osmotic pressure is a
fundamental concept in chemistry and biology, with important applications in
various fields.

Key points about osmotic pressure:

1. Pressure Measurement: Osmotic pressure is typically measured in units of
pressure, such as atmospheres (atm) or pascals (Pa). It represents the
pressure required on one side of the membrane to prevent the net flow of
solvent molecules into the more concentrated solution.
2. Ideal Solution: Osmotic pressure follows ideal behavior when the solute-
solvent interactions are similar to those in an ideal solution. In such cases,
the osmotic pressure can be calculated using the van't Hoff equation:
 π = iCRT
Where:
 π represents osmotic pressure
 i is the van't Hoff factor (the number of particles solute molecules
dissociate into in the solution, e.g., for NaCl, i = 2 because it
dissociates into Na+ and Cl- ions)
 C is the molar concentration of the solute
 R is the ideal gas constant
 T is the absolute temperature (in Kelvin)
Osmotic pressure has important applications in various biological processes, such
as the movement of water and nutrients across cell membranes, as well as in
industrial and scientific contexts, such as in the purification of liquids and the
study of colloidal systems. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the osmotic
balance and stability of cells and organisms.

2.9 Feed water properties

Boiler-feed water, also known simply as feedwater, is a crucial component in steam

boiler systems. Its properties play a significant role in the efficiency, safety, and
longevity of the boiler. The properties of boiler-feed water are carefully monitored
and controlled to ensure the smooth operation of boilers. Here are the key properties
and their importance:
1. Purity: Boiler-feed water should be as pure as possible to prevent scale and
corrosion within the boiler. Impurities, such as dissolved minerals (e.g.,
calcium, magnesium), can form solid deposits (scale) on heat transfer
surfaces, reducing heat transfer efficiency and potentially causing
overheating.
2. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): TDS is a measure of the total concentration of
dissolved ions in the water, including minerals and salts. High TDS levels can
lead to scaling and reduced heat transfer efficiency. It's typically measured in
parts per million (ppm) and should be kept within acceptable limits.
3. Alkalinity: Alkalinity in feedwater helps to control pH levels and prevent
boiler corrosion. It acts as a buffer, resisting sudden changes in pH that can
harm boiler components. The appropriate alkalinity level depends on the
specific boiler design and operating conditions.
4. pH Level: Maintaining the correct pH range in the feedwater is essential for
preventing corrosion. Low pH can cause acidic corrosion, while high pH can
lead to caustic corrosion. The pH should be within the specified range for the
particular boiler system.
 5. Oxygen Content: Oxygen in boiler-feed water can lead to oxygen pitting
corrosion, which can damage boiler tubes and other components. Oxygen
scavengers or deaerators are often used to remove dissolved oxygen from the
feedwater.
6. Hardness: Water hardness is primarily caused by calcium and magnesium
ions. High hardness can lead to scale formation on heat transfer surfaces.
Water softeners are used to reduce hardness in feedwater.
7. Silica Content: Silica can cause scaling in boilers, especially at high pressures
and temperatures. Silica levels need to be controlled and kept within
acceptable limits to prevent damage to boiler tubes.
8. Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is a measure of the water's ability to
conduct electricity, primarily due to the presence of dissolved ions. It is used
as an indicator of the overall purity of the feedwater. Monitoring and
controlling conductivity helps ensure the water is within acceptable limits.
9. Temperature: The temperature of the feedwater can affect the efficiency and
safety of the boiler. Cold feedwater can cause thermal shock to boiler
components, leading to cracking or other damage. Feedwater is often
preheated to a suitable temperature to prevent such issues.
10.Turbidity: Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness or haziness of water
caused by particles and sediment. Excessive turbidity can indicate the
presence of impurities and may require additional filtration or treatment.

2.9.1 Priming
Priming is a condition in which water droplets are carried over with the steam being
produced in the boiler. These water droplets can enter the steam distribution system
and cause problems downstream. Priming is typically caused by:
 High Water Level: If the water level in the boiler's steam drum is too
high, the turbulence generated by the steam production can carry water
droplets into the steam. This often occurs during sudden load changes.
 Foaming: Foaming in the boiler can create a layer of bubbles on the
water's surface, which makes it easier for water to be carried over with
the steam.
 Impurities in Feedwater: Impurities, such as dissolved solids, can
promote foaming and priming. High levels of impurities in the
feedwater can increase the likelihood of priming.
The consequences of priming can be serious. Water carried over with the steam can
damage downstream equipment, including turbines and heat exchangers. It can also
result in water hammer, which can cause mechanical damage and vibration in the
steam distribution system. Therefore, measures are taken to prevent and control
priming, including proper boiler design, maintaining the correct water level, and
using anti-foaming agents.
2.9.2 Foaming:
Foaming is a condition in which a layer of foam or froth forms on the surface of the
boiler water. This foam is usually caused by the presence of impurities, such as
organic matter, oil, or excessive dissolved solids in the feedwater. Foaming can have
several negative effects:
 Reduced Boiler Efficiency: The foam layer insulates the water from the
heat source, reducing heat transfer efficiency and, consequently, boiler
efficiency.
 Increased Blowdown: To control the level of impurities in the boiler,
operators may need to increase the frequency of blowdown (removing
a portion of the boiler water and replacing it with fresh feedwater). This
can result in water and energy wastage.
 Priming: Foaming can lead to priming, as mentioned earlier, which can
carry water into the steam.
To control foaming, various methods can be employed, including the use of anti-
foaming agents, regular blowdown to remove impurities, and ensuring proper
feedwater treatment to reduce the level of contaminants. Proper boiler water
chemistry control is essential to minimize foaming and its associated problems.
Both priming and foaming are operational issues that boiler operators need to be
aware of and address promptly to ensure the safe and efficient operation of the boiler
and to prevent damage to downstream equipment in steam systems.

2.10Sludge formation

Sludge is a solid deposit that forms at the bottom of the boiler's water drum or within
other parts of the water circulation system. It consists of solid particles, often
impurities present in the feedwater, suspended in the water. Sludge formation can
occur due to several reasons:
 Impurities in Feedwater: One of the primary causes of sludge
formation is the presence of impurities in the feedwater. These
impurities can include suspended solids, dissolved minerals (such as
calcium and magnesium), and organic matter.
 Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions within the boiler, such as the
precipitation of minerals, can lead to the formation of solid particles
that contribute to sludge.
 Improper Blowdown: Insufficient or irregular blowdown practices
can allow impurities to accumulate in the boiler, leading to sludge
buildup.
The consequences of sludge formation include reduced heat transfer efficiency,
increased fuel consumption, and potential damage to the boiler. Sludge can act as an
insulator, decreasing the ability of the boiler to transfer heat from the combustion
process to the water, which reduces boiler efficiency. Moreover, sludge can lead to
localized overheating, which can cause boiler tubes to fail. To mitigate sludge
formation, proper feedwater treatment, regular blowdown, and the use of water
treatment chemicals are employed.

Figure 15: Sludge and scale formation

2.11 Scale Formation:

Scale is a hard, crystalline deposit that forms on the internal surfaces of the boiler,
particularly on heat transfer surfaces like boiler tubes. Scale is primarily composed
of minerals that precipitate out of the water when it is heated. Common minerals in
scale include calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3).
Scale formation can occur due to several factors:

2.12 Hard Water: Hard water contains a high concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions, making it more prone to scale formation. When hard water is
heated in the boiler, the minerals can precipitate out and form scale deposits.

Inadequate Water Treatment: Inadequate water treatment, such as insufficient

softening or improper use of scale inhibitors, can contribute to scale formation.
High Temperature and Pressure: Higher boiler temperatures and pressures can
increase the likelihood of scale formation.
The consequences of scale formation include reduced heat transfer efficiency,
increased fuel consumption, decreased boiler lifespan, and potential boiler tube
failure due to overheating. Scale acts as an insulating layer, hindering heat transfer
and causing localized hot spots.
To prevent scale formation, water treatment methods are used to soften the water,
reduce mineral content, and inhibit scale formation. Regular cleaning and descaling
of boiler surfaces are also necessary to remove existing scale deposits.
Both sludge and scale formation are undesirable in boiler systems, and proper water
treatment and maintenance practices are essential to prevent these issues and ensure
the efficient and safe operation of the boiler. Regular monitoring and testing of boiler
water quality are crucial to identify and address these problems promptly.

Disadvantages of scale formation:

(1) Wastage of fuel: Scales have a low thermal conductivity, so the rate of heat
transfer from boiler to inside water is greatly decreased. In order to provide a steady
supply of heat to water, excessive or over heating is carried out and this causes
increase in fuel consumption. The wastage depends upon the thickness and the
nature of scale:

Table 5: wastage of fuel as per the thickness

(2) Lowering of boiler (equipment) safety: Due to scale formation, over-

heating of boiler is to be done in order to maintain a constant supply of steam. The
over-heating of the boiler tube makes the boiler material softer and weaker and this
causes distortion of boiler tube and makes the boiler unsafe to bear the pressure of
the steam, especially in high-pressure boilers.
(3) Decrease in efficiency: Scales may sometimes deposit in the valves and
condensers of the boiler and choke them partially. Tills results in decrease in
efficiency of boiler.
(4) Danger of explosion: When thick scales crack, due to uneven expansion, the
water comes suddenly in contact with over-heated iron plates. This causes formation
of a large amount of steam suddenly. So sudden high-pressure is developed, which
may even cause explosion of the boiler.
Removal of scales:
(i) With the help of scraper or piece of wood or wire brush, if they are
loosely adhering.
(ii) By giving thermal shocks (i.e., heating the boiler and then suddenly
cooling with cold water), if they are brittle.
(iii) By dissolving them by adding them chemicals, if they are adherent and
 hard. Thus, calcium carbonate scales can be dissolved by using 5-10%
HCl. Calcium sulphate scales can be dissolved by adding EDTA
(ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid), with which they form soluble
complexes.
(iv) By frequent blow-down operation, if the scales are loosely adhering.
(v) Treatment with sodium aluminates (NaAlO2): Sodium aluminates gets
hydrolyzed yielding NaOH and a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium
hydroxide. NaAlO2 + 2H2O → NaOH + Al(OH)3 The sodium
hydroxide, so-formed, precipitates some of the magnesium as Mg (OH)
2, MgCl2 + 2NaOH → Mg (OH) 2 + 2 NaCI The flocculent precipitate
of Mg (OH)2 plus Al(OH)3, produced inside the boiler, entraps finely
suspended and colloidal impurities, including oil drops and silica. The
loose precipitate can be removed by pre-determined blow-down
operation.
(vi) Electrical conditioning: Sealed glass bulbs, containing mercury
connected to a battery, are set rotating in the boiler. When water boils,
mercury bulbs emit electrical discharges, which prevents scale forming
particles to adhere /stick together to form scale.

SL Sludges Scales
1 Sludges are soft and Scales are hard deposits which stick
adherent deposits. very firmly to the inner surface of
the boiler.
2 Sludges can be removed Scales are very difficult to remove
easily
3 Heat transfer is possible Scales are bad conductor of heat
4 Sludges are formed by Scales are formed by substances
substances like MgCl2 and like CaSO4 and Mg(OH)2
CaCl2

Table 6: Comparisons between sludge and scales

2.13 Hardness: It is a characteristic property of water that prevents lathering of

soap. It is caused by the presence of bicarbonate, sulphates, chlorides of calcium and
magnesium.

Colloidal conditioning: Scale formation can be minimized by introducing into the

boiler some colloidal conditioning agents like starch and glue. Thise colloidal
substances get coated over the scale forming particles and thus the coalescence of
these particles to a compact scale is prevented. Thus the scale formed remains loose
and non-sticky and can be easily removed.

Carbonate conditioning: Addition of sodium carbonate prevents the precipitation

of scale- forming calcium sulphate, instead, by increasing the concentrations of
carbonate ions, the equilibrium can be shifted to facilitate precipitation of calcium
carbonate.
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Phosphate conditioning: Sodium orthophosphate may be added to the boiler water

to precipitate out the residual calcium and magnesium as loose calcium and
magnesium phosphate which can be easily removed by blow-down operations.
2Na3PO4 + 3CaSO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
If the water to be treated is acidic in nature, trisodium phosphate which is alkaline
in nature is normally used. If the water is neutral, disodium hydrogen phosphate is
use. If the water is alkaline, sodium dihydrogen phosphate which is acidic in nature
is used.

Calgon conditioning: Scale conditioning involves the addition of Calgon or sodium

hexametaphosphate to boiler water. This substance interacts with calcium ions
forming a highly soluble complex and thus prevents the precipitation of scale
forming salt.
2CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] -------- Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2 Na2SO4

2.14 Caustic embrittlement

It is the phenomenon in which the boiler material becomes brittle due to exposure to
caustic solutions (line NaOH) at high temperature and pressure conditions. The
alkaline water seeps inside the cracks on the boiler walls. The concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution reacts with iron of boiler walls causing caustic embrittlement.
Caustic embrittlement is a serious and potentially dangerous condition that can occur
in steam boilers. It is a type of boiler corrosion that weakens the boiler's metal
components, making them susceptible to sudden failure. Caustic embrittlement
typically affects high-pressure boilers operating at high temperatures and pressures.
Here's an explanation of caustic embrittlement:
Causes: Caustic embrittlement is primarily caused by the presence of excessive
concentrations of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH) or other alkaline
substances in the boiler water. The conditions that contribute to caustic
embrittlement include:
1. High Alkalinity: Elevated levels of alkalinity in the boiler water, often
resulting from improper water treatment or inadequate control of feedwater
chemistry.
2. High Temperature and Pressure: Caustic embrittlement is more likely to
occur in high-pressure boilers operating at high temperatures because the
metal is more susceptible to embrittlement under these conditions.

Mechanism: Caustic embrittlement involves the attack of the boiler's metal surfaces,
particularly those made of steel, by alkaline substances. The key steps in the
embrittlement process are as follows:
Boiler water usually contains a small proportion of Na2CO3, in high pressure boiler
this breaks up to give NaOH and makes the boiler more alkaline.
Na2CO3 + H2O ------- 2 NaOH + CO2
This very dilute alkaline boiler water flows into the minute hair cracks and cervices
by capillary action. There the water evaporates and the concentration of caustic soda
increases progressively. The concentrated alkali dissolves iron as sodium ferroate in
crevices, cracks, etc. where the metal is stressed. This causes brittlement of boiler
parts particularly stressed parts like bends, joints, and rivets causing even failure of
boiler.

Consequences: The consequences of caustic embrittlement can be severe and

include:
1. Sudden Boiler Failures: The weakened metal components are more prone to
sudden failure, which can lead to catastrophic boiler accidents.
2. Increased Maintenance Costs: Frequent repairs or replacements of boiler
components become necessary due to embrittlement-induced damage.
3. Safety Risks: Boiler explosions or ruptures can pose significant safety risks
to personnel and nearby equipment.

Prevention and Mitigation: Preventing caustic embrittlement is essential for the

safe operation of high-pressure boilers. Measures to prevent and mitigate caustic
embrittlement include:
1. Proper Water Treatment: Implementing a robust water treatment program
that includes adequate control of alkalinity and pH levels in the feedwater.
2. Monitoring and Testing: Regularly monitoring and testing boiler water
chemistry to ensure that alkalinity levels are within acceptable limits.
3. Blowdown: Proper blowdown practices to remove excess impurities and
alkaline substances from the boiler water.
4. Material Selection: Using materials that are less susceptible to caustic
 embrittlement in critical areas of the boiler.
5. Operator Training: Training boiler operators to recognize the signs of
caustic embrittlement and take corrective action.
6. Sodium phosphate: by using it as softening reagent instead Na2CO3.
7. Tannin or lignin: by adding it to boiler water which blocks the hair cracks.
It may be prevented by the following measures:
a. Using sodium phosphate for softening, instead of sodium carbonate.
b. Adding lignins and tannisns to the boiler water which seal the small
cracks and prevent direct contact of the boiler wall with the alkali.
c. Adding sodium sulphate to the boiler feed water to prevent the formation
of cracks.
d. Maintaining pH between 8 and 9 which stops the feed from becoming
very alkaline.

Caustic embrittlement is a severe problem that requires careful attention to water

chemistry and maintenance practices to prevent. Failure to address this issue can
have serious safety and operational consequences in high-pressure boiler systems.
2.15 Boiler corrosion
Boiler corrosion refers to the degradation and damage of materials in steam boilers
and other heating equipment due to chemical reactions between the metal
surfaces and the surrounding environment, typically water. Corrosion is a
significant concern in boiler systems because it can lead to reduced efficiency,
increased maintenance costs, and, in severe cases, boiler failures. There are
several types of corrosion that can affect boilers:
1. Oxygen Corrosion (Oxygen Pitting):
• Cause: Oxygen is present in feedwater and can enter the boiler. When water and
oxygen come into contact with metal surfaces at elevated temperatures, it can
lead to oxygen corrosion.
• Effects: This type of corrosion results in small pits or holes on the metal surfaces,
which can weaken them over time.
• Prevention: Oxygen scavengers, such as sulfite or hydrazine, are added to the
feedwater to remove or reduce oxygen levels. Proper deaeration processes can
also help.
2. Acidic Corrosion:
• Cause: Acidic corrosion occurs when the pH of the boiler water is too low
(acidic). Low pH levels can lead to the dissolution of metal surfaces.
• Effects: It can cause general corrosion, pitting, and the thinning of metal
components.
• Prevention: Proper monitoring and control of pH levels in the boiler water are
essential. Adding alkaline substances, such as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda),
can raise the pH and reduce the risk of acidic corrosion.
3. Caustic Corrosion (Caustic Embrittlement):
• Cause: Caustic corrosion is associated with high levels of caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide, NaOH) in boiler water. It can occur when alkalinity is not properly
controlled.
• Effects: Caustic corrosion can lead to the weakening of metal components,
causing them to become brittle and prone to cracking.
• Prevention: Maintaining proper water chemistry through water treatment and
minimizing caustic substances in the feedwater is crucial to prevent caustic
corrosion.
4. Galvanic Corrosion:
• Cause: Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are in contact with each
other in the presence of an electrolyte (e.g., water). It creates a small electrical
current that leads to corrosion.
• Effects: It can result in localized corrosion and pitting at the contact points
between dissimilar metals.
• Prevention: Isolating dissimilar metals, using sacrificial anodes, or employing
corrosion-resistant materials can prevent galvanic corrosion.
5. Crevice Corrosion:
• Cause: Crevice corrosion occurs in narrow gaps or crevices where water is
stagnant. It is often associated with localized concentration of impurities.
• Effects: Crevice corrosion can lead to severe pitting and damage to metal
surfaces.
• Prevention: Ensuring proper design and maintenance to minimize crevices and
keeping the boiler water chemistry in check can prevent crevice corrosion.
Preventing boiler corrosion is essential for the safe and efficient operation of
boilers. This involves a combination of proper water treatment, regular
monitoring of water chemistry, corrosion-resistant materials, and appropriate
maintenance practices. Boiler operators and maintenance personnel play a critical
 role in identifying and addressing corrosion issues promptly to prolong the life
of the boiler and ensure its safe operation.
2.16 Removal of O2, CO2 and acids

1. Removal of Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

Importance: Dissolved oxygen in boiler feedwater can lead to oxygen corrosion
(oxygen pitting) of the boiler's metal surfaces. This corrosion can weaken the metal
and cause pitting, leading to reduced boiler lifespan and potentially catastrophic
failures.
Removal Methods:
 Mechanical Deaeration: In this method, feedwater is heated and sprayed into
a deaerator, where it is exposed to a stream of steam. The steam heats the water
and strips out dissolved gases, including oxygen.
 Chemical Oxygen Scavengers: Oxygen scavengers, such as sodium sulfite or
hydrazine, can be added to the feedwater to chemically react with and remove
dissolved oxygen.
2. Removal of Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
Importance: Carbon dioxide in boiler feedwater can lead to the formation of carbonic
acid when the water is heated. Carbonic acid can cause acidic corrosion of metal
surfaces, particularly in high-temperature and high-pressure boiler systems.
Removal Methods:
 Deaeration: Similar to the removal of dissolved oxygen, mechanical deaeration
can also help in removing some carbon dioxide from the feedwater.
 Chemical Treatment: Chemicals like neutralizing amines or ammonia can be
added to the feedwater to neutralize carbonic acid, preventing its corrosive
effects.
3. Removal of Acids:
Importance: Acids in boiler feedwater can result from the breakdown of certain
chemicals or the introduction of acidic impurities. Acids can cause severe corrosion
and damage to metal components.
Removal Methods:
 Chemical Treatment: To remove or neutralize acids, chemicals like caustic
soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH) or other alkaline substances may be added to
the feedwater. These chemicals raise the pH of the water, reducing its acidity
and preventing acidic corrosion.
 Proper Water Treatment: Effective water treatment processes, including
demineralization, ion exchange, and filtration, can help reduce impurities and
contaminants that contribute to acidic conditions in the feedwater.
It's important to note that the specific methods used for removing these components
from boiler feedwater can vary depending on the boiler's design, operating
conditions, and the quality of the feedwater source. Proper monitoring of water
chemistry and regular testing are essential to ensure that these components are
effectively removed or controlled within acceptable limits. The goal is to maintain
the feedwater chemistry at levels that prevent corrosion and prolong the life of the
boiler while ensuring safe and efficient operation.
Removal of dissolved oxygen: Water usually contains about 8 ml of dissolved
oxygen per litre at room temperature. Dissolved oxygen in water, in presence of
prevailing high temperature, attacks boiler material:
2 Fe + 2H2O + O2 → 2 Fe (OH)2
4 Fe (OH)2 + O2 → 2 (Fe2O3.2H2O)
Ferrous hydroxide Rust

(1) By adding calculated quantity of sodium sulphite or hydrazine or sodium

sulphide. Thus.

2 Na2SO3 + O2 → 2 Na2SO4
N2H4 + O2 → N2 + 2 H2O
Na2S + 2 O2 → Na2SO4

(2) By mechanical de-aeration, i.e., water spraying in a perforated plate-fitted tower,

heated from sides, and connected to vacuum pump. High temperature, low pressure,
and large exposed surface (provided by perforated plates) reduces the dissolved
oxygen in water De-aeration of water.
Removal of CO2: Dissolved carbon dioxide: CO2 is carbonic acid,

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Which has a slow corrosive effect on the boiler material. Carbon dioxide is also
released inside the boiler, if water used for steam generation it contains bicarbonate,
e.g.

Mg (HCO3)2 → MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

(1) By adding calculated quantity of ammonia. Thus,

(2)
2NH4OH + CO2 → (NH4)2CO3 + H2O

(2) By mechanical-aeration process along with oxygen.

2.17 Boiler water treatment
The treatment advised for prevention of corrosion in the boiler and feed system etc.,
can be summarized as follows:
(i) Efficient mechanical de-aeration of the feed water for all high-pressure
boilers;
(ii) Maintenance of the correct level of alkalinity in the boiler.
(iii) Hydrazine or sulphite additions to maintain a reserve of one of these chemicals
in the boiler;
(iv) Maintenance of the correct pH level in the condensate system using ammonia
and/or supplementing the hydrazine treatment with a volatile amine;
(v) Feed filtration to reduce ingress of copper and iron oxides to the boilers.

Boiler Water PH Test

A PH test indicates how alkaline or acidic your boiler water is. Ideally, the water
should be maintained between 9.5-11.5 PH inside the boiler (alkaline environment).
Engineers perform this test to prevent acidic corrosion from the water (low PH) as
well as scale formation (high PH). Aside from that, some of the chemicals you need
to use for water treatments require an alkaline environment to adjust the water’s
levels properly.
To perform this test, perform the following steps.
 Rinse and fill the plastic 50ml beaker with sample water
 After that is done, add 600mg of PH reagent (one scoop) to the water sample
 Mix the reagent in the sample water to completely dissolve it.
 Next, take a PH indicator strip, dip it into the sample, and leave it submerged
for one minute
 Finally, compare with the colors shown on the box to determine the PH level
visually.
Condensate control for feed water in the hotwell to ensure at least a PH level from
8.5 to 9.5 PH
Alkalinity control for inside the boiler to provide 9.5-11.5 PH, which is required for
corrosion control.
Boiler Water Phosphate Test and Hydrazine Test
For the next test, you are now going to check the phosphate levels in the boiler.
Phosphate is important to maintain since it reacts with any calcium impurities within
the water, and forms a precipitate that will accumulate at the bottom of the boiler.
This can later be blown down or discharged (by releasing the bottom blow down
valve).
To test the phosphate levels, we use the comparator, a small black device that holds
both of your 10ml testing vials. And here are the steps you need to follow:
 First off, rinse and fill the two 10ml sample vials with boiler water.
 One vial contains the control sample and the placed on the left side of the
comparator (not adjusted).
 The other sample requires a phosphate indicator tablet, which you will need
to dissolve in the water and wait for 10 minutes before proceeding.
 After the 10 minutes are over, take the indicator disc and compare the vials.
Once you identify the color match, you will get an indication of the phosphate
concentration in the water.
When it comes to water treatment for phosphate concentration, we use the UNITOR
chemical Hardness Control, which has the following characteristics:
 Maintains free phosphate levels in the boiler
 Does not allow calcium to create scale and makes it easy to remove by
blowdown
 You can add 23gr per ton of feed water for 20ppm Phosphate boost
Note that Phospate levels in the boiler water should be maintained at 20-50ppm.
After finding the Phosphate levels, you will now need to test the hydrazine levels of
the boiler. These are typically maintained between 0,1ppm and 0,2ppm.
Hydrazine is very important as it reacts with dissolved oxygen inside the boiler tank
to form hydrogen and water. Here are the steps you need to follow in order to test it:
 Start by repeating the steps from above, filling two vials with 10ml sample
water, which we will then use in our comparator.
 This time, the right cell will include 1 gram of hydrazine reagent, which will
need to be fully dissolved as we did previously.
 Two minutes after the agent is fully dissolved, you can once again use the
color indicator disc to determine the levels of hydrazine within the water.
To control and alter hydrazine levels we use a UNITOR chemical known as “Oxygen
Scavenger/Control”. These chemicals remove the dissolved oxygen that causes
corrosion like we previously mentioned. Once again, your choice will depend on the
chemical partners of the vessel.

Boiler Water Chloride Test

For this test, you will need the 100ml beaker and Chloride testing tabs.
Testing for Chloride is very important as it indicates whether sea water is
contaminating the boiler. This causes increased conductivity between the boiler
metal and its water, which accelerates oxidation.

To start this test, fill the 100ml beaker with sample water. Next, dissolve chloride
tabs one by one until the color of the water changes from yellow to brown.
Depending on the number of pills we use, we can then determine the chloride
concentration of the water (use the color indicator to determine the levels).
When it comes to chloride concentration, there isn’t a “chemical treatment” to
reduce its levels in the vessel’s boiler water. If the concentration is too high, you will
simply need to blowdown and make sure that the replacing water has a lower
chloride concentration. This is heavily depended on feed water, which comes from
distilled water created in the fresh water generator.

P & M Alkalinity Test

For this test, you will need to use the 200ml flask as well as the P&M Alkalinity tabs
(indicator pills). P & M Alkalinity calculates the total amount of inorganic carbons
inside the sample, which in turn indicates the total alkalinity in the sample.
Remember that boiler water should be in an alkaline environment but not in excess,
in order to promote the formation of precipitates and protect from corrosion.
We test P&M Alkalinity by rinding and filling the 200ml flask with sample water
and adding tabs in a consecutive manner.
P Alkalinity test in boiler water - Start by placing P indicator pills in the sample
water (one by one) until the color changes from blue to yellow. Depending on the
number of tabs added to the water you will be able to identify the P Alkalinity.
(Formula: PAlk = P Alk Pills x 20 - 10 = ppmCaCo3)
M Alkalinity test in boiler water - This test starts with the same water sample you
previously used to determine the P Alkalinity (yellow). Add M indicator pills
consecutively until the color of the sample turns from yellow to purple. Then, based
on the number of pills that were used, you will be able to calculate the M Alkalinity
of the sample
(Formula: MAlk = (P Alk Pills + M Alk Pills) x 20 - 10 = ppmCaCo3)
Once you know the P&M Alkalinity levels, you can easily control them by using the
UNITOR chemical “Alkalinity Control”. By doing so, you will be able to create an
alkaline boiler water environment, which in turn prevents corrosion and protects the
water from oxidation.

The iron test:

The iron test is an important component of boiler water testing, as it helps monitor
the levels of iron in the water used in a steam boiler. Elevated iron concentrations
in boiler water can lead to several problems, including corrosion, scale formation,
and reduced boiler efficiency. Here's how the iron test for boiler water testing is
typically conducted:
Principle: The iron test is based on the reaction between iron ions (Fe²⁺) in the water
sample and a reagent, usually called "ferroin," to form a colored complex. The
intensity of the color is proportional to the concentration of iron in the sample, which
can be quantified by measuring the absorbance of light at a specific wavelength.
Materials and Reagents:
 Water sample from the boiler
 Ferroin indicator solution
 Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) or hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 A spectrophotometer or colorimeter
Procedure:
1. Sample Collection: Collect a representative sample of the boiler water.
Ensure the sample is free from any debris or suspended solids. If necessary,
filter the sample to remove any impurities.
2. Sample Preparation:
 If the sample has a high pH (alkaline), it needs to be acidified to pH 1-
2. This is typically done by adding a few drops of concentrated sulfuric
acid or hydrochloric acid to lower the pH.
3. Color Development:
 Add a few drops of the ferroin indicator solution to the sample. The
ferroin will react with the iron in the water to form a colored complex.
4. Measurement:
 Measure the absorbance of the colored solution at a specific wavelength
using a spectrophotometer or colorimeter. The wavelength for iron
testing is typically around 510 nm.
5. Calibration:
 Prepare a series of standard iron solutions with known concentrations.
Measure their absorbance at the same wavelength and create a
calibration curve relating absorbance to iron concentration. This curve
will be used to determine the iron concentration in the boiler water
sample.
6. Quantification:
 Using the calibration curve, determine the iron concentration in the
boiler water sample based on its absorbance value. The results are
typically expressed in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter
(mg/L).
Interpretation: The iron concentration in the boiler water sample can be compared
to recommended limits and guidelines. High iron levels can indicate corrosion of the
boiler system, which may require remediation, such as chemical treatment or
replacement of components.
It's essential to perform the iron test regularly as part of routine boiler water testing
to detect and address any issues with iron levels in the system, helping to maintain
the efficiency and integrity of the boiler and associated equipment.
Phosphate conditioning

Phosphate conditioning is a common water treatment method used to control the

formation of scale in steam boilers. It involves adding chemicals, typically sodium
phosphate compounds, to the boiler feedwater to sequester calcium and magnesium
ions, which can lead to scale formation. The phosphate conditioning test is
conducted to determine the appropriate dosage of phosphate compounds needed for
effective scale control. Here's how the phosphate conditioning test for boiler water
is typically performed:
Materials and Reagents:
 Boiler feedwater sample
 Sodium phosphate reagent (usually sodium hexametaphosphate)
 pH meter
 Chemical balance
 Graduated cylinder or volumetric flask
 Heating source (e.g., Bunsen burner)
 Filter paper (if necessary)
 Magnetic stirrer
Procedure:
1. Sample Collection:
 Collect a representative sample of the boiler feedwater. Ensure the
sample is free from any suspended solids, as these can affect the
accuracy of the test.
2. Sample Filtration (If Necessary):
 If the feedwater sample is turbid or contains suspended solids, filter it
through filter paper to remove any particulate matter.
3. pH Measurement:
 Measure the pH of the feedwater sample using a pH meter. Record the
initial pH value.
4. Phosphate Addition:
 In a graduated cylinder or volumetric flask, prepare a solution of
sodium phosphate reagent. The concentration of the solution may vary
based on the specific treatment program and boiler system, but it is
typically in the range of 5-50 ppm as PO₄ (phosphate ion).
5. Heating:
 Heat the feedwater sample to the desired temperature, which is usually
close to the operating temperature of the boiler. Heating the sample is
essential because it mimics the conditions in the boiler.
6. Phosphate Dosing:
 Gradually add the prepared sodium phosphate solution to the heated
 feedwater sample. Stir the sample using a magnetic stirrer or another
suitable method to ensure thorough mixing.
7. pH Measurement After Phosphate Addition:
 After adding the phosphate solution, measure the pH of the sample
again. The pH should increase as the phosphate compounds react with
calcium and magnesium ions to form insoluble precipitates.
8. Determination of Effective Phosphate Dosage:
 Calculate the change in pH before and after phosphate addition. The
change in pH provides an indication of the effectiveness of the
phosphate treatment. A significant increase in pH indicates that the
phosphate compounds have sequestered calcium and magnesium ions,
helping to prevent scale formation.
Interpretation: The phosphate conditioning test helps determine the appropriate
dosage of phosphate compounds needed to control scale formation in the boiler. The
goal is to find the dosage that provides effective sequestration of calcium and
magnesium ions without causing the pH to increase excessively.
Proper phosphate conditioning is essential to prevent scale deposition on boiler
surfaces, which can reduce heat transfer efficiency, increase energy consumption,
and lead to boiler damage. It is a vital component of water treatment in steam boiler
systems. The test should be performed regularly to ensure that the treatment program
remains effective.