2 The specification overview

2a. Overview of A Level in Biology A (H420)

Learners must complete all components (01, 02, 03 and 04) to be awarded the OCR A Level in Biology A.

Content Overview Assessment Overview

Biological processes
Content is split into six teaching (01) 37% 2
modules: 100 marks of total
• Module 1 – Development of 2 hour 15 minutes A level
practical skills in biology written paper
• Module 2 – Foundations in
biology Biological diversity
(02) 37%
• Module 3 – Exchange and
transport 100 marks of total
• Module 4 – Biodiversity, 2 hour 15 minutes A level
evolution and disease written paper

• Module 5 – Communication, Unified biology

homeostasis and energy 26%
(03)
• Module 6 – Genetics,
evolution and ecosystems
70 marks of total
Component 01 assesses content
1 hour 30 minutes A level
written paper
from modules 1, 2, 3 and 5.
Component 02 assesses content
Practical Endorsement Reported
from modules 1, 2, 4 and 6.
in biology separately
Component 03 assesses content (04)
from all modules (1 to 6). (see
(non exam assessment)
section 5f)
All components include synoptic assessment.

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A Level in Biology A 5
 Module 2: Foundations in biology

All living organisms have similarities in cellular Membranes form barriers within, and at the surface
structure, biochemistry and function. An of, cells. This module also considers the way in which
understanding of these similarities is fundamental to the structure of membranes relates to the different
the study of the subject. methods by which molecules enter and leave cells and
organelles.
This module gives learners the opportunity to use
microscopy to study the cell structure of a variety of The division and subsequent specialisation of cells is
2 organisms. Biologically important molecules such as
carbohydrates, proteins, water and nucleic acids are
studied, together with the potential for the therapeutic
use of stem cells.
studied with respect to their structure and function.
The structure and mode of action of enzymes in Learners are expected to apply knowledge,
catalysing biochemical reactions is studied. understanding and other skills developed in this
module to new situations and/or to solve related
problems.

2.1 Foundations in biology

2.1.1 Cell structure

Biology is the study of living organisms. Every living observation using microscopes has revealed details of
organism is made up of one or more cells, therefore cell structure and ultrastructure and provided evidence
understanding the structure and function of the cell is to support hypotheses regarding the roles of cells and
a fundamental concept in the study of biology. Since their organelles.
Robert Hooke coined the phrase ‘cells’ in 1665, careful

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the use of microscopy to observe and investigate To include an appreciation of the images produced
different types of cell and cell structure in a range by a range of microscopes; light microscope,
of eukaryotic organisms transmission electron microscope and scanning
electron microscope.

HSW1, HSW7
(b) the preparation and examination of microscope Including the use of an eye piece graticule and stage
slides for use in light microscopy micrometer.
PAG1
HSW4
(c) the use of staining in light microscopy To include the use of differential staining to identify
different cellular components and cell types.
PAG1
HSW4, HSW5
(d) the representation of cell structure as seen PAG1
under the light microscope using drawings and
annotated diagrams of whole cells or cells in
sections of tissue

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12 A Level in Biology A
 size of image
(e) the use and manipulation of the magnification magnification = size of real object
formula

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.8, M2.2, M2.3, M2.4

(f) the difference between magnification and To include an appreciation of the differences in
resolution resolution and magnification that can be achieved
by a light microscope, a transmission electron
microscope and a scanning electron microscope.

Learners are not required to recall exact resolutions 2

or magnification numbers for each of the listed
microscopes.

M0.2, M0.3
HSW7, HSW8
(g) the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells and the To include the following cellular components and
functions of the different cellular components an outline of their functions: nucleus, nucleolus,
nuclear envelope, rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, ribosomes,
mitochondria, lysosomes, chloroplasts, plasma
membrane, centrioles, cell wall, flagella and cilia.

M0.2
(h) photomicrographs of cellular components in a To include interpretation of transmission and
range of eukaryotic cells scanning electron microscope images.
(i) the interrelationship between the organelles
involved in the production and secretion of
proteins
(j) the importance of the cytoskeleton To include providing mechanical strength to cells,
aiding transport within cells and enabling cell
movement.

HSW2
(k) the similarities and differences in the structure PAG1
and ultrastructure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.

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A Level in Biology A 13
 2.1.2 Biological molecules

The cells of all living organisms are composed of macromolecules that are essential for life. A study of
biological molecules. Proteins, carbohydrates and the structure of these macromolecules allows a better
lipids are three of the key groups of biological understanding of their functions in living organisms.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and Where appropriate, this section should include
2 apply their knowledge and understanding of: diagrams to represent molecular structure and
bonding.
(a) how hydrogen bonding occurs between water To include roles that relate to the properties of
molecules, and relate this, and other properties water; solvent, transport medium, coolant and as a
of water, to the roles of water for living habitat
organisms AND
roles illustrated using examples of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

Learners should be able to apply their knowledge

and understanding in the context of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

HSW2, HSW8
(b) the concept of monomers and polymers and
the importance of condensation and hydrolysis
reactions in a range of biological molecules
(c) the chemical elements that make up biological To include:
molecules
C, H and O for carbohydrates
C, H and O for lipids
C, H, O, N and S for proteins
C, H, O, N and P for nucleic acids
(d) the ring structure and properties of glucose as To include the structural difference between an
an example of a hexose monosaccharide and the α- and a β-glucose molecule
structure of ribose as an example of a pentose AND
monosaccharide the difference between a hexose and a pentose
monosaccharide.
(e) the synthesis and breakdown of a disaccharide To include the disaccharides sucrose, lactose and
and polysaccharide by the formation and maltose.
breakage of glycosidic bonds
(f) the structure of starch (amylose and HSW8
amylopectin), glycogen and cellulose molecules
(g) how the structures and properties of glucose, HSW2, HSW8
starch, glycogen and cellulose molecules relate to
their functions in living organisms

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14 A Level in Biology A
 Learning outcomes Additional guidance
(h) the structure of a triglyceride and a phospholipid To include the structure of saturated and
as examples of macromolecules unsaturated fatty acids.
(i) the synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides
by the formation and breakage of ester bonds
between fatty acids and glycerol
(j) how the properties of triglyceride, phospholipid To include hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions and
and cholesterol molecules relate to their energy content. 2
functions in living organisms
Learners should be able to apply their knowledge
and understanding in the context of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

HSW2, HSW8
(k) the general structure of an amino acid
(l) the synthesis and breakdown of dipeptides and
polypeptides, by the formation and breakage of
peptide bonds
(m) the levels of protein structure To include primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary structure
AND
hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic and hydrophilic
interactions, disulfide bonds and ionic bonds.

HSW8
(n) the structure and function of globular proteins To include haemoglobin as an example of a
including a conjugated protein conjugated protein (globular protein with a
prosthetic group), a named enzyme and insulin.

PAG10
(o) the properties and functions of fibrous proteins To include collagen, keratin and elastin (no details of
structure are required).
(p) the key inorganic ions that are involved in To include the following:
biological processes
calcium ions (Ca2+), sodium ions (Na+), potassium
ions (K+), hydrogen ions (H+), ammonium ions (NH4+)

nitrate (NO3–), hydrogencarbonate (HCO3–), chloride

(Cl –), phosphate (PO43–), hydroxide (OH–).

Learners should be able to recognise the symbols for

these ions.

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A Level in Biology A 15
 Learning outcomes Additional guidance
(q) how to carry out and interpret the results of the PAG9
following chemical tests: HSW3, HSW4, HSW5

• biuret test for proteins

• Benedict’s test for reducing and
non-reducing sugars

2 • iodine test for starch

• emulsion test for lipids
(r) quantitative methods to determine the To include colorimetry.
concentration of a chemical substance in a PAG5
solution HSW3, HSW4, HSW5
(s) (i) the principles and uses of paper and thin To include calculation of Rf values.
layer chromatography to separate biological
distance moved by the solute
molecules / compounds Rf =
distance moved by the solvent
(ii) practical investigations to analyse biological Learners should be able to apply their knowledge
solutions using paper or thin layer and understanding in the context of separating
chromatography proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and nucleic acids.

M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.3, M2.2, M2.3, M2.4

PAG6
HSW2, HSW3, HSW4

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16 A Level in Biology A
2.1.3 Nucleotides and nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are essential to heredity in living in the storage and use of genetic information and cell
organisms. Understanding the structure of nucleotides metabolism.
and nucleic acids allows an understanding of their roles

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of: 2
(a) the structure of a nucleotide as the monomer To include the differences between RNA and DNA
from which nucleic acids are made nucleotides, the identification of the purines and
pyrimidines and the type of pentose sugar.

PAG10
(b) the synthesis and breakdown of polynucleotides
by the formation and breakage of phosphodiester
bonds
(c) the structure of ADP and ATP as phosphorylated Comprising a pentose sugar (ribose), a nitrogenous
nucleotides base (adenine) and inorganic phosphates.
(d) (i) the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) To include how hydrogen bonding between
(ii) practical investigations into the purification complementary base pairs (A to T, G to C) on two
of DNA by precipitation antiparallel DNA polynucleotides leads to the
formation of a DNA molecule, and how the twisting
of DNA produces its ‘double-helix’ shape.
PAG9
HSW3, HSW4
(e) semi-conservative DNA replication To include the roles of the enzymes helicase and
DNA polymerase, the importance of replication in
conserving genetic information with accuracy and
the occurrence of random, spontaneous mutations.

At AS Level learners are not required to distinguish

between different types of mutation.

HSW8
(f) the nature of the genetic code To include the triplet, non-overlapping, degenerate
and universal nature of the code and how a gene
determines the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide (the primary structure of a protein).
(g) transcription and translation of genes resulting in To include, the roles of RNA polymerase, messenger
the synthesis of polypeptides. (m)RNA, transfer (t)RNA, ribosomal (r)RNA.

HSW8

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A Level in Biology A 17
 2.1.4 Enzymes

Metabolism in living organisms relies upon enzyme- improved our understanding of biological processes
controlled reactions. Knowledge of how enzymes and increased our use of enzymes in industry.
function and the factors that affect enzyme action has

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
2 apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the role of enzymes in catalysing reactions To include the idea that enzymes affect both
that affect metabolism at a cellular and whole structure and function.
organism level
(b) the role of enzymes in catalysing both To include catalase as an example of an enzyme that
intracellular and extracellular reactions catalyses intracellular reactions and amylase as an
example of an enzyme that catalyses extracellular
reactions.
(c) the mechanism of enzyme action To include the tertiary structure, specificity,
active site, lock and key hypothesis, induced-fit
hypothesis, enzyme-substrate complex, enzyme-
product complex, product formation and lowering of
activation energy.

HSW1, HSW8
(d) (i) the effects of pH, temperature, enzyme To include reference to the temperature coefficient
concentration and substrate concentration (Q10).
on enzyme activity R2
Q10 =
R1
(ii) practical investigations into the effects of An opportunity for serial dilutions.
pH, temperature, enzyme concentration and M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.3, M1.11, M3.1, M3.2,
substrate concentration on enzyme activity M3.3, M3.5, M3.6
PAG4
HSW1, HSW2, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6, HSW8.
(e) the need for coenzymes and cofactors in some To include the chloride ion as a cofactor for amylase
enzyme-controlled reactions and vitamins as a source of coenzymes.
PAG4
(f) the effects of inhibitors on the rate of enzyme- To include competitive and non-competitive,
controlled reactions. reversible and non-reversible inhibitors, and the role
of end-product inhibition.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.3, M1.11, M3.1, M3.2,

M3.3, M3.5, M3.6
PAG4
HSW1, HSW2, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6, HSW8

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18 A Level in Biology A
2.1.5 Biological membranes

Membranes are fundamental to the cell theory. The Understanding how different substances enter cells is
structure of the plasma membrane allows cells to also crucial to the development of mechanisms for the
communicate with each other. Understanding this administration of drugs.
ability to communicate is important as scientists
increasingly make use of membrane-bound receptors
as sites for the action of medicinal drugs.

2
Learning outcomes Additional guidance
Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the roles of membranes within cells and at the To include the roles of membranes as:
surface of cells
• partially permeable barriers between the cell
and its environment, between organelles and
the cytoplasm and within organelles
• sites of chemical reactions
• sites of cell communication (cell signalling).
(b) the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure To include phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids,
and the roles of its components proteins and glycoproteins
AND
the role of membrane-bound receptors as sites
where hormones and drugs can bind.

M0.2
HSW1
(c) (i) factors affecting membrane structure and To include the effects of temperature and solvents.
permeability
M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.11, M3.1,
(ii) practical investigations into factors affecting
M3.2, M3.3, M3.5, M3.6
membrane structure and permeability
PAG5, PAG8
HSW1, HSW2, HSW3, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6
(d) (i) the movement of molecules across To include diffusion and facilitated diffusion as
membranes passive methods
(ii) practical investigations into the factors AND
affecting diffusion rates in model cells active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis as
processes requiring adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as
an immediate source of energy.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.11,

M2.1, M3.1, M3.2, M3.3, M3.5, M3.6, M4.1
PAG8
HSW1, HSW2, HSW3, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6

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A Level in Biology A 19
 (e) (i) the movement of water across membranes Osmosis to be explained in terms of a water
by osmosis and the effects that solutions of potential gradient across a partially-permeable
different water potential can have on plant membrane.
and animal cells
M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.10,
(ii) practical investigations into the effects of
M1.11, M2.1, M3.1, M3.2, M4.1
solutions of different water potential on
PAG8
plant and animal cells.
HSW1, HSW2, HSW3, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6

2
2.1.6 Cell division, cell diversity and cellular organisation

During the cell cycle, genetic information is copied and Understanding how stem cells can be modified has
passed to daughter cells. Microscopes can be used to huge potential in medicine.
view the different stages of the cycle.
To understand how a whole organism functions, it is
In multicellular organisms, stem cells are modified essential to appreciate the importance of cooperation
to produce many different types of specialised cell. between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the cell cycle To include the processes taking place during
interphase (G1, S and G2), mitosis and cytokinesis,
leading to genetically identical cells.

HSW8
(b) how the cell cycle is regulated To include an outline of the use of checkpoints to
control the cycle.
(c) the main stages of mitosis To include the changes in the nuclear envelope,
chromosomes, chromatids, centromere, centrioles,
spindle fibres and cell membrane.

HSW8
(d) sections of plant tissue showing the cell cycle and To include the examination of stained sections and
stages of mitosis squashes of plant tissue and the production of
labelled diagrams to show the stages observed.
PAG1
(e) the significance of mitosis in life cycles To include growth, tissue repair and asexual
reproduction in plants, animals and fungi.

HSW2
(f) the significance of meiosis in life cycles To include the production of haploid cells and
genetic variation by independent assortment and
crossing over.

HSW2, HSW5

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20 A Level in Biology A
(g) the main stages of meiosis To include interphase, prophase 1, metaphase 1,
anaphase 1, telophase 1, prophase 2, metaphase 2,
anaphase 2, telophase 2 (no details of the names of
the stages within prophase 1 are required) and the
term homologous chromosomes.
PAG1
HSW8
(h) how cells of multicellular organisms are To include erythrocytes, neutrophils, squamous and
specialised for particular functions ciliated epithelial cells, sperm cells, palisade cells,
root hair cells and guard cells.
2
PAG1
(i) the organisation of cells into tissues, organs and To include squamous and ciliated epithelia, cartilage,
organ systems muscle, xylem and phloem as examples of tissues.
(j) the features and differentiation of stem cells To include stem cells as a renewing source of
undifferentiated cells.
(k) the production of erythrocytes and neutrophils
as examples of distinct, differentiated cells
derived from a common stem cell in bone
marrow
(l) the production of xylem vessels and phloem
sieve tubes as examples of distinct, differentiated
outcomes derived from a common stem cell in
meristems
(m) the potential uses of stem cells in research and To include the repair of damaged tissues, the
medicine. treatment of neurological conditions and research
into developmental biology.

Learners are not required to recall specific

neurological conditions.

HSW2, HSW5, HSW6, HSW7, HSW9, HSW10, HSW11,

HSW12

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 Module 3: Exchange and transport

In this module, learners study the structure and and a range of animal phyla are used to illustrate the
function of gas exchange and transport systems in a principle.
range of animals and in terrestrial plants.
Learners are expected to apply knowledge,
The significance of surface area to volume ratio in understanding and other skills developed in this
determining the need for ventilation, gas exchange module to new situations and/or to solve related
and transport systems in multicellular organisms is problems.
2 emphasised. The examples of terrestrial green plants

3.1 Exchange and transport

3.1.1 Exchange surfaces

As animals become larger and more active, ventilation Ventilation and gas exchange systems in mammals,
and gas exchange systems become essential to supply bony fish and insects are used as examples of the
oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, their properties and functions of exchange surfaces in
bodies. animals.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the need for specialised exchange surfaces To include surface area to volume ratio (SA:V),
metabolic activity, single-celled and multicellular
organisms.
surface area
ratio =
volume
M0.1, M0.3, M0.4, M1.1, M2.1, M4.1
HSW1, HSW3, HSW5, HSW8
(b) the features of an efficient exchange surface To include:

• increased surface area – root hair cells

• thin layer – alveoli
• good blood supply/ventilation to maintain
gradient – gills/alveolus.
(c) the structures and functions of the components To include the distribution and functions of cartilage,
of the mammalian gaseous exchange system ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, smooth muscle and
elastic fibres in the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
and alveoli.
PAG1
HSW8
(d) the mechanism of ventilation in mammals To include the function of the rib cage, intercostal
muscles (internal and external) and diaphragm.

HSW8

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22 A Level in Biology A
(e) the relationship between vital capacity, tidal To include analysis and interpretation of primary
volume, breathing rate and oxygen uptake and secondary data e.g. from a data logger or
spirometer.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.4, M1.3

PAG10
HSW2, HSW3, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6
(f) the mechanisms of ventilation and gas exchange To include:
in bony fish and insects
• bony fish – changes in volume of the buccal 2
cavity and the functions of the operculum,
gill filaments and gill lamellae (gill plates);
countercurrent flow
• insects – spiracles, trachea, thoracic and
abdominal movement to change body
volume, exchange with tracheal fluid.
HSW8
(g) the dissection, examination and drawing of the PAG2
gaseous exchange system of a bony fish and/or HSW4
insect trachea
(h) the examination of microscope slides to show the PAG1
histology of exchange surfaces. HSW4

3.1.2 Transport in animals

As animals become larger and more active, transport Controlling the supply of nutrients and removal of
systems become essential to supply nutrients to, and waste requires the coordinated activity of the heart
remove waste from, individual cells. and circulatory system.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the need for transport systems in multicellular To include an appreciation of size, metabolic rate
animals and surface area to volume ratio (SA:V).

M0.1, M0.3, M0.4, M1.1, M2.1, M4.1

HSW1, HSW3, HSW5, HSW8
(b) the different types of circulatory systems To include single, double, open and closed
circulatory systems in insects, fish and mammals.
(c) the structure and functions of arteries, arterioles, To include the distribution of different tissues within
capillaries, venules and veins the vessel walls.
PAG2

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A Level in Biology A 23
 (d) the formation of tissue fluid from plasma To include reference to hydrostatic pressure, oncotic
pressure and an explanation of the differences in the
composition of blood, tissue fluid and lymph.

HSW8
(e) (i) the external and internal structure of the PAG2
mammalian heart HSW4
(ii) the dissection, examination and drawing of
2 the external and internal structure of the
mammalian heart
(f) the cardiac cycle To include the role of the valves and the pressure
changes occurring in the heart and associated
vessels.
cardiac output = heart rate # stroke volume
HSW2, HSW5, HSW8
(g) how heart action is initiated and coordinated To include the roles of the sino-atrial node (SAN),
atrio-ventricular node (AVN), purkyne tissue and
the myogenic nature of cardiac muscle (no detail
of hormonal and nervous control is required at AS
level).

HSW2, HSW5, HSW8

(h) the use and interpretation of electrocardiogram To include normal and abnormal heart activity
(ECG) traces (tachycardia, bradycardia, fibrillation and ectopic
heartbeat only).

M0.1, M1.1, M1.3, M2.4

HSW2, HSW5
(i) the role of haemoglobin in transporting oxygen To include the reversible binding of oxygen
and carbon dioxide molecules, carbonic anhydrase, haemoglobinic acid,
hydrogencarbonate ion and the chloride shift.

HSW8
(j) the oxygen dissociation curve for fetal and adult To include the significance of the different affinities
human haemoglobin. for oxygen
AND
the changes to the dissociation curve at different
carbon dioxide concentrations (the Bohr effect).

M3.1
HSW2, HSW8

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24 A Level in Biology A
3.1.3 Transport in plants

As plants become larger and more complex, transport The supply of nutrients from the soil relies upon the
systems become essential to supply nutrients to, and flow of water through a vascular system, as does the
remove waste from, individual cells. movement of the products of photosynthesis.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of: 2
(a) the need for transport systems in multicellular To include an appreciation of size, metabolic rate
plants and surface area to volume ratio (SA:V).

M0.1, M0.3, M0.4, M1.1, M2.1, M4.1

HSW1, HSW3, HSW5, HSW8
(b) (i) the structure and function of the vascular To include xylem vessels, sieve tube elements and
system in the roots, stems and leaves of companion cells.
herbaceous dicotyledonous plants
(ii) the examination and drawing of stained PAG1
sections of plant tissue to show the HSW4
distribution of xylem and phloem
(iii) the dissection of stems, both longitudinally PAG2
and transversely, and their examination to HSW4
demonstrate the position and structure of
xylem vessels
(c) (i) the process of transpiration and the To include an appreciation that transpiration is a
environmental factors that affect consequence of gaseous exchange.
transpiration rate
(ii) practical investigations to estimate To include the use of a potometer.
transpiration rates
M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.11, M3.1,
M3.2, M3.3, M3.5, M3.6, M4.1
PAG5, PAG11
HSW2, HSW3, HSW4, HSW5, HSW6, HSW8
(d) the transport of water into the plant, through the To include details of the pathways taken by water
plant and to the air surrounding the leaves (apoplast and symplast pathways only).
AND
the mechanisms of movement, in terms of water
potential, adhesion, cohesion and the transpiration
stream.

HSW2, HSW8
(e) adaptations of plants to the availability of water To include xerophytes (cacti and marram grass) and
in their environment hydrophytes (water lilies).

HSW2

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A Level in Biology A 25
 (f) the mechanism of translocation. To include translocation as an energy-requiring
process transporting assimilates, especially sucrose,
in the phloem between sources (e.g. leaves) and
sinks (e.g. roots, meristem)
AND
details of active loading at the source and removal
at the sink.

HSW2, HSW8
2
Module 4: Biodiversity, evolution and disease

In this module the learners study the biodiversity impact of the evolution of pathogens on the treatment
of organisms; how they are classified and the ways of disease is also considered.
in which biodiversity can be measured. It serves as
an introduction to ecology, emphasising practical The relationships between organisms are studied,
techniques and an appreciation of the need to considering variation, evolution and phylogeny.
maintain biodiversity. The learners also gain an
Learners are expected to apply knowledge,
understanding of the variety of organisms that are
understanding and other skills developed in this
pathogenic and the way in which plants and animals
module to new situations and/or to solve related
have evolved defences to deal with disease. The
problems.

4.1 Communicable diseases, disease prevention and the immune system

4.1.1 Communicable diseases, disease prevention and the immune system

Organisms are surrounded by pathogens and have The mammalian immune system is introduced.
evolved defences against them. Medical intervention
can be used to support these natural defences.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the different types of pathogen that can cause To include:
communicable diseases in plants and animals
• bacteria – tuberculosis (TB), ring rot
(potatoes, tomatoes)
• viruses – HIV/AIDS (human), influenza
(animals), Tobacco Mosaic Virus (plants)
• protoctista – malaria, potato/tomato late
blight
• fungi – black sigatoka (bananas), athlete’s foot
(humans).
Learners are not required to know the binomial
name of the pathogens that cause the diseases
listed above.

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26 A Level in Biology A
(b) the means of transmission of animal and plant To include an understanding of the different
communicable pathogens methods of transmission with reference to vectors,
spores and living conditions – e.g. climate, social
factors (no detail of the symptoms of specific
diseases is required).

Learners are not required to categorise pathogens

between direct and indirect methods of
transmission.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.5, M1.7,

2
M3.1, M3.2
HSW1, HSW2, HSW3, HSW5, HSW6, HSW7, HSW8,
HSW11, HSW12
(c) plant defences against pathogens To include production of chemicals
AND
plant responses that limit the spread of the
pathogen (e.g. callose deposition).
(d) the primary non-specific defences against Non-specific defences to include skin, blood clotting
pathogens in animals (limited to platelets releasing substances that, via a
cascade of events, result in the formation of fibrin
which itself forms a network, trapping platelets
and forming a clot), wound repair, inflammation,
expulsive reflexes and mucous membranes.

Learners are not required to recall names of clotting

factors or all steps of the clotting cascade.

Learners are not required to recall details of skin

structure.

HSW2, HSW8
(e) (i) the structure and mode of action of To include neutrophils and antigen-presenting cells
phagocytes AND
(ii) examination and drawing of cells observed the roles of cytokines, opsonins, phagosomes and
in blood smears lysosomes.

PAG1
HSW4, HSW8
(f) the structure, different roles and modes of action To include the significance of cell signalling
of B and T lymphocytes in the specific immune (reference to interleukins), clonal selection and
response clonal expansion, plasma cells, T helper cells and T
killer cells.

HSW8
(g) the primary and secondary immune responses To include T memory cells and B memory cells.

M1.3
HSW2

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A Level in Biology A 27
 (h) the structure and general functions of antibodies To include the general protein structure of an
antibody molecule.
(i) an outline of the action of opsonins, agglutinins
and anti-toxins
(j) the differences between active and passive To include examples of each type of immunity.
immunity, and between natural and artificial
immunity
2 (k) autoimmune diseases To include an appreciation of the term autoimmune
disease and arthritis as a named example.

(l) the principles of vaccination and the role of To include routine vaccinations
vaccination programmes in the prevention of AND
epidemics reasons for changes to vaccines and vaccination
programmes (including global issues).

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.5, M1.7,

M3.1, M3.2
HSW1, HSW2, HSW3, HSW5, HSW6, HSW7, HSW8,
HSW9, HSW11, HSW12
(m) possible sources of medicines To include examples of microorganisms and plants
(and so the need to maintain biodiversity)
AND
the potential for personalised medicines.

HSW7, HSW9, HSW11, HSW12

(n) the benefits and risks of using antibiotics to To include the wide use of antibiotics following the
manage bacterial infection. discovery of penicillin in the mid-20th century
AND
the increase in bacterial resistance to antibiotics and
its implications.

HSW2, HSW5, HSW9, HSW12

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28 A Level in Biology A
4.2 Biodiversity

4.2.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety and complexity of life. Maintaining biodiversity is important for many reasons.
It is an important indicator in the study of habitats. Actions to maintain biodiversity must be taken at local,
national and global levels.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance 2

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) how biodiversity may be considered at different To include:
levels • habitat biodiversity (sand dunes, woodland,
meadows, streams)
• species biodiversity (species richness and
species evenness)
• genetic biodiversity (different breeds within a
species).
(b) (i) how sampling is used in measuring the To include how sampling can be carried out:
biodiversity of a habitat and the importance • random sampling
of sampling
• non-random sampling (opportunistic, stratified
(ii) practical investigations collecting random and systematic)
and non-random samples in the field
AND
the importance of sampling the range of organisms
in a habitat.

Techniques to include: quadrats, sweep nets, pitfall

traps and pooters.

M0.2, M1.3, M1.5, M1.4, M1.6, M1.7, M1.9, M1.10,

M3.2
PAG3
HSW4, HSW5, HSW6
(c) how to measure species richness and species M1.1, M1.5, M2.3, M2.4
evenness in a habitat
(d) the use and interpretation of Simpson’s Index The formula will be provided where needed in
of Diversity (D) to calculate the biodiversity of a assessments and does not need to be recalled
habitat
JK JK n NO2NO
D = 1 - KK| KK OO OO
L LN P P
AND
the interpretation of both high and low values of
Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D).

M1.1, M1.5, M2.3, M2.4

HSW5

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A Level in Biology A 29
 (e) how genetic biodiversity may be assessed, To include calculations of genetic diversity within
including calculations isolated populations, for example the percentage of
gene variants (alleles) in a genome.

proportion of polymorphic gene loci =

number of polymorphic gene loci
total number of loci

2 Suitable populations include zoos (captive breeding),

rare breeds and pedigree animals.

M1.1, M1.5, M2.3, M2.4

HSW5

(f) the factors affecting biodiversity To include human population growth, agriculture
(monoculture) and climate change.

M1.3, M1.7, M3.1

HSW5, HSW10, HSW12
(g) the ecological, economic and aesthetic reasons • Ecological: protecting keystone species
for maintaining biodiversity (interdependence of organisms) and
maintaining genetic resource.
• Economic: reducing soil depletion (continuous
monoculture).
• Aesthetic: protecting landscapes.
HSW12
(h) in situ and ex situ methods of maintaining • In situ conservation: marine conservation
biodiversity zones and wildlife reserves.
• Ex situ conservation: seed banks, botanic
gardens and zoos.
HSW7, HSW9, HSW10, HSW12
(i) international and local conservation agreements Historic and/or current agreements, including the
made to protect species and habitats. Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES), the Rio Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) and the Countryside Stewardship
Scheme (CSS).

HSW11, HSW12

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30 A Level in Biology A
4.2.2 Classification and evolution

Evolution has generated a very wide variety of Classification systems have changed and will continue
organisms. The fact that all organisms share a common to change as our knowledge of the biology of
ancestry allows them to be classified. Classification is organisms develops.
an attempt to impose a hierarchy on the complex and
dynamic variety of life on Earth.

Learning outcomes
Learners should be able to demonstrate and
Additional guidance
2
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the biological classification of species To include the taxonomic hierarchy of kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species
AND
domain.

HSW1, HSW5, HSW6, HSW7

(b) the binomial system of naming species and the
advantage of such a system
(c) (i) the features used to classify organisms into To include the use of similarities in observable
the five kingdoms: Prokaryotae, Protoctista, features in original classification.
Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
(ii) the evidence that has led to new To include the more recent use of similarities in
classification systems, such as the three biological molecules and other genetic evidence
domains of life, which clarifies relationships AND
details of the three domains and a comparison of
the kingdom and domain classification systems.

HSW1, HSW5, HSW6, HSW7, HSW11, HSW12

(d) the relationship between classification and Learners are not required to know cladistics.
phylogeny
HSW5, HSW7
(e) the evidence for the theory of evolution by To include the contributions of Darwin and Wallace
natural selection in formulating the theory of evolution by natural
selection
AND
fossil, DNA (only genomic DNA at AS level) and
molecular evidence.

HSW1, HSW2, HSW5, HSW6, HSW7

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 (f) the different types of variation To include intraspecific and interspecific variation
AND
the differences between continuous and
discontinuous variation, using examples of a range
of characteristics found in plants, animals and
microorganisms
AND
both genetic and environmental causes of variation.

2 M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.7, M1.9, M1.10

HSW4
(g) the different types of adaptations of organisms to Anatomical, physiological and behavioural
their environment adaptations
AND
why organisms from different taxonomic groups may
show similar anatomical features.

HSW5
(h) the mechanism by which natural selection can To include an appreciation that genetic variation,
affect the characteristics of a population over selection pressure and reproductive success
time (or failure) results in an increased proportion
of the population possessing the advantageous
characteristic(s).

M0.3
HSW8
(i) how evolution in some species has implications To include the evolution of pesticide resistance in
for human populations. insects and drug resistance in microorganisms.

HSW8, HSW9, HSW12

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32 A Level in Biology A
Module 5: Communication, homeostasis and energy

It is important that organisms, both plants and In this module, the biochemical pathways of
animals are able to respond to stimuli. This is photosynthesis and respiration are considered, with
achieved by communication within the body, which an emphasis on the formation and use of ATP as
may be chemical and/or electrical. Both systems are the source of energy for biochemical processes and
covered in detail in this module. Communication synthesis of biological molecules.
is also fundamental to homeostasis with control of
temperature, blood sugar and blood water potential Learners are expected to apply knowledge,
being studied as examples. understanding and other skills developed in this
module to new situations and/or to solve related
2
problems.

5.1 Communication and homeostasis

5.1.1 Communication and homeostasis

Organisms use both chemical and electrical systems to

monitor and respond to any deviation from the body’s
steady state.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the need for communication systems in To include the need for animals and plants to
multicellular organisms respond to changes in the internal and external
environment and to coordinate the activities of
different organs.
(b) the communication between cells by cell To include signalling between adjacent cells and
signalling signalling between distant cells.
(c) the principles of homeostasis To include the differences between receptors and
effectors, and the differences between negative
feedback and positive feedback.

HSW8
(d) the physiological and behavioural responses To include:
involved in temperature control in ectotherms • endotherms – peripheral temperature
and endotherms. receptors, the role of the hypothalamus and
effectors in skin and muscles; behavioural
responses
• ectotherms – behavioural responses.
PAG11
HSW2

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 5.1.2 Excretion as an example of homeostatic control

The kidneys, liver and lungs are all involved in the kidneys play a major role in the control of the water
removal of toxic products of metabolism from the potential of the blood.
blood and therefore contribute to homeostasis. The
The liver also metabolises some toxins that are
ingested.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

2 Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the term excretion and its importance in To include reference to the importance of removing
maintaining metabolism and homeostasis metabolic wastes, including carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous waste, from the body.
(b) (i) the structure and functions of the To include the gross structure and histology of the liver
mammalian liver AND
(ii) the examination and drawing of stained the roles of the liver in:
sections to show the histology of liver tissue • storage of glycogen
• detoxification
• the formation of urea from ammonia reacting
with carbon dioxide as part of the ornithine
cycle.
Learners are not required to know details of the
ornithine cycle.
PAG1
HSW4
(c) (i) the structure, mechanisms of action and To include the gross structure and histology of the
functions of the mammalian kidney kidney including the detailed structure of a nephron
(ii) the dissection, examination and drawing of and its associated blood vessels
the external and internal structure of the AND
kidney the processes of ultrafiltration, selective
reabsorption and the production of urine.
(iii) the examination and drawing of stained
sections to show the histology of nephrons M0.1, M0.3, M1.1, M1.3, M2.1, M3.1
PAG1, PAG2
HSW4, HSW6, HSW8
(d) the control of the water potential of the blood To include the role of osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary gland, ADH
and its effect on the walls of the collecting ducts.
HSW8
(e) the effects of kidney failure and its potential To include the problems that arise from kidney
treatments failure including the effect on glomerular filtration
rate (GFR) and electrolyte balance
AND
the use of renal dialysis (haemodialysis only) and
transplants for the treatment of kidney failure.
HSW7, HSW9, HSW12
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34 A Level in Biology A
(f) how excretory products can be used in medical To include the use of urine samples in diagnostic
diagnosis. tests, with reference to the use of monoclonal
antibodies in pregnancy testing and testing for
anabolic steroids and drugs.

PAG9
HSW7, HSW9, HSW11, HSW12

5.1.3 Neuronal communication 2

The stimulation of sensory receptors leads to the Transmission between neurones takes place at
generation of an action potential in a neurone. synapses.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the roles of mammalian sensory receptors in To include an outline of the roles of sensory
converting different types of stimuli into nerve receptors (e.g. Pacinian corpuscle) in responding
impulses to specific types of stimuli and their roles as
transducers.
(b) the structure and functions of sensory, relay and To include differences between the structure
motor neurones and function of myelinated and non-myelinated
neurones.
(c) the generation and transmission of nerve To include how the resting potential is established
impulses in mammals and maintained and how an action potential is
generated (including reference to positive feedback)
and transmitted in a myelinated neurone
AND
the significance of the frequency of impulse
transmission.

M1.3, M3.1
(d) the structure and roles of synapses in To include:
neurotransmission. • the structure of a cholinergic synapse
• the action of neurotransmitters at the synapse
• the importance of synapses in summation
• inhibitory and excitatory synapses.

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A Level in Biology A 35
 5.1.4 Hormonal communication

The ways in which specific hormones bring about an example to demonstrate how medical technology is
their effects are used to exemplify endocrine used to regulate the hormonal control systems.
communication and control. Type 1 diabetes is used as

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
2 apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) endocrine communication by hormones To include secretion of hormones into the blood,
transport by the blood, and detection by target cells
or tissues.
(b) the structure and functions of the adrenal glands Adrenal glands as an example of endocrine glands,
to include the hormones secreted by the cortex and
medulla and their functions.
(c) (i) the histology of the pancreas To include the endocrine tissues.
(ii) the examination and drawing of stained
PAG1
sections of the pancreas to show the
HSW4
histology of the endocrine tissues
(d) how blood glucose concentration is regulated To include the action of insulin and glucagon as an
example of negative feedback, and the role of the
liver
AND
the control of insulin secretion, with reference to
potassium channels and calcium channels in the
beta cells of the pancreas.

HSW12
(e) the differences between Type 1 and Type 2 To include the causes of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes
diabetes mellitus and the treatments used for each.

HSW12
(f) the potential treatments for diabetes mellitus. To include the use of insulin produced by genetically
modified bacteria and the potential use of stem cells
to treat diabetes mellitus.

HSW12

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36 A Level in Biology A
5.1.5 Plant and animal responses

Plant responses to environmental changes are In animals, responding to changes in the environment
coordinated by hormones, some of which are is a complex and continuous process, involving
important commercially. nervous, hormonal and muscular coordination.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of: 2
(a) (i) the types of plant responses Plant response to abiotic stress and herbivory.
(ii) practical investigations into phototropism Herbivory response to include chemical defences
and geotropism (alkaloids and pheromones only) and folding in
response to touch
AND
the range of tropisms in plants.

M1.3, M1.6
PAG11
HSW4
(b) the roles of plant hormones To include the role of hormones in leaf loss in
deciduous plants, seed germination and stomatal
closure.
(c) the experimental evidence for the role of auxins To include the effects of auxin concentration on
in the control of apical dominance apical dominance.

Learners should be able to apply their knowledge and

understanding to different experiments. Learners are
not required to recall specific experiments.

HSW5
(d) the experimental evidence for the role of To include the effects of gibberellin concentration on
gibberellin in the control of stem elongation and stem elongation.
seed germination
Learners should be able to apply their knowledge and
understanding to different experiments. Learners are
not required to recall specific experiments.

HSW5
(e) practical investigations into the effect of plant An opportunity for serial dilution.
hormones on growth
M0.2, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.4, M1.6, M1.9, M1.10,
M3.1, M3.2
PAG11
HSW4
(f) the commercial use of plant hormones To include the use of hormones to control ripening,
the use of rooting powders and hormonal weed
killers.

HSW12

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A Level in Biology A 37
 Learning outcomes Additional guidance
(g) the organisation of the mammalian nervous To include the structural organisation of the nervous
system system into the central and peripheral systems
AND
the functional organisation into the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.
(h) the structure of the human brain and the To include the gross structure of the human brain
2 functions of its parts AND
the functions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla
oblongata, hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
(i) reflex actions To include knee jerk reflex with reference to the
survival value of reflex actions.

M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6

PAG11
HSW4
(j) the coordination of responses by the nervous To include the ‘fight or flight’ response to
and endocrine systems environmental stimuli in mammals
AND
the action of hormones in cell signalling (studied
in outline only) with reference to adrenaline (first
messenger), activation of adenylyl cyclase, and cyclic
AMP (second messenger).
(k) the effects of hormones and nervous An opportunity to monitor physiological functions,
mechanisms on heart rate for example with pulse rate measurements before,
during and after exercise or sensors to record
electrical activity in the heart.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.10,

M3.1
PAG10, PAG11
HSW4
(l) (i) the structure of mammalian muscle and the To include the structural and functional differences
mechanism of muscular contraction between skeletal, involuntary and cardiac muscle
(ii) the examination of stained sections or AND
photomicrographs of skeletal muscle. the action of neuromuscular junctions
AND
the sliding filament model of muscular contraction
and the role of ATP, and how the supply of ATP is
maintained in muscles by creatine phosphate.

PAG1, PAG10, PAG11

HSW4

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38 A Level in Biology A
5.2 Energy for biological processes

5.2.1 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process whereby light from the chemicals, including ATP, and used to synthesise large
Sun is harvested and used to drive the production of organic molecules from inorganic molecules.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and 2
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the interrelationship between the process of To include the relationship between the raw
photosynthesis and respiration materials and products of the two processes.

M0.1, M0.3, M0.4, M3.4

(b) the structure of a chloroplast and the sites of the The components of a chloroplast including outer
two main stages of photosynthesis membrane, lamellae, grana, thylakoid, stroma and
DNA.
(c) (i) the importance of photosynthetic pigments To include reference to light harvesting systems and
in photosynthesis photosystems.
(ii) practical investigations using thin layer
M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.3, M2.2, M2.3, M2.4
chromatography (TLC) to separate
PAG6
photosynthetic pigments
HSW4
(d) the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis To include how energy from light is harvested and
used to drive the production of chemicals which can
be used as a source of energy for other metabolic
processes (ATP and reduced NADP) with reference
to electron carriers and cyclic and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
AND
the role of water.

HSW8
(e) the fixation of carbon dioxide and the light- To include how the products of the light-dependent
independent stage of photosynthesis stage are used in the light-independent stage
(Calvin cycle) to produce triose phosphate (TP) with
reference to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO) and glycerate
3-phosphate (GP) – no other biochemical detail is
required.

HSW8
(f) the uses of triose phosphate (TP) To include the use of TP as a starting material for the
synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids
AND
the recycling of TP to regenerate the supply of RuBP.

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A Level in Biology A 39
 (g) (i) factors affecting photosynthesis To include limiting factors in photosynthesis with
(ii) practical investigations into factors affecting reference to carbon dioxide concentration, light
the rate of photosynthesis. intensity and temperature, and the implications of
water stress (stomatal closure)
AND
the effect on the rate of photosynthesis, and on
levels of GP, RuBP and TP, of changing carbon
dioxide concentration, light intensity and
temperature.
2
M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M1.1, M1.3, M1.11, M3.1, M3.2,
M3.4, M3.5, M3.6, M4.1
PAG4, PAG10, PAG11
HSW3, HSW4, HSW5, HSW12

5.2.2 Respiration

Respiration is the process whereby energy stored in provides the immediate source of energy for biological
complex organic molecules is transferred to ATP. ATP processes.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the need for cellular respiration To include examples of why plants, animals and
microorganisms need to respire (suitable examples
could include active transport and an outline of
named metabolic reactions).
(b) the structure of the mitochondrion The components of a mitochondrion including inner
and outer mitochondrial membranes, cristae, matrix
and mitochondrial DNA.
(c) the process and site of glycolysis To include the phosphorylation of glucose to hexose
bisphosphate, the splitting of hexose bisphosphate
into two triose phosphate molecules and further
oxidation to pyruvate
AND
the production of a small yield of ATP and reduced
NAD.

HSW8
(d) the link reaction and its site in the cell To include the formation of Acetyl CoA by the
decarboxylation of pyruvate and the reduction of
NAD to reduced NAD.

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40 A Level in Biology A
(e) the process and site of the Krebs cycle To include the formation of citrate from the acetyl
group of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate and the
reconversion of citrate to oxaloacetate (names of
intermediate compounds are not required)
AND
the importance of decarboxylation,
dehydrogenation, the reduction of NAD and FAD,
and substrate level phosphorylation.

HSW8 2
(f) the importance of coenzymes in cellular With reference to NAD, FAD and coenzyme A.
respiration
(g) the process and site of oxidative phosphorylation To include the roles of electron carriers, oxygen and
the mitochondrial cristae.
(h) the chemiosmotic theory To include the electron transport chain,
proton gradients and ATP synthase in oxidative
phosphorylation and photophosphorylation.
(i) (i) the process of anaerobic respiration in To include anaerobic respiration in mammals and
eukaryotes yeast and the benefits of being able to respire
(ii) practical investigations into respiration anaerobically
rates in yeast, under aerobic and anaerobic AND
conditions why anaerobic respiration produces a much lower
yield of ATP than aerobic respiration.

M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.3, M2.4, M3.1, M3.2

PAG4, PAG10, PAG11
HSW3, HSW4
(j) the difference in relative energy values of
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins as respiratory
substrates
(k) the use and interpretation of the respiratory To include calculating the respiratory quotient (RQ)
quotient (RQ) using the formula:
CO produced
RQ = O 2consumed
2

M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.3, M2.3

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A Level in Biology A 41
 (l) practical investigations into the effect of factors To include the use of respirometers.
such as temperature, substrate concentration
and different respiratory substrates on the rate of M0.1, M0.2, M1.1, M1.2, M1.3, M1.6, M1.10, M2.4,
respiration. M3.2, M3.3, M3.5, M3.6
PAG4, PAG10, PAG11
HSW3, HSW4

Module 6: Genetics, evolution and ecosystems

2 This module covers the role of genes in regulating and Learners gain an appreciation of the role of
controlling cell function and development. Heredity microorganisms in recycling materials within the
and the mechanisms of evolution and speciation are environment and maintaining balance within
also covered. ecosystems. The need to conserve environmental
resources in a sustainable fashion is considered, whilst
Some of the practical techniques used to manipulate appreciating the potential conflict arising from the
DNA such as sequencing and amplification are needs of an increasing human population. Learners
considered and their therapeutic medical use. The use also consider the impacts of human activities on the
of microorganisms in biotechnology is also covered. natural environment and biodiversity.
Both of these have associated ethical considerations
and it is important that learners develop a balanced Learners are expected to apply knowledge,
understanding of such issues. understanding and other skills developed in this
module to new situations and/or to solve related
problems.

6.1 Genetics and evolution

6.1.1 Cellular control

The way in which cells control metabolic reactions

determines how organisms, grow, develop and
function.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) types of gene mutations and their possible To include substitution, insertion or deletion of one
effects on protein production and function or more nucleotides
AND
the possible effects of these gene mutations
(i.e. beneficial, neutral or harmful).

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42 A Level in Biology A
(b) the regulatory mechanisms that control gene To include control at the:
expression at the transcriptional level, post- • transcriptional level: lac operon, and the
transcriptional level and post-translational level general role of transcription factors in
eukaryotes (Learners are not required to recall
specific transcription factors)
• post-transcriptional level: the editing of
primary mRNA and the removal of introns to
produce mature mRNA
• post-translational level: the activation of
proteins by cyclic AMP. 2
HSW2
(c) the genetic control of the development of body The Homeobox gene sequences are similar and
plans in different organisms highly conserved in plants, animals and fungi, and
are involved in regulating gene expression
AND
the role of Hox genes (as a subset of Homeobox
genes) in controlling body plan development.

HSW7
(d) the importance of mitosis and apoptosis as To include an appreciation that the genes which
mechanisms controlling the development of regulate the cell cycle and apoptosis are able to
body form. respond to internal and external cell stimuli.

6.1.2 Patterns of inheritance

Isolating mechanisms can lead to the accumulation have become extinct. The theory of evolution explains
of different genetic information in populations, these changes. Humans use artificial selection to
potentially leading to new species. Over a prolonged produce similar changes in plants and animals.
period of time, organisms have changed and some

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) (i) the contribution of both environmental and To include examples of both genetic and
genetic factors to phenotypic variation environmental contributions (e.g. diet in animals
and etiolation in plants).

(ii) how sexual reproduction can lead to genetic Meiosis and the random fusion of gametes at
variation within a species fertilisation.

(b) (i) genetic diagrams to show patterns of To include monogenic inheritance, dihybrid
inheritance inheritance, multiple alleles, sex linkage and
codominance.

(ii) the use of phenotypic ratios to identify To include explanations of linkage and epistasis.
linkage (autosomal and sex linkage) and
epistasis M0.3, M1.4
HSW2, HSW8

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A Level in Biology A 43
 (c) using the chi-squared (χ2) test to determine the The formula for the chi-squared (χ2) test will be
significance of the difference between observed provided.
and expected results
_fo - fei
2
2
| =/
fe

M0.3, M1.4, M1.9, M2.1

(d) the genetic basis of continuous and To include reference to the number of genes that
2 discontinuous variation influence each type of variation.
(e) the factors that can affect the evolution of a To include stabilising selection and directional
species selection, genetic drift, genetic bottleneck and
founder effect.
(f) the use of the Hardy–Weinberg principle to The equations for the Hardy–Weinberg principle will
calculate allele frequencies in populations be provided where needed in assessments and do
not need to be recalled.
p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1

p + q =1

M0.2, M2.1, M2.2, M2.3

(g) the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution To include geographical mechanisms (allopatric
of new species speciation) and reproductive mechanisms (sympatric
speciation).
(h) (i) the principles of artificial selection and its To include examples of selective breeding in plants
uses and animals
AND
an appreciation of the importance of maintaining
a resource of genetic material for use in selective
breeding including wild types.

(ii) the ethical considerations surrounding the To include a consideration of the more extreme
use of artificial selection. examples of the use of artificial selection to
‘improve’ domestic species e.g. dog breeds.

HSW2, HSW8, HSW10, HSW12

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44 A Level in Biology A
6.1.3 Manipulating genomes

Genome sequencing gives information about the capacity to manipulate genes has many potential
location of genes and provides evidence for the benefits, but the implications of genetic techniques are
evolutionary links between organisms. subject to much public debate

Genetic engineering involves the manipulation of

naturally occurring processes and enzymes. The

Learning outcomes Additional guidance 2

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the principles of DNA sequencing and new DNA To include the rapid advancements of the
sequencing techniques techniques used in sequencing from Sanger
sequencing to high throughput sequencing.

Learners are not required to know details of high

throughput sequencing techniques.

HSW7
(b) (i) how gene sequencing has allowed for With reference to bioinformatics and computational
genome-wide comparisons between biology and how these fields are contributing to
individuals and between species biological research into genotype–phenotype
(ii) how gene sequencing has allowed for the relationships, epidemiology and searching for
sequences of amino acids in polypeptides to evolutionary relationships.
be predicted
PAG10
(iii) how gene sequencing has allowed for the HSW7, HSW9
development of synthetic biology
(c) the principles of DNA profiling and its uses To include forensics and analysis of disease risk.

HSW9
(d) the principles of the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) and its application in DNA analysis
(e) the principles and uses of electrophoresis for Opportunity for practical use of electrophoresis.
separating nucleic acid fragments or proteins
PAG6
HSW4
(f) (i) the principles of genetic engineering To include the isolation of genes from one organism
and the placing of these genes into another
organism using suitable vectors.

(ii) the techniques used in genetic engineering To include the use of restriction enzymes, plasmids
and DNA ligase to form recombinant DNA with the
desired gene and electroporation.

HSW2

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 (g) the ethical issues (both positive and negative) To include insect resistance in genetically modified
relating to the genetic manipulation of animals soya, genetically modified pathogens for research
(including humans), plants and microorganisms and ‘pharming’ i.e. genetically modified animals to
produce pharmaceuticals
AND
issues relating to patenting and technology transfer
e.g. making genetically modified seed available to
poor farmers.

2 HSW10
(h) the principles of, and potential for, gene therapy To include the differences between somatic cell
in medicine. gene therapy and germ line cell gene therapy.

HSW9, HSW12

6.2 Cloning and biotechnology

6.2.1 Cloning and biotechnology

Farmers and growers exploit “natural” vegetative Biotechnology is the industrial use of living organisms
propagation in the production of uniform crops. (or parts of living organisms) to produce food, drugs or
Artificial clones of plants and animals can now be other product.
produced.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) (i) natural clones in plants and the production To include examples of natural cloning and the
of natural clones for use in horticulture methods used to produce clones (various forms of
(ii) how to take plant cuttings as an example of vegetative propagation).
a simple cloning technique
Dissection of a selection of plant material to
produce cuttings.

PAG2
HSW4
(b) (i) the production of artificial clones of plants To include an evaluation of the uses of plant cloning
by micropropagation and tissue culture in horticulture and agriculture.
(ii) the arguments for and against artificial
HSW9, HSW12
cloning in plants
(c) natural clones in animal species To include examples of natural clones (twins formed
by embryo splitting).

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46 A Level in Biology A
(d) (i) how artificial clones in animals can be To include an evaluation of the uses of animal
produced by artificial embryo twinning or cloning (examples including in agriculture and
by enucleation and somatic cell nuclear medicine, and issues of longevity of cloned animals).
transfer (SCNT)
HSW9, HSW10, HSW12
(ii) the arguments for and against artificial
cloning in animals
(e) the use of microorganisms in biotechnological To include reasons why microorganisms are used;
processes economic considerations, short life cycle and growth
requirements. 2
(f) the advantages and disadvantages of using To include bacterial and fungal sources.
microorganisms to make food for human
consumption HSW9, HSW12

(g) (i) how to culture microorganisms effectively, An opportunity for serial dilutions and culturing on
using aseptic techniques agar plates.
(ii) the importance of manipulating the
PAG7
growing conditions in batch and continuous
HSW4
fermentation in order to maximise the yield
of product required
(h) (i) the standard growth curve of a To include the formula for number of individual
microorganism in a closed culture organisms

N = N0 # 2 n

(ii) practical investigations into the factors An opportunity for serial dilutions and the use of
affecting the growth of microorganisms broth.

M0.1, M0.3, M0.5, M1.1, M1.3, M2.5, M3.1, M3.2,

M3.4, M3.5, M3.6
PAG7
HSW4

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 (i) the uses of immobilised enzymes in To include methods of enzyme immobilisation
biotechnology and the different methods of AND
immobilisation. an evaluation of the use of immobilised enzymes in
biotechnology

examples could include:

• glucose isomerase for the conversion of

glucose to fructose
2 • penicillin acylase for the formation of semi-
synthetic penicillins (to which some penicillin-
resistant organisms are not resistant)
• lactase for the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose
and galactose
• aminoacylase for production of pure samples
of L-amino acids
• glucoamylase for the conversion of dextrins to
glucose.
Learners are not required to recall the examples
above but will be expected to apply their knowledge
and understanding of immobilised enzymes in the
context of biotechnology.
M0.2, M0.3, M1.2, M1.3, M1.4, M1.6, M1.10, M3.2,
M4.1
PAG4
HSW4

6.3 Ecosystems

6.3.1 Ecosystems

Organisms do not live in isolation but engage in The efficiency of biomass transfer limits the number of
complex interactions, not just with other organisms organisms that can exist in a particular ecosystem.
but also with their environment.
Ecosystems are dynamic and tend towards some form
of climax community.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) ecosystems, which range in size, are dynamic and To include reference to a variety of ecosystems of
are influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors different sizes (e.g. a rock pool, a playing field, a
large tree) and named examples of biotic and abiotic
factors.

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48 A Level in Biology A
(b) biomass transfers through ecosystems To include how biomass transfers between trophic
levels can be measured
AND
the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic
levels
biomass transferred
efficiency = # 100
biomass intake
AND
how human activities can manipulate the transfer of 2
biomass through ecosystems.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M0.4, M1.1, M1.3, M1.6

HSW12
(c) recycling within ecosystems To include the role of decomposers and the roles
of microorganisms in recycling nitrogen within
ecosystems (including Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter,
Azotobacter and Rhizobium)
AND
the importance of the carbon cycle to include the
role of organisms (decomposition, respiration and
photosynthesis) and physical and chemical effects in
the cycling of carbon within ecosystems.

HSW2, HSW12
(d) the process of primary succession in the To include succession from pioneer species to a
development of an ecosystem climax community
AND
deflected succession.

HSW12
(e) (i) how the distribution and abundance of M1.3, M1.4, M1.5, M1.7, M1.9, M1.10, M3.1, M3.2
organisms in an ecosystem can be measured PAG3
(ii) the use of sampling and recording HSW4
methods to determine the distribution and
abundance of organisms in a variety of
ecosystems.

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 6.3.2 Populations and sustainability

There are many factors that determine the size of a To support an increasing human population, we need
population. to use biological resources in a sustainable way.

For economic, social and ethical reasons ecosystems

may need to be carefully managed.

Learning outcomes Additional guidance

2 Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
(a) the factors that determine size of a population To include the significance of limiting factors
in determining the carrying capacity of a given
environment and the impact of these factors on final
population size.

M0.1, M0.2, M0.3, M0.4, M0.5, M1.3, M2.5, M3.1,

M3.2
HSW1, HSW2
(b) interactions between populations To include predator–prey relationships considering
the effects on both predator and prey populations
AND
interspecific and intraspecific competition.
(c) the reasons for, and differences between, To include the economic, social and ethical reasons
conservation and preservation for conservation of biological resources.

HSW7, HSW9, HSW10, HSW12

(d) how the management of an ecosystem can Limited to management of ecosystems for timber
provide resources in a sustainable way production and fishing.

HSW12
(e) the management of environmental resources and To include how ecosystems can be managed
the effects of human activities. to balance the conflict between conservation/
preservation and human needs
AND
the effects of human activities on the animal and
plant populations and how these are controlled.

HSW7, HSW12

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50 A Level in Biology A