NORTHERN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING TECHNICAL COLLEGE/ MOSUL

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS PHYSICS
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
IN CONDUCTORS
FIRST STAGE
Lecturer
Dr.Ahmed W. Kasim
(2022-2023)
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN CONDUCTORS
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS:
At normal temperatures, it is characterized
by containing electrons free movement in
different directions.
 When an electric field is applied between
the two ends of the material, the electrons
they are drift in a certain direction,
generating an electric current in it.
 It is characterized by its very low
resistance to electric current.
 Such as: copper, aluminum, silver and
others.
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MOVEMENT OF FREE ELECTRONS
 The result of the distance
traveled by the electron
during its random motion
is equal to zero.
 Either the electron
goes back to the same
the point that started
from it.
 Or that two electrons
exchange their positions
they seem to have never
left their place. 3
THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON THE MOVEMENT OF
ELECTRONS:

 The random movement of the electrons is in fact

caused by the thermal energy gained by the
electrons.
 Therefore, the kinetic energy of the electron
increases with the increase in temperature heat
in the metal.
 The velocity of an electron resulting from
thermal energy is called (Thermal Velocity).
 The average thermal velocity is zero because the
resultant distance is equal to zero.
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THE EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE
MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS:

 Suppose that an electric field of

Intensity is E applied between both
ends of a conductive material.
 Each electron will experience
a force of eE Newton is given
velocity which is added to its
velocity during random movement.
 As a result, the applied voltage
will shift electron from one site
to another.
 The electron transfer is in the
opposite direction of the impressed
electric field.
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DRIFT SPEED:
 The velocity of the electron resulting from the
projection of an electric field is called (Drift
velocity).
 The electron suffers from collisions with other
particles of the metal.
 These collisions change the direction of the
electron's movement as well as its speed.
 The electron may completely lose the acquired
velocity and then return to gain speed again.
 So the drift velocity represents the average
velocity.

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DRIFT VELOCITY CALCULATION:
 The average drift velocity is directly
proportional to the impressed electric field
strength.
V𝑑 =𝜇E
 V𝑑 : drift velocity.

 𝜇: Electron mobility (acquired drift velocity each

electric field unit ) ), its unit: 𝑚2/𝑣 .sec.
 drift velocity may be given a negative sign to
indicate that the movement of the electrons are
in the opposite direction of the applied electric
field.

7
METAL RESISTANCE:
 Metal piece resistance is:
𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐿/𝐴
 𝜌: The specific resistance of a metal and it's unit
Ω.𝑚 or 𝑚/𝑆.
 The specific resistance represents the ability of
the material to impeding the movement of
charge carriers (electrons).

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QUALITATIVE CONDUCTIVITY:
 The qualitative conductivity (𝜎) is the
reciprocal of the specific resistance 𝜎 = 1/ 𝜌.
 𝜎 = 𝑛e𝜇

 n: Density of free electrons per unit volume

of matter.
 The quality conductivity depends on:

1. The density of free electrons in the

material.
2. The ability of electrons to move within the
material under the influence of the
electric field.
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DRIFT CURRENT:
 A current are arises from the application of
an electric field to the ends of a piece of
metal it called the drift current. where:
J𝑑 = 𝜎E
 Jd: Drift current density A/m2.

 Always:

 J = 𝐼/𝐴 , 𝐸 = 𝑉/L

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MOBILITY AND MEAN FREE PATH:
 𝜇 = 𝑒τ/𝑚

 τ : Relaxation time and it is average

time between the collision and
another of the electron.
 𝑚: Electron mass.

 The distance an electron travels

between one collision and another is
called the mean free path L = τ .V𝑑.

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EXAMPLE:
a copper wire of length10m and its
cross - sectional area 0.5 mm2 and its
resistance 0.34 Ω. Calculate the
qualitative conductivity of copper, as
well as the mobility of the electron
and the number of collisions that
suffers in one second. Note that the
density of freely electrons equals 8. 5 ×
1028 𝑒/m3 .

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Solution:

13
Solution:

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Example:
 a copper wire of length 2Cm put across it a
voltage 10V, if the specific resistance of
copper was 1.8 × 10−8 Ω.𝑚 and density
conduction electrons 8.5 × 1028 𝑒/𝑚 3 .What
is the freely electron mobility and what is
the velocity gained by the electron by doing
electric field? What is the velocity of the
electron if we neglect impact of collisions
inside matter? Also, calculate the average
free time.

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Solution:

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Solution:

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Electron Density:
 The distribution of electrons within a
substance varies either because of the
nature of the substance or other reasons
influential external.
 This distribution represents an unbalanced
case.
 So, the electrons move from the regions of
high density to regions with low density.

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Diffusion Current:
 The movement of electrons continues as
long as the differential in the distribution
exists and produces a current called
diffusion current.
 The density of the diffusion current (JD)
depends on:
 The degree of differential in the electronic
distribution.
JD ∝ 𝑑n/𝑑x
 The movement of electrons and their ability
to diffuse (diffusion factor (D)).
JD ∝𝐷
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 →
 JD: Diffusion current density (A/m2).

 D: Diffusion factor (it is the particle's

ability to diffuse, which is a characteristic
diffused particle and the medium in which
it diffuse(m2/sec.).
 Einstein's relationship to calculate the
diffusion factor𝑒:

 We note here again, that the direction of the

conventional current is against the
direction of electron movement.
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The Result of the Drift Current and the
Diffusion Current:
 The irregular distribution of electrons
within the material may combine with the
presence of an applied electric field on both
ends of the material.
 This leads to the generation of an Electric
Current representing the resultant of
Current Diffusion and Current Drift.
 The direction of each current must be taken
into account. Either it is the two currents
are in the same direction, where the
resultant is J = Jd + J𝐷
 Or they are in opposite directions, so the
result is the difference between the two
currents and may occur a state of
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equilibrium between them ( Jd = JD ).
Example:
 If the density of electrons changes in a
material along the coordinate 𝑥 according
to relationship 𝑛 = 1028 exp( −106 𝑥 ).What is
the density of the Diffusion Current and
what is its direction? Note that the mobility
of the electron is 4 × 10−3 m2/V . Sec and the
temperature is 290 °K. Also calculate the
current density at the surface of the
material (𝑥 = 0 m) and at depth (𝑥 = 10-5 m)
from the surface.

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Solution:

23
Solution:

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Transferring Electrons out of the Metal:
 In conductive materials, at absolute zero
temperature, free electrons occupy ranks
close to the Fermi energy level.
 The arrival of electrons to the surface of the
metal does not allow them to access abroad of
the surface, this due to the force of attraction
on it by the surface atoms.
 This force is called the surface voltage
barrier, this electrons in order to move out of
the metal must be overcome this barrier.
 The process of moving electrons out of the
metal is called Electronic Emission.
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Work Function:
 The energy required to move the electron
across the voltage barrier to the outside the
metal is called the work function (∅).
 It represents the minimum energy that an
electron acquires in a substance at absolute
zero temperature to leave the surface of the
material.
∅ = 𝐸s − 𝐸F
 Any acquired energy E is more than ∅
converted into kinetic energy.
𝐸k =1/2 𝑚𝑣2 = 𝐸 − ∅

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Electron Emission:
 It refers to the types of emission of
electrons in the name of the way in which
electrons are supplied powered:
1. Heat Emission
2. Light Emission
3. Field Emission
4. Secondary Emission

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1. Heat Emission:
 We mentioned that the distribution of
electrons and their occupation of energy
levels in matter subject to Fermi-Dirac
statistic.
 We have noticed that the process of raising
the temperature of the metal allows the
expansion of the function Fermi-Dirac,
where the tail of the function is extended to
include higher energy orders.
 The expansion of the function may cause
the function to exceed the tail of the energy
level at the surface of the metal (Es).
 Then the heat emission occurs where the
electrons can leave metal surface. 28
The density of the electrons that are emitted
from the heat:
 Density of electrons emitted from the
surface (electronic current) this is result of
heating the metal as:

 The density of the emitted electrons

depends on:
1. The temperature of the material.

2. work function ∅.

3. heat emission constant(Ao).

 The work function and the heat emission

constant are two properties of a metal. 29
Example:
 Calculate the density of the emitted
electrons (electronic current) thermally
from the surface of tungsten if heated to a
temperature1100℃ . What is the ratio of the
current increase if the temperature is
increased to 1150 ℃? Note that the heat
emission constant is 60 × 104 𝐴 𝑚−2 °K −2 for
tungsten and the work function is 24.52 𝑒V.

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Solution:

31
2. Light Emission:
 Exposing the metal to light rays leads to the
liberation of electrons from the surface as a
result of electrons absorbing the energy of
photons.
 When the energy of the photons is hf , the
liberated electrons will gain kinetic energy,
𝐸𝑘= 1⁄2𝑚𝑣2 = ℎ𝑓− ∅
 For light emission to occur, the frequency
of incident rays is must be minimum as:
𝑓𝑚i𝑚 = ∅ ⁄ ℎ .
 The density of the emitted current depends
on the density of the incident photons
(intensity of illumination). 32
3. Field Emission:
 If an electric field intensity (E) is applied
on both ends of the metal it causes the
electrons to gain energy by an amount W.
 Thus, it appears to the electrons that the
voltage barrier at the surface has been
decreased to ∅ − 𝑊.
 This phenomenon is called a voltage barrier
drop due to an electric field imposed on
both ends of the material by the
phenomenon of Schottky.
 Thus, increasing the electric field leads to
the liberation of electrons this is called the
field emission of electrons. 33
4. Secondary Emission:
 Splashing the metal surface with
accelerating particles leads to it gives
its energy to the surface electrons,
and the electrons are emitted.
 The density of the secondary
electrons emitted depends on:
1. The density of the falling elementary
particles.
2. The energy of the falling elementary
particles.
3. The work function of the metal. 34
Secondary Emission Factor:
 The secondary emission factor (S) is used as
a standard for measuring secondary
emission.
 where:

S = density of emitted electrons / The density

of the falling particles

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Relationship of the secondary emission
factor with the particle energy:
The factor S increases with an increase in
the energy of the falling particles on
surface because the particle may give its
energy to more than one electron, it
liberates more than one electron.
 Increasing the particle's energy causes it to
reach deep depths away and the electrons
absorb this energy.
 These electrons lose the absorbed energy
as a result of the collisions that afflicts
inside matter, So, the number of emitted
electrons decreases, and the factor S
decreases. 36
Example:
 If was the energy of falling photons
on a metal is 6eV and the work
function of the metal is 4.5eV, what is
the kinetic energy and the speed of
the emitted electron from the surface
of the metal?

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Solution:

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