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Understanding Multicultural Education

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Volume 14, Number 2 August 7, 2011 ISSN 1099-839X

Understanding Multicultural Education

Osman Özturgut
University of the Incarnate Word

With the shifting cultural texture and demographics of the United States (Banks, 2006b;
Irvine, 2003), redefining multicultural education has become imperative. There are many
views on the benefits and/or shortcomings of the multiculturalization of education. The
question is not whether a multicultural education should be adopted but it is rather what
we understand from multicultural education and how we are going to initiate such a
reform within an educational system when we cannot even define ‘multicultural.’ “The
awareness of one’s own assumptions, prejudices and stereotypes is a first step to be able
to positively interact and learn from others. In this process lies the essence of intercultural
learning” (Martins, 2008, p. 203). This paper attempts to define (and redefine)
multicultural education, explain its shortcomings, and offer recommendations for further
discussion.

Keywords: multicultural education, intercultural communication

With the shifting cultural texture and think about and structure pedagogy” (p. 262). In order to
demographics of the United States (Banks, 2006b; Irvine, further understand these implications, this paper, evoked
2003), redefining multicultural education has become with an “epistemological curiosity” (Freire, 1997), attempts
imperative. According to the data provided by the National to define (and redefine) multicultural education, explain its
Center for Education Statistics (NCES), between 1979 and shortcomings, and offer recommendations for further
2008, the number of school-aged children (children ages 5- discussion.
17) who spoke a language other than English at home Multiple Definitions of Multicultural Education
increased from 3.8 to 10.9 million, or from 9 to 21 percent Many researchers have explained and defined the
of the population in this age range (NCES, 2009). NCES cultural difference paradigm with regards to creating
(2010) reports that in 2007-2008, 58% of public school classroom interventions and strategies to support the
teachers of grades 9 through 12 are females with 83.5 % learning of students of color. With the idea of further
defined as belonging to “White” race/ethnicity. Hispanics understanding the diverse populations, pedagogical
constituted the 6.6 % and Blacks 6.9% of all teacher strategies such as multicultural education (Banks, 1979;
population of public school teachers of grades 9 through 12. Banks & McGee, 2001; Gay, 2000; Grant & Sleeter, 2003;
The implications of the difference between the number of Nieto, 1996), cultural responsiveness (Cazden & Leggett,
students with diverse backgrounds and the number of 1981; Gibson, 1976) and culturally relevant pedagogy
diverse teachers available to meet the needs of these (Ladson-Billings, 1995) are grounded and justified.
students are certainly worth exploring. Rhoads (1995) However, with the multiple definitions and explanations,
argues that the ever-increasing diversity that students bring there is not necessarily an agreed definition of
to classrooms produces mass confusion about how to teach, multiculturalism and multicultural education among
what to teach, and even who to teach. “Clearly, scholars and practitioners. What all agree is that there is
multiculturalism has significant implications for how we room for further discussion about the definition and

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Current Issues in Education Vol. 14 No. 2

application of multicultural education in nation’s schools. Gibson’s (1976) survey outlined five models where culture
Therefore, through a thorough review of the current and and education are explored in a combined fashion. 1)
relevant literature, the author further tries to shed light on Multicultural education for cross cultural understanding
the understandings and applications of multicultural was designed to teach that there are differences among
education and offers recommendations for educators and cultures and that the teaching should be designed so that the
policy makers. emphasis on respecting one another’s culture is apparent. 2)
Review of Current Definitions Culturally responsive education was developed mostly for
Even though Ogbu (1992) had suggested that K-12 education to include the cultures of the minority
multicultural education has yet to be defined by the students in the curriculum and adapt teaching strategies
scholars, there has been a sufficient number of definitions accordingly to fit the needs and expectations of these
to justify an action. Banks (1993) explained that students. 3) Bicultural education was adopted mostly to
multicultural education started in the United States during emphasize the importance of teaching languages and the
the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Since then, there skills needed to be able to function in the other cultures
has been a wealth of interest and research on multicultural efficiently. In this, the language and culture of the minority
education (Banks, 1993; Banks, 2001a, 2001b, 2004, students are reinforced in the curriculum and through the
2006a, 2007; Banks & Banks, 2001; Cochran-Smith, 2001; teaching methods used. 4) Cultural pluralism was
Ladson-Billings, 1995, 1999a, 1999b; Ladson-Billings, specifically designed to strengthen the socio-cultural,
2003, 2006; Perry, Moore, Acosta, Edwards, & Frey, 2006; political, economic, and educational participation of
Sleeter, 2008, 2009; Sleeter & Stillman, 2005; Sleeter, minority students within societies. In this, it is important to
1991, 2001, 2008; Sleeter & Bernal, 2004). note that the cultures do not mix but simply find a way to
Banks and Banks (2001) define multicultural live with each other through providing equal opportunities
education as: to every member of the society. 5) Multicultural education
An idea, an educational reform movement, and a process as an experience of the individuals in the society designed
whose major goal is to change the structure of educational to help the society to work well harmoniously and
institutions so that male and female students, exceptional respectfully. In short, there is no clear and agreed definition
students, and students who are members of diverse racial, of what we understand from “multicultural education” but a
ethnic, language, and cultural groups will have an equal variety of context-specific definitions.
chance to achieve academically in school (p. 1). Benefits and Shortcomings of Multicultural Education:
They further explain that, "the term multicultural An Overview
education describes a wide variety of programs and Nieto (2004) explained that the increase in
practices related to educational equity, women, ethnic cultural/ethnic diversity has caused many educators to
groups, language minorities, low-income groups, and recognize and own the need to expand their understanding
people with disabilities" (p. 6). Multicultural education may of multicultural education, especially in public schools.
mean making changes within the curriculum in one school With a very long history of immigration of people from
but a total change in leadership in another school. many different cultural groups, the need for multicultural
Gay (2000) and Ladson-Billings (2004) defined education and embracing diversity has become increasingly
multicultural education as adopting a culturally responsive urgent. Smith (2009) asserted that success or failure of
pedagogy with trained instructors facilitating it. Nieto multicultural education depends on the effective preparation
(1996) defined multicultural education as “antiracist of teachers and administrators. When the teachers and
education” which is “a process important for all students” administrators understand the learning needs of students
(p. 307). Jay and Jones (2005) defined multicultural and recognize how these needs can be different than the
education as “the common term used to describe the type of needs of the students from the dominant culture, then the
pluralist education” where “its advocates are seeking for all actual learning occurs. That is, when “we really see, know
children receiving an education, pre-K through college” (p. the students we must teach” (Delpit, 1995, p. 183), we start
3). The National Association for Multicultural Education making a difference in the lives of these students. In order
(NAME) described multicultural education as a to achieve this, teacher preparation programs are
“philosophical concept built on the ideals of freedom, responsible for designing programs that are appropriate and
justice, equality, equity, and human dignity as in line with the needs of these teacher candidates. These
acknowledged in various documents, such as the U.S. programs do not only need to challenge teacher candidates
Declaration of Independence, constitutions of South Africa to leave their “comfort zones” but the programs themselves
and the United States, and the Universal Declaration of need to examine and expand their knowledge and
Human Rights adopted by the United Nations” (National understanding of diverse cultures these teacher candidates
Association of Multicultural Education, 2011). Kahn (2008) will serve (Ball, 2000; Cruz, 1999; Garcia & Willis, 2001;
described multicultural education as a “process, a Gay, 2002).
philosophy, a concept, which is dynamic, multifaceted, and Schugurensky (2002) argued that when the cultural
polemic” (p. 531). With the emphasis on minority learning, diversity and global tolerance are promoted within

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Understanding Multicultural Education

multicultural education, traditional elitism (of having Educational anthropologists have highlighted the
Eurocentric curriculum) and its shortcomings would be role of communication styles (Cummins, 1986; Mehan,
overcome. Bernstein (1994) argued that multicultural 1979) and how societies interact within their defined
education hinders the assimilation efforts and creates a cultural norms (Au, 1980; Foley, 1991; Goldenberg &
divisive society. Ravich (1990) argued that Gallimore, 1991). One significant shortcoming of
multiculturalization pose a threat to the best of what U.S. intercultural communication competence research and the
education has to offer the values, beliefs, and traditions of multiculturalization of education attempts is that it focuses
Western civilization. Dirlik (1997) quotes the poet Russell on majority interacting with minority groups (Giles &
Leong as stating, "Multiculturalism = postcolonial Evans, 1986; Glaser, 1994; Taylor, 1998). Exceptions to
Eurocentrism" (p. xi). Pon (2009) further stated that this include Sigelman and Welch (1993) and Sigelman et al.
“Cultural competency resembles new racism both by (1996) studying the racial attitudes of Blacks toward Whites
otherizing non-whites and by deploying modernist and and Powers and Ellison (1995) studying Blacks’
absolutist views of culture while not using racialist convictions on interracial dating and friendship. All these
language (p. 59). Some claim that a good liberal education studies focused on Black/African American and
embodies a rather mono-cultural education, where national White/European American populations. Many ethnic and
origins and race are not confused with culture as a learned racial groups (Black/African Americans, Latino, Asian
attribute (Bernstein, 1994; Bloom, 1994; Souza, 1991; Americans, and White/European Americans, etc.) that form
Grant & Graham, 1994; Chavez, 1994). Jenks, Lee, and the basis of today’s multicultural environment are ignored
Kanpol (2001) further argue that, under the guise of (Stein & Rinden, 2000; Hood & Morris, 1997).
multicultural education, a deeper agenda lies, “How do we Advocating for multicultural education, as it is
Americanize minorities...? How do we prepare them for a defined and practiced today in U.S. schools, whether K-12
competitive economy?" (p. 91). or higher, has become a shallow application of a bicultural
Critical Multiculturalists (Chicago Cultural Studies education. Bicultural, for the purposes of this paper, is
Group, 1992) explain that the study of multiculturalism is defined as interactions between African-Americans and
vulnerable because of its weaknesses in its own rhetoric: European-Americans in certain states (within the U.S.) and
An overreliance on the efficacy of theory; a false Hispanics and European-Americans in certain states.
voluntarism about political engagement; an unrecognized ‘Shallow’ in this context is defined as the poor and
assumption of civil-society conditions; a tendency to limit misguided attempts to multiculturalize the education. One
grounds of critique to a standard brace of minoritized example of the underestimation of the significance of a
identities (for example, race, class, and gender); and a multicultural education is even though multicultural
forgetfulness about how its terms circulate in "Third- education is a necessary ingredient of quality education, it
World" con-texts, which are often expected to provide raw is perceived by most educators as to be embraced only in
material for integration in Western visions of multicultural times of crisis or simply as a luxury if time in the school
pluralism (p. 531). day allows (Banks & Banks, 2002).
Hooks (1994) explains that these weaknesses A scholar and practitioner Nieto (2000) limits the
cause a return to narrow nationalism, isolationism, and shortcomings of the multicultural education to the “color-
xenophobia rather than developing a world perspective blindness”:
respecting multiple viewpoints and perspectives. It is an Many teachers and schools, in an attempt to be
attempt to return to an idealized past. Bensimon (1994) color-blind, do not want to acknowledge cultural or racial
argues that the current understanding of multiculturalism differences … Although it sounds fair and honest and
downplays the role of human relations. This is because the ethical, the opposite may actually be true … color-
focus is simply the reduction of tension among diverse blindness may result in refusing to accept differences and
groups. Rhoads (1995) defines this as “mainstream therefore accepting the dominant culture as the norm (p.
multiculturalism” (p. 265). The 138).
It is the lack of the ability “to relate and
attempt to change mono-cultural institutions into communicate effectively when individuals involved in the
multicultural democratic communities is treating cultural interaction do not share the same culture, ethnicity,
diversity as a subject matter and not attempting to reform language, or other salient variables” (Hains, Lynch, &
the ways of thinking and doing in the society. Critical Winton, 2000, p. 2). We identify ourselves better and more
multiculturalism emphasizes the very nature of teaching easily with those who resemble us but we are generally not
itself. It is not only involved in discussing the content and aware of how mono-cultural patterns influence our ways of
the curriculum, but also involved in defining what the thinking. Another strong advocate of so-called multicultural
relevant knowledge is (Rhoads, 1995). Its purpose is to education is Lisa Delpit. She argues that educational
transform educational institutions and organizational reforms are not designed with children of color in mind
structures to reflect diverse cultures and perspectives. (Delpit, 1995).

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Current Issues in Education Vol. 14 No. 2

Delpit (1995), Nieto (2000), Banks and Banks presume that African-American students are deficient” (p.
(2002), Fuller (1992), and many other scholars argue that it 22). When the African-American/Black students are given
is rather the mono-cultural curriculum and the shortcomings tests, Gould (1981) argued that it is a movement to
of teacher education programs that are mainly composed of legitimize African-American students’ deficiency. Tate
female European Americans that create the achievement (1997) further commented that the current multicultural
gap. Fuller (1992) compiled statistics revealing that the paradigm, currently popular in the U.S., exists to benefit
majority of students in teacher education programs are Whites. The question here is whether Whites are promoting
European-American, middle-class females, products of advances for Blacks when only Blacks promote White
suburbs, small cities or rural areas. Dilg (1995) warns that interests (Bell, 1980).
white teachers’ approach to multicultural education (mostly In order for learning to occur in classrooms, we
the curriculum aspect of multicultural education) as an need to examine a wide variety of perspectives, including
outsider carries the danger of ignorance. our own (Curtis, 1998). Martins (2008) argue that “the
Despite increasing ethnic diversity in the United awareness of one’s own assumptions, prejudices and
States, many educators do not seem to understand that stereotypes is a first step to be able to positively interact
multicultural education is the broader understanding, and learn from others. In this process lies the essence of
involvement, and appreciation of more than two cultures. intercultural learning” (p. 203). Lawrence (2005) claimed
Jay (2003) explained that “Despite a tendency to equate that for an antiracist multicultural education to be more
‘Americanness’ with ‘Whiteness’ by individuals both than superficially effective, it must go beyond the lack of
outside and inside the United States, the United States is multicultural ingredients in the curriculum, policy and
comprised of many different racial, ethnic, linguistic, and structure issues within schools and how school personnel,
cultural groups” (p. 3). And in some instances, an artificial specifically teachers, interact with students and with each
implicit connection between nationality and culture is other (see also Banks & Banks, 1995; Lee, 1995; Nieto,
created. This is artificial in the sense that it does not 2000). It is the innate rejection of culture difference as
emphasize originality but pushes children into social threatening as it is because “it challenges an individual to
constructs by encouraging them to learn about Asian food reconsider ethnocentric views of the world and negotiate
or the Mexican fiesta. each intercultural encounter with an open mind and as a
Contrary to the popular discourse of creating unique experience” (Mahoney & Schamber, 2004, p. 312).
equity within the current education system, King (1991) Furthermore, learning about other cultures and cultural
argued that culturally relevant teaching that is successful competencies is rather difficult and bothersome because it
helps produce a relevant black personality. His argument is entails acknowledging “how we are all implicated in
relevant in the sense that culture is significant for individual contradictory relationships of oppression” (Pon, 2009, p.
and group identity. It “gives people a sense of who they 69). When educators claim the need for cultural
are, of belonging, of how they should behave and of what competency or the need for a more comprehensive
they should not be doing” (Harris & Moran, 1991, p. 12). understanding of culturally responsive teaching, they are
However, for all we know, while individuals foster positive not necessarily exercising self-reflexivity but simply
self-appreciation as belonging to a specific group, they may shielding themselves from criticisms of racism.
also perceive the prejudice and stigmatization from other Through this study, the author postulates that the
groups and experience exclusion and isolation. solution to the challenges of establishing a multicultural
With all the shortcomings of the application of so-called education lies in the understanding of the relationship
multicultural education, the author argues, that the focus, as between the individuals rather than implementation of a
it is presented in the current literature, is on why the policy model or educational reform within an educational
children of African-American population in the U.S. system. An education system, which does not recognize its
schools are not excelling in their classes comparable to the problems and challenges as they exist but instead creates
children of European-American populations. There are superficial challenges and solutions, is bound to fail in the
facts and the author does not argue against these facts long run.
where African-American students score low on the However, it should also be noted that intercultural
standardized tests. For example, Garcia (1994) argues that communication and thus research is problematic as
research on African-American students tends to focus on members of cultural groups may be blinded to significant
dropouts, literacy gaps, and educational delinquency. aspects of their own culture. This is also a limitation of an
Another example to arguing the dominance of the White education system where educators “represent ethnically
race is Critical Race Theorists’ argument that official diverse individuals and groups in all strata of human
school curricula are designed to maintain a “White accomplishment instead of typecasting particular groups as
supremacist master script” and they are “culturally specific dependent and helpless victims who make limited
artifacts” (Delgado, 1995, p. 21). Regarding instruction, contributions of significance” (Banks & Banks, 2002, p.
Delgado argued that the “current instructional strategies 33).

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Understanding Multicultural Education

Discussion From a pedagogical point of view, cultural

Bennett (1993) argued that, “Probably one of the sensitivity provides a road map to the multiculturalization
most threatening ideas encountered by students is this of education and thus equality. From a political point of
concept of difference and the implications this concept view, ‘divide and rule’ style of management applies where
brings along with it” (p. 181). That is, how we perceive the schools, through singling out the differences (unique
differences determine the scale and limit of our interactions characteristics), are creating culturally distinct groups.
with other cultures. Hitlin, Scott, and Elder Jr. (2006), claim Through these divisive policies, it becomes easier to focus
that when individuals choose from social categories that are on a problem where political sensitivity becomes a
structurally available to them, they tend to internalize the handicap. School management focuses on maintaining a
symbolic and cultural meanings attached to these superficially equal education rather than focusing on the
categories. This internalization may cause an increase in learning outcomes of students from all cultures within the
self-appreciation or result in self-depreciation. Further, system. In order to have a better understanding, we need to
Park (1931) does not believe the outcome differences take a close look at the policies as how an educational
between Whites, Blacks, or other ethnic groups are a result ideology is transferred to procedures, and regarding
of biology, but a function of social environments. application, and how these procedures are practiced.
Stonequist (1935), too, argued that individual’s self- The solution is not simply to create a culturally
perception stems largely from his ability to view himself responsive pedagogy with a curriculum designed with
from multiple, if not conflicting, perspectives. In this children of color in mind, and turning young, female, white
context, intercultural communication competence is the first suburban teachers into culturally competent and responsive
big step towards creating a culturally sensitive education. educators. The author does not argue the relevance of such
“Exploring the construct of cultural difference is discourses in the current education system. However, what
fundamental to learning about other cultures” (Mahoney & is being argued here is that these do not constitute the
Schamber, 2004, p. 311) and we need to start with a close essence of the solution but it is, rather, an understanding of
look at our intercultural communication competence. Are ‘who I am’, and ‘why I do what I do’ as to start the
we communicating our sincere attempts to understand other ‘change’.
cultures effectively, or are we simply blinding ourselves Conclusion
with our own convictions on what is right for the students? To achieve multiculturalism in education, we need
We should also note that to understand the reason to have a clear definition of what we understand from
behind using the “White” as the excuse for failure, one ‘multicultural education’. Through a clear definition, we
must look to the society from a deeper perspective. The can make the necessary changes in the policies. After we
reason behind this argument might lie in self handicapping make the necessary changes in the policies, we need to have
(arranging to perform under conditions that impair leaders with strong intercultural communication skills in
performance). By providing an excuse for poor order to communicate the vision of a multicultural
performance, self handicapping makes people feel better in education. The process of defining multicultural education,
situations where they might fail (Drexler, Ahrens, & Haaga, making the necessary changes in the policies, and finding a
1995). Zuckerman, Kieffer, and Knee (1998) explain that leader to communicate these can be achieved through
self handicapping is mainly a problem when it becomes serious and sincere applications of each of these steps,
habitual. When it does, it typically leads to poor adjustment respectively. The intense focus on the mastery of other
and lower self-esteem. And, self handicapping is the current cultures within the multiculturalism is overambitious and
tendency among African-Americans and among some self-satisfying, for the lack of a better word. Understanding
European-Americans for the justification of African- and respecting other cultural viewpoints and behavior is
American children’s failure in American schools. essential to the promotion of intercultural understanding.
It is also not necessarily the information provided However, before we start to ‘change’ the world, we need to
by the schools that will enhance our intercultural understand ‘why I do what I do.’ Whoever you are,
communication competence but an understanding of “why wherever you are, whatever you want to accomplish, it all
we do what we do”. Gudykunst (1998) explained that begins with an understanding of ‘I’: “The awareness of
intercultural competence includes not only knowledge of one’s own assumptions, prejudices and stereotypes is a first
the culture and language, but also affective and behavioral step to be able to positively interact and learn from others.
skills. Examples to such affective and behavioral skills are In this process lies the essence of intercultural learning”
empathy, human warmth, charisma, and the ability to (Martins, 2008, p. 203).
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Article Citation
Özturgut, O. (2011). Understanding multicultural education. Current Issues in Education, 14(2). Retrieved [date], from
http://cie.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/cieatasu/article/view/732

Author Notes
Osman Özturgut, Ph.D.

University of the Incarnate Word

4301 Broadway CPO #293
San Antonio, Texas 78209
[email protected]

Dr. Osman Özturgut has worked in international and comparative education for over ten years. He has been an administrator
and faculty member in various higher education institutions in Turkey, China, and the United States. Dr. Özturgut is currently
an Assistant Professor of International Education and Entrepreneurship at the University of the Incarnate Word in San
Antonio, Texas. He has conducted research in China, South Korea, Japan, Norway, Singapore, Turkey, South Africa, and the
US. He is an expert in international and comparative higher education and leadership studies and has numerous publications
and presentations in these areas. His current research interests include international students in the U.S., internationalization
of higher education, multicultural education, Sino-U.S. Joint-Venture Campuses, and private higher education in China.
.

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 Understanding Multicultural Education

Volume 14, Number 2 August 7, 2011 ISSN 1099-839X

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