Chapter - 18 Matrices

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MatheMatics
 18
CHAPTER

Matrices
Chapter Objectives

Concept, notation, order, equality, types of matrices, zero and identity matrix, transpose of a matrix, symmetric
and skew symmetric matrices, Conjugate of matrix, Orthogonal matrix, idempotent matrix and Involutory
matrix, Operation on matrices : Addition and multiplication and multiplication with a scalar. Simple properties of
addition, multiplication and scalar multiplication. Non-commutativity of multiplication of matrices and existence
of non-zero matrices whose product is the zero matrix (restrict to square matrices of order 2 and 3). Concept of
elementary row and column operations. Invertible matrices and proof of the uniqueness of inverse, if it exists;
(Here all matrices will have real entries).

Study Material
I. Concept Clarified
1. Concept
A matrix is a collection of numbers or functions arranged into a fixed number of rows and columns.
Usually the numbers are real numbers. The numbers or functions are called the elements or the
entries of the matrix. Capital letter is used to denote matrices.
1 2 3
 4 5 6  , B  −=
2 4 5  x 1 + x
=
Example : A =   −1 3 4  , C  − x x 2 
7 8 9     

In the above example the horizontal lines denote rows whereas vertical lines denote columns of matrix.

Important :
The elements of matrix are written in aij form where i & j = 1, 2, 3, ….. thus a generalized form of matrix is

 a11 a12 . . a1n 

 
a21 a22 . . a2 n 
 
A . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . 
 
am1 am 2 . . amn 

2. Order of Matrix
Order of matrix is defined on the basis of its rows and columns present in the matrix. A matrix
having ‘m’ rows and ‘n’ columns, has order m × n.

Important

 A matrix has no. of elements equal to product of its no. of rows and no. of columns.
 The number of rows and columns are called as dimension of matrix.

3. Equality of matrix
Suppose we have two matrices A and B, these two matrices will be called equal matrix if their order is same. If two
matrices are equal then their corresponding terms will also be equal.
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 2 3  x 1 + x
=
Example : A =  ,B  2 
 −2 4  2× 2  −x x  2× 2
In the above example both the matrices are of order 2 × 2 and hence are equal matrix. After equating corresponding
terms we get x = 2.

4. Types of matrices
Matrices are differentiated on the basis of its elements. Few types of matrices are given below :

1. Row Matrix :
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row. A = [a11, a12, a13, ............., a1n]i × n, here
m = 1, n = n
Example : A = [–1 –4 –2] 1 × 3
2. Column Matrix :
 a11 
a 
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column. A    , here m = m, n = 1
21

  
 
 am1 

 2
 
 3 
Example : A =  
 3
 −5 
4 ×1

3. Square Matrix :
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is said to be a square matrix. Thus an
m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if m = n, and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.

 1 −6 3 
 
Example : A =−
 8 −5 6 
 
 7 −8 − 2  3×3
4. Rectangular Matrix :
A matrix which doesn’t have number of rows equal to number of columns is called rectangular matrix.
 2 3
 
Example : A =  −2 4 
 −4 5 
3× 2

5. Diagonal Matrix :
A square matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements are zero. i.e. a matrix A = [aij]m×m
is diagonal matrix if aij = 0 when i ≠ j.
1 0 0 
 
Example :=
A 0 −5 0 
 
0 0 − 2 
6. Scalar Matrix :
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal, and nonzero, i.e. a diagonal
matrix A = [aij]m×m is a scalar matrix when :
(i) aij = 0 when i ≠ j.
(ii) aij = k when i = j, for some constant k.
2 0 0 
Example : A =  0 2 0 
 0 0 2 
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7. Zero or Null Matrix :
A matrix is said to be zero or null matrix if all its elements are zero.

0 0 0 
Example : A = 0 0 0 
0 0 0 

8. Unit or Identity Matrix :

If a square matrix has its diagonal element equal to one and non-diagonal elements are zero then the matrix is
called Unit or Identity matrix, i.e. a square matrix A = [aij]m × m is a unit matrix when :
(i) aij = 0 when i ≠ j.
(ii) aij = 1 when i = j.
1 0 0 
Example : A = 0 1 0 
0 0 1 

9. Upper Triangular matrix :

A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal are zero is known as the upper triangular matrix.

 1 3 −2 
 
Example : A = 0 2 7 
0 0 −4 

10. Lower Triangular matrix

A square matrix in which all the elements above the diagonal are zero is known as the lower triangular matrix.

 −4 0 0 
 
Example=
: A  3 −2 0 
 11 5 3 

11. Singular Matrix :

A square matrix is said to be singular matrix if determinant of matrix denoted by |A| is zero
otherwise it is non-singular matrix.

5. Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix is the new matrix which is formed by interchanging columns with the rows i.e. new
matrix has rows which are columns of previous matrix. It is formed by swapping rows with columns and
vice-versa.

 4 3 0  4 3 11
AT  3 −2 5 
: A  3 −2 4  , its transpose matrix =
Example=
 
11 5 3   0 4 3 

The superscript ‘T’ stands for transpose of the matrix. It is also represented by A’.

 Properties of Transpose Matrix

1. (A’)’ = A,
2. (A + B)’ = A’ + B’
3. (AB)’ = B’A’
4. (kA)’ = kA’

6. Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

A square matrix is said to be symmetric if transpose of matrix is equal to matrix itself, i.e. AT = A so
aij = aji for all i and j.
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4 3 0 
Example := A  3 −2 4 
 0 4 3 
In above example a12 = a21 = 3, a13 = a31 = 0, and a23 = a32 = 4.
A square matrix is said to be skew symmetric if transpose of matrix is equal to negative of matrix itself, i.e. AT = –A
so aij = –aji for all i and j.

 4 −3 0 
 
Example : A =  3 −2 −4 
 0 4 3 

 Conjugate of Matrix
The matrix A containing complex number as its element, then on replacing its elements by the conjugate complex
number is called conjugate matrix of matrix A and is denoted by A .

 Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix of order n × n is said to be orthogonal matrix if AA’ = I = A ‘A.

 Idempotent Matrix
A square matrix is said to be idempotent when the matrix is multiplied by itself results in same matrix. i.e. A2 = A

Important :
If A is an idempotent matrix and B is another matrix such that A + B = I, then matrix B is also an idempotent matrix
and AB = BA.

 Involutory Matrix
A square matrix is said to be Involutory when the matrix is multiplied by itself results in identity matrix. i.e. A2 = I.

7. Operations on matrices

 Addition and subtraction of Matrix :

Let A and B are two matrices each of order m × n. Two matrices may be added or subtracted
only if they have the same dimension (or order); that is, they must have the same number
of rows and columns. Addition or subtraction is accomplished by adding or subtracting
corresponding elements. Matrices are added in the following manner :
If we have two matrices such that, matrix A = [aij]mxn and matrix B = [bij]mxn
Then matrix A + B = [aij + bij]mxn where i, j = 1,2,3,…..
   A – B = [aij – bij]mxn where i, j = 1, 2, 3,…..

 Order of the Multiplication of Matrix :

Suppose we have two matrix A = [aij] m × n and B = [bij]n × q such that number of columns of matrix A is equal

to the number of rows of matrix B then their multiplication AB can be obtained as :

b1 b2 b3 b4 
 a1 a2 a1  b b b b 
=
Example : A =  , B  5 6 7 8 
a
 3 a a 6 
4
b9 b10 b11 b12 
Here, [A] has order 2 × 3 and [B] has order 3 × 4
Then, matrix [AB] will have the order 2 × 4
 Multiplication of Matrix by scalar :

 calar multiplication stands for multiplication of a real number to a matrix. In this multiplication element of
S
the matrix is multiplied by the scalar number. Suppose k be any scalar and is multiplied by the matrix A then
its multiplication is denoted by kA and is given as-
kA = [k aij]mxn
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 Simple properties of addition
1. Commutative Law of Addition of Matrix :
If A and B are two matrices of the same order then matrix A + B is defined as
A+B=B+A
2. Associative property of addition :
If A, B and C are three matrices of the same order then the matrices B + C, A + (B + C), A + B, (A + B) + C
are defined as
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
3. Existence of Additive Identity of Matrix :
Let A be the matrix then, A + O = A = O + A. Therefore, ‘O’ is the null matrix of the same order as the matrix A.
4. Existence of Additive Inverse of Matrix :
If A is any square matrix then matrix (–A) is called inverse matrix.
A + (–A) = 0 = (–A) + A

 Simple properties of multiplication

1. Commutative Law :
Multiplication of matrices doesn’t follow commutative law. i.e. AB ≠ BA.
2. Associative Law :
If A, B and C are three matrices then according to this property. (AB)C = A(BC)
3. Existence of multiplicative identity :
This property states that A.I = I.A = A.
4. Distributive Law :
According to this property A(B + C) = AB + AC
5. Cancellation Law :
If A is non-singular matrix, then
AB = AC ⇒ B = C, (Left cancellation law)
BA = CA ⇒ B = C, (Right cancellation law)
6. Properties of Scalar Multiplication :
If A and B are two matrices of order m × n, and c and d are scalar then
(i) Associative property of multiplication : (cd)A = c(dA)
(ii) Distributive properties : c(A + B) = cA + cB, (c + d)A = cA + dA.
(iii) Multiplicative identity property : I.A = A.

8. Non-Commutativity of multiplication of matrices :

Let A and B are two matrices of order 3 × 3, such that

 a1 a2 a3   b1 b2 b3 
   
= A = a 4 a 5 a6  , B  b4 b5 b6 
 a7 a8 a9   b7 b8 b9 

Then product AB and BA are :

 a1b1 + a2 b4 + a3b7 a1b2 + a2 b5 + a3b8 a1b3 + a2 b6 + a3b9 

AB =  a4 b1 + a5b4 + a6 b7 a4 b2 + a5b5 + a6 b8 a4 b3 + a5b6 + a6 b9 
 a7 b1 + a8 b4 + a9 b7 a7 b2 + a8 b5 + a9 b8 a7 b3 + a8 b6 + a9 b9 
   
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 b1a1 + b2 a4 + b3 a7 b1a2 + b2 a5 + b3 a8 b1a3 + b2 a6 + b3 a9 

BA = b4 a1 + b5 a4 + b6 a7 b4 a2 + b5 a5 + b6 a8 b4 a3 + b5 a6 + b6 a9 
 b7 a1 + b8 a4 + b9 a7 b7 a2 + b8 a5 + b9 a8 b7 a3 + b8 a6 + b9 a9 
   
Clearly both are not equal, so multiplication of matrix is not commutative.

Important :
It can be commutative only if A and B are diagonal matrix and of the same dimension (or order).

Existence of non-zero matrices whose product is the zero matrix :

There are matrices whose multiplication is a zero matrix.

 −1 1  1 1
Example : A=  and B = 1 1 , then
 0 0   

 −1 + 1 −1 + 1 0 0 
= AB =
 0 0  0 0 

9. Concept of elementary row and column operations

Following operation can be performed on rows of matrix :
1. Interchange row i with row j. (denoted as Ri ↔ Rj )

2. Multiply row i by any number ‘k’, where k ≠ 0, (denoted as kRi → Ri )

3. Add k times row i to row j. (denoted as kRi + Rj → Rj )

Following operation can be performed on columns of matrix-
4. Interchange column i with column j. (denoted as Ci ↔ Cj )
5. Multiply column i by any number ‘k’, where k ≠ 0, (denoted as kCi → Ci )
6. Add k times column i to column j. (denoted as kCi + Cj → Cj )

10. Invertible matrix

A square matrix A of order n × n is said to be invertible if there exists square matrix B of order n × n such that
AB = BA= I. Also, then B is called the inverse of A and denoted by A–1= B.
Every invertible matrix has a unique inverse
Following are the steps to get inverse of matrix :
1. Write A = I.A
2. By using elementary operation on A, transform it into a unit matrix.
3. In the same order, apply elementary operations on I to convert it into a matrix B. then A–1= B.

II. Important Formulae

1. If matrix A and B have same order, then they can be added / subtracted as
A ± B = [aij + bij]m × n
Where A = [aij]m × n , B = [bij]m × n

2. If matrix A and B are two matrices of order 3 × 3 such that

 a1 a2 a3   b1 b2 b3 
A =a4 a5 a6  , B b
=  4 b5 b6 
 a7 a8 a9   b7 b8 b9 

Then
 a1b1 + a2 b4 + a3b7 a1b2 + a2 b5 + a3b8 a1b3 + a2 b6 + a3b9 
AB =  a4 b1 + a5b4 + a6 b7 a4 b2 + a5b5 + a6 b8 a4 b3 + a5b6 + a6 b9 
 a7 b1 + a8 b4 + a9 b7 a7 b2 + a8 b5 + a9 b8 a7 b3 + a8 b6 + a9 b9 

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And
 b1a1 + b2 a4 + b3 a7 b1a2 + b2 a5 + b3 a8 b1a3 + b2 a6 + b3 a9 
BA = b4 a1 + b5 a4 + b6 a7 b4 a2 + b5 a5 + b6 a8 b4 a3 + b5 a6 + b6 a9 
 b7 a1 + b8 a4 + b9 a7 b7 a2 + b8 a5 + b9 a8 b7 a3 + b8 a6 + b9 a9 

3. (A’)’ = A
4. (kA)’ = k A’, where k is a scalar.
5. (A + B)’ = A’ + B’, here both the matrices have same order.
6. (A B)’ = B’ A’, here matrices A and B have same order.
7. For matrices A, B, C
(i) A (B + C) = A.B + A.C (ii) (A + B) C = A.C + B.C
8. If A is a given matrix and O is a null matrix of same order then
O.A = A.O = O
adjA
9. A -1 =
A

10. Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
So, matrix can be written as
1 1
A  ( A  AT )  ( A  AT )
2 2
11. If A and B are the symmetric matrices of the same order, then
(a) AB – BA is a skew-symmetric matrix.
(b) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
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