SETS

● A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Eg A = {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday}, A is a set containing the first five days
of the week.

SET OPERATIONS
The following are some of the operations that can be done on sets.
● Union (∪ ¿

● intersection(∩)

● complement (‘)
NUMERICAL OPERATIONS ON SETS
Examples
1. given that E = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}, A ={1,3,5,6,8,10}, B = {1,2,4,5,6,11} C = {Prime
Numbers}. Find
(a) ( A ∪ B)∩C
(b) ( A ∪ B)'
(c) A ' ∩(B ∪C)
solutions
(a) A ∪ B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,8 ,10 , 11}
● For union, you combine the elements of A and B.

● Do not write any element twice even when it appears in both sets.

A ∪ B= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 8 , 10 ,11 } C={2 ,3 , 5 , 7 ,11}

( A ∪ B ) ∩ C={2 ,3 ,5 , 11}
(b) A ∪ B= {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 8 , 10 ,11 } E={1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ,11 ,12 }

'
∴ ( A ∪ B ) ={7 , 9 , 12}

● The complement of the set AUB comprises of all the elements found
in the universal set E but not in the set AUB and is denoted as
(AUB)’.
● To find the elements of (AUB)’, cancel out the elements of AUB from
the universal set E and the elements that remain are in the
complement.
(c) A={ 1 ,3 , 5 , 6 , 8 ,10 } , E={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,7 ,8 , 9 , 10 , 11,12 }
 A’ = {2,4,7,9,11,12}
B UC = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,11}
'
A ∩ ( B ∪C )={2 ,7 , 11}
Exercise
1. Given that E={ a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j}, P = {a,c,d,e,g,i}, Q={ a,b,c,g,i,j} and R= {c,d,g,i}. Find
(a) ( P' ∩Q ' ) ∩ R ( b ) ( P∪ Q)∩ R

HIGHER OPERATIONS ON SETS

NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN SETS

The number of elements in a set B is denoted as n ( B ) .

Examples

1. Given that E = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, A = {2,4,5,6,8,10}, B = {1,2,4,5,9} and C={3,4,7,9,10} Find

(a) n(AUB) (b) n (A’∩ B ' ¿ (c) n [ A ' ∪ B' ¿∩ C ¿
solutions
(a) A = {2,4,5,6,8,10} B = { 1,2,4,5,9}
AUB= {1,2,4,5,6,8,9}
n(A UB) = 7
NOTE: Just count the number of elements in the set.
(b) E= {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {2,4,5,6,8,10} B= {1,2,4,5,9}
A’= {1,3,7,9} B’ = {3,6,7,8,10}
A ∩B ={ 3 ,7 }
' '

∴ n ( A' ∩ B' ) =2
Exercise
do part (c) as an exercise solution: 4
2. The venn diagram below shows the number of pupils who take History(H), Geography(G) and
Mathematics(M).
 Given that n [ M ∪ G ∪ H ] =23 , Find
(a) The value of x
' '
(b) n( M ∩G )
(c) how many take geography
(d) How many take history and geography
(e) How many take two subjects only
Solution
(a) 3x + 5 + 2 + x = 23
4x + 7 = 23
4x = 23 – 7
4x = 16
x=4
(b) M’ = {2,4,6} G’ = {6,12}

n(M’∩G ' ¿= 6

(c) 5 + 2 + 4 = 11
(d) 4
(e) 4 + 5 = 9
Task
1. The Venn diagram below shows the number of people in Ndola who use the three
networks, MTN (M), ZAMTEL (Z) and AIRTEL (A).
(a) Calculate the value of x given that 30 people used Zamtel.
(b) Find the value of Y if the total number of people in Ndola is 70.
(c) Hence or otherwise find
(i) n(M' ∩ Z ' ¿
(ii) n[ ( M ∪ Z ¿' ∩ A ¿

APPLICATIONS OF HIGHER OPERATIONS

Examples
1. At a school, 100 learners were asked which sport they play. The results showed that 50
play football (F), 48 play basketball (B) ,54 play tennis(T), 24 play football and basketball,
22 play basketball and tennis, 25 play football and tennis and 14 play all three sports.
(a) Illustrate this information in a well labelled Venn diagram.
(b) How many learners
(i) Play tennis only
(ii) Play football and tennis but not basketball
(iii) Play two sports only
(iv) Play at least two sports
(v) Do not play any of the sports.
Solutions
(a)
 (b) (i) 21 (ii) 15+11+21 = 47 (iii) 8 + 10 + 11= 29 (iv) 8 +10 +11 +14= 43
(v) 5
2. Tourists visited a game reserve.
45 liked Lions (L)
36 liked Zebras (Z)
25 liked Crocodiles (C)
20 liked Lions and Zebras
11 like Lions and crocodiles
15 liked Zebras and Crocodiles
7 liked all three animals
4 did not like any of the animals
(a) Illustrate the information in a Venn diagram.
(b) Hence or otherwise, find the number of tourists who visited the game
reserve.
(c) How many tourists liked
(i) One type of animal only
(ii) Zebras and Lions but not Crocodiles.

Solutions
(a)
(b) 21 + 8 + 6= 35
(c) 21 + 13 + 8 = 42
Task
A group of Zambian students were asked about which countries Malawi, Zimbabwe
and Botswana they had visited. The following information was obtained.
● 80 had visited Malawi (M), 70 had visited Botswana (B), and 55 had visited
Zimbabwe.
● 35 had visited both Malawi and Botswana, 30 had visited both Malawi and
Zimbabwe, and 30 had visited both Zimbabwe and Botswana.
● 10 had visited all three countries

● 20 had not visited any of the three countries

(a) Show this information in a well labelled Venn diagram.
(b) How many students took part in the survey

SET NOTATION
⮚ We use symbols to write sets that are shaded in set notation

Examples
 1. Write the following shaded parts in set notation

SOLUTIONS

( a )( P ∪ Q )' ∩ R (b)(P ∩Q)∪ ¿

( e ) ( A ∩C ) ∩B ' ( f ) (P ∪Q)' ∪ R
 TASK

Write the following shaded parts in set notation.

INDICES

This is a shorter way of writing the repeated multiplication of a number or a product. Consider the
diagram below
y
x

● X is called the base

● Y is called the power or index or exponent

● The whole number is read as x power y or x to the power y.

Expanding and simplifying indices
Examples
1. Write the following numbers in expanded form

(a) 53 (b) 25
2
(c) 3
5 ()
2. Write the following in power form.
(a) 6 × 6× 6 (b) m ×m× m× m× m

Solution
1. (a) 53 = 5 ×5 ×5 (multiply 5 three times by itself).
(b) 25 = 2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2

()
3
2 2 2 2
(c) = × ×
5 5 5 5
2. (a) 6 ( b)m5
3

Exercise
1. write −2 ×−2 ×−2×−2 in power form
2. Write the following in expanded form
(a) 53x4 (b) 3x + y5
Laws of Indices
1. a m × an =am +n (Multiplication)
● When multiplying numbers with the same base, add the powers.
Example
Simplify 53 x 54
Solution
53 x 54 = (5 x 5 x 5) x (5 x 5 x 5 x 5)
= 57
= 53 + 4
m m−n
m n a
2. a ÷ a = n =a (Division)
a
● When dividing numbers with the same, subtract the powers.
Example
3
5 5 ×5 × 5 3−2
Simplify 5 ÷ 5 = 3 =
3 2
=5=5 =5
5 5 ×5
3. Addition and Subtraction
● When adding or subtracting numbers with the same or different
bases, simplify the powers first then add or subtract.
Example
Simplify 52 + 51 - 42
Solution
52 + 51 – 42 = (5 ×5 ¿+5+ ( 4 × 4 )=25+5−16=14
Exercise
Simplify each of the following
a. 5 x 3 y × 4 x 2 y 5
b. 25 x 3 y ÷ 5 x 2 y 5
c. 23 +32−42
4. Power of a power
m m m m
(a ) n = a m ×n=amn or (a × b) =a × b
Example
Simplify (5 x 3)2 = 52 × x 3 ×2=( 5 ×5 ) × x6 =25 x6
Exercise
Simplify ¿

Negative and Zero indices

 Negative indices
−m 1
5. a = m
a
Note: To evaluate negative indices, you first change to positive indices by
following the rule above.
Examples
Evaluate the following
−2
(i) 6 (ii) ¿

Solutions
−2 1 1 1
(i) 6 = = = .
6
2
6 × 6 36
1 1
1 2 2 2 2 = 16
(ii) ¿
¿¿ × × ×
3 3 3 3 81
16
¿1÷
81
81
¿1×
16
81
¿
16
Alternative method for question (ii) above.

● Interchange 2 and 3 in the question to change the power to a

positive, as shown below.
¿

The Zero index.

● Anything raised to the power zero is equal to 1.

0
● a =1.

Exercise
Evaluate the following:
(i) ¿ (ii) x 0 +1
n
6. Fractional powers: m
a =¿
● To evaluate fractional powers, introduce the radical sign (square root symbol).

● The power of half means finding the square root of a number.

Examples
Evaluate each of the following:
1 2
(i) 16 2 (ii) 8 3 (iii) ¿ (iv)¿

Solutions
1
(i) 16 = √2 16=4
2

2
(ii) 8 =¿3 (Find the cube root of 8 first).

¿¿

(iii) ¿ (Find the cube roots of 8 and 27 to get 2 and 3 respectively).

()
2
2
¿
3
2 2 4
¿ × =
3 3 9
−3
(iv) 16 2

● Since the power is negative, introduce one over the number to

change it to a positive as rule 5 above states.
1
¿ 3
16 2
1
¿ 3 (That 2 means you get the square root of 16 first)
( √ 16 )
2

1 1 1 1 1
¿ = × × =
( 4 ) 4 4 4 64
3

Exercise
1. Evaluate each of the following:

( )
−3
−3 25 2 1
(a) 25 2 (b) (c) 0.25 2
4

Equations involving indices.

There are two types of equations involving indices.
 x
● Equations with unknown indices or powers : eg 2 =16
2
● Equations with unknown bases: eg x =16
Equations with unknown powers
● To solve such equations, try to make the bases equal.

Examples.
Solve each of the following equations.
x 1
(i) x
2 =16 (ii) 5 x ×5 3=1 (iii)3 = (iv) 16 x × 8(2 x+1)=43 x
27
Solutions.
(i) 2 =16 (Now reduce 16 to a base of 2)
x

x 4
2 =2 (4 is the number of times you multiply 2 by itself to get 16)

Since the bases are the same they will cancel to leave the powers equal.
x=4

(ii) 5 ×5 =1 (First add the powers since you are multiplying equal bases).
x 3

x+3
5 =1 (Now since any number or letter to the power zero is 1, we can write
0
(1=5 ) ¿
x+3 0
∴5 =5
x +3=0
x=−3

x1
(iii) 3= (Start by writing 27 as an index using 3(the smallest prime number that
27
can divide 27) as a base.
x 1
3= 3
3
x −3
3 =3
∴ x=−3
(iv) 16 × 8
x 2 x+ 1
=4
3x

● First reduce all bases to the smallest prime number that can divide
4,8 and 16 which is 2.
 4x 3(2 x+1 ) 2(3 x)
2 ×2 =2
4x 6 x+3 6x
2 ×2 =2
4 x+6 x+3 6x
2 =2
10 x+ 3 6x
2 =2
10 x+ 3=6 x
3=6 x−10 x
3=−4 x
−3
x=
4
Exercise
Solve the following equations:
(i) 16 =8
x
(ii) 25 x ÷ 5 x =625 (iii)0.0012 x =10x

UNKNOWN BASES
● To solve for unknown bases, you multiply the power by its
reciprocal on both side and then solve using the laws above.
Examples
1. Solve for y in each of the following equations.
3
(i) y 2 =8
(ii) 3
3 y =−81
2
(iii) ( √3 y ) =64
SOLUTIONS .
2

( y ) =( 8 )
3 2
(i) 2
3
3

2
y=( √ 8 )
3

2
y= ( 2 ) =2× 2=4
3
3 y −81
(ii) =
3 3
3
y =−27

y= √−27
3
 y=−3
2
(iii) 3
( y ) =64
3
3
y= ( 64 ) =( √ 64 ) = ( 8 ) =512
2 2 3

Exercise
Solve the equations below.
3
(i) x 4 =81 ( ii ) x 4 =216

ALGEBRA
● This is a topic in which we use letters to represent numbers.
Simplifying expressions
● To simplify expressions,we group like terms and add or subtract
them.
Examples
Simplify the following expressions
(a) 4 a+2 ab+ 4 ab−2 a−2 ab+ab
(b) 4 x3 +3 x 2−6 x 3 +5 x 2+ 4 y 2

Solutions
(a) 4 a+2 ab−2 a−2ab +ab
=( 4 a−2 a ) +(2 ab−2 ab+ ab) -collect like terms.
=2 a+0+ ab
¿ 2 a+ ab

(b) 4 x3 +3 x 2−6 x 3 +5 x 2+ 4 y 2
3 3 2 2 2
¿ 4 x −6 x +3 x +5 x + 4 y
3 2 2
¿−2 x + 8 x +4 y
Exercise
Simplify the expression 2 xy−5 x−10 xy +5 x
Expanding and Simplifying Expressions
 ● An expression that contains brackets can be expanded and then
simplified.
Examples
Expand and simplify the following expressions
(i) x ( y + z)
(ii) (a+ b)(c−d)
(iii) ( a+ b )2
Solutions
(i) x ( y+ z ) =x × y+ x × z=xy + xz - multiply the term outside the brackets by all terms
inside the brackets.
(ii) (a+ b)¿ −d)
¿ a ( c−d ) +b(c−d )
¿ ac−ad+ bc−bd

(iii) ( a+ b )2
(a+ b)(a+ b)
a ( a+b ) +b (a+ b)

2 2
¿ a + ab+ab+ b
2 2
¿ a +2 ab+ b
Exercise
Expand and simplify

(a) ( x−2 )2 (b)(f −1)(f + 1)

Factorization
There are four types of factorization
(i) Factorization by common terms
(ii) Factorization by grouping
(iii) Difference of squares
(iv) Quadratic factorization

Factorization by common terms.

 Examples
Factorize each of the following
2 3 2
(i) x −3 xy (ii ) m −5 m
Solutions
2
(i) x −3 xy
¿ x × x−3 × x × y

¿ x (x−3 y ) -factor out the lowest common term x.

(ii) 3
m −5 m
2

¿ m× m× m−5 ×m ×m
2
¿ m (m−5)
Exercise
Factorize each of the following
2 2
(i) 5 xy −20 x y (ii)3+6 a

Factorization by grouping
Examples
Factorize each of the following completely.
(i) xy−2 cz +2 xz−cy (ii)2 ab+ cd+ ad +2 bc (iii)3 ( b−c ) +d (c−b)
Solution
(i) xy−2 cz +2 xz−cy
¿ xy +2 xz−2 cz−cy

¿ x ( y+2 z )−c( 2 z + y )

¿(x −c)( y+ 2 z )
(ii) 2 ab+ cd+ ad +2 bc
¿ 2 ab+ ad+ cd +2 bc

¿ a ( 2 b+ d )+ c (d +2 b)

¿(a+c )(d +2 b)

(iii) 3 ( b−c ) +d (c−b)

¿ 3 ( b−c )−d (b−c)

 ¿(3−d )(b−c )

Exercise
Factorize the following completely:
(i) 2
x −2 vy −2 vx + xy (ii) xz−2 cd −cz +2 dx
Difference of two squares
This is a type of factorization in which expressions are of the form x 2− y 2

● It’s usually advisable to find the square roots of the numbers

involved before factorizing
● Two signs (+¿−¿are used to factorize the difference of squares
since+×−¿−¿ .
Examples
Factorize the following completely
2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2
(i) x − y ( ii ) 1−9 x ( iii ) 4 x −9 ( iv ) 3 x −27 x ( v ) x −3 y
3
Solutions
2 2
(i) x − y =(x− y )(x+ y)
(ii) 1−9 x 2 -square roots of 1 and 9 are 1 and 3 respectively
¿ ( 1 ×1−3 x × 3 x )=(1−3 x)(1+3 x)
2
(iii) 4 x −9 -square roots of 4 and 9 are 2 and 3 respectively.
( 2 x )( 2 x )−( 3 ) ( 3 )=(2 x−3)(2 x +3)
3
(iv) 3 x −27 x Since 3x is common, factor it out.
2
3 x ( x −9) The square root of 9 is 3.

¿ 3 x (x , x−3 , 3)
¿ 3 x (x−3)(x+ 3)
1 2 2 1
(v) x −3 y Factor out the number first.
3 3
1 2
¿ (x ¿ ¿ 2−9 y ) ¿
3
 1
¿ (x −3 y)(x +3 y )
3
Exercise
Factorize the following completely.
4 2
(a) 5−125 x 2 x −25
(b)
9
Quadratic Factorization
2
● A quadratic is an expression of the formax +bx +c , where a, b and c are real numbers.

● To factorize
(i) Find the product a × c .
(ii) Write down the sum b.
(iii) Find two factors of the product in (i) that add or subtract to b.
(iv) Replace the sum with these two products and factorize by grouping.
Examples
Factorize the following completely:

(a) 3 x 2+5 x +2 ( b ) x 2−x−2 ( c ) x 2−5 xy +6 y 2

Solutions
(a) 3 x 2+5 x +2
p=3 × 2=6
s=5
f =2 x , 3 x
2
3 x + 2 x +3 x+ 2
x (3 x +2 ) +1(3 x +2)

(x +1)(3 x +2)

(b) x 2−x−2
p=1 ×−2=−2( product )
s=−1¿
f =1 x ,−2 x
2
x + 1 x−2 x−2
x ( x +1 )−2(x+ 1)
 (x + 1)(x – 2)
(c) x 2−5 xy +6 y 2
p=1 × 6=6
s=−5
f =−2 xy ,−3 xy
2 2
x −2 xy−3 xy +6 y
x ( x −2 y ) −3 y ( x−2 y )

(x−3 y )(x−2 y)

Exercise
Factorize completely:
2
(i) 7 x −17 x +70
(ii) 2
6 x + x−7
Simplifying Algebraic Fractions
● To simplify algebraic fractions, factorize the top part and the bottom part and cancel out
common terms.
Examples
Simplify the following fractions completely.
2 2
3 x +5 x+ 2 x +4 x
(i) 2 (ii) 2
9 x −4 x −16
Solutions
2
3 x +5 x+ 2
(i) 2 Factorize the top part first. See example 1under quadratic
9 x −4
factorization
( x +1)(3 x +2)
Factorize the bottom part. Use difference of squares to factorize
9 x 2−4
this.
(x +1)(3 x+2)
(3 x−2)(3 x+ 2)
x+1
3 x −2
2
x +4 x
(ii) 2
x −16
 ● Factorize the top part by common factors and the bottom part by difference of two
squares.
x (x + 4)
( x−4)(x +4 )
x
x−4
Exercise
Simplify the following:
2m+ 4 2
x + x−2
(i) 2 (ii)
m −4 4 x−4

ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Addition and Subtraction
Examples
Express the following as single fractions in their simplest forms.
4 5 2 3
(i) + (ii) −
3 x −2 3+4 x p−1 1− p
Solutions
4 5
(i) + -common denominator is (3x-2)(3 + 4x)
3 x −2 3+4 x
4 ( 3+ 4 x ) +5(3 x−2)
( 3 x−2)(3+ 4 x )
12+16 x +15 x−10
¿ Collect like terms in the numerator here.
( 3 x−2 ) (3+ 4 x )
16 x +15 x +12−10
¿
(3 x−2)(3+ 4 x)
31 x+ 2
¿
(3 x−2)(3+ 4 x)
2 3
(ii) − common denominator is (p – 1)(1 – p)
p−1 1− p
2 ( 1−p )−3( p−1)
¿
( p−1)(1−p)
 2−2 p−3 p+3
¿
( p−1)(1− p)
2+ 3−2 p−3 p
¿
( p−1)(1− p)
5−5 p
¿ Factorize the top part.
( p−1)(1−p)
5(1− p)
¿
( p−1)(1−p)
5
¿
p−1

Exercise
Express the following in their simplest form.
4x 2x 3 2
(i) + (ii) +
3 y−1 1+2 y 2 x−1 3 x + 4
Division and Multiplication.
Examples
Simplify and give the answer in its simplest form.
3 4 4 2
18 x y 54 x y
5 2
÷ 4 3
45 v w 35 v w

Solution
3 4 4 2
18 x y 54 x y
5 2
÷ 4 3
45 v w 35 v w
Change the sign to multiplication and interchange the denominator and numerator on the right
hand side.
3 4 4 3
18 x y 35 v w
5 2
× 4 2
45 v w 54 x y
18× 35 × x × x × x × y × y × y × y × v × v × v × v × w ×w × w
45 ×54 × v × v × v × v × v ×w × w × x × x × x × x × y × y
1 7
18 × 35 × y × y × w
= 9 3
45 ×54 ×v
2
1× 7 y w
=
9× 3 v
 2
7y w
= 27 v

Exercise
Simplify the following
7 4 4 6 6 2 3
15 x y 30 x y 28 y x 10 v z
(i) 6 5
÷ 5 7
14 v w 21 v w
(ii) 14 v 3 z 4 × x y 4

MATRICES

● A matrix is a rectangular array of objects

● Matrices is plural for matrix.

● Rows: Objects arranged horizontally in a matrix.

● Columns: Objects arranged vertically in a matrix.

(−2 3 6 5 )

● First row contains -2 and 3, and second row contains 6 and 5 (2 rows)

● First column contains -2 and 6, and second column contains 3 and 5. (2 columns)
TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

● The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging rows and columns.

● The transpose of a matrix C is denoted CT read as C transpose.

Examples
Given that A = ( 1 23 4 5 6 ) and CT = (−2 9 0 7 ) , find (i) AT (ii) C
Solutions
(i) A=( 12 3 4 5 6 ), ∴ A T =( 13 5 2 4 6 )
(ii) CT = (−2 9 0 7 ) , ∴ C=(−2 0 9 7 )
Exercise
Find the transpose of B =( 2−3 5 7 10 √ ❑ )
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
 ● To add or subtract matrices, add or subtract corresponding terms.
Examples
Given that p = (−2 3 6 4 ) and q = ( 3 0−7 2 )
Express as a single fraction
(i) p+q (ii ) q− p
Solutions
p= (−21 6 4 ) , q= ( 30−7 2 )

(i) p+q=(−2 1 6 4 )+ ( 3 0−7 2 )

¿ (−2+3 1+0 6+(−7)4+ 2 )

¿ ( 1 1−1 6 )

(ii) q− p= ( 3 0−7 2 )− (−21 6 4 )

¿ ( 3−(−2)0−1−7−6 2−4 )

¿ ( 3+2−1−13−2 )

¿ ( 5−1−13−2 )

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
● To multiply a matrix by a scalar, you multiply the scalar by each of the elements in the
matrix.
Example
Express the following as single matrices
(i) 3 ( 4 5 911 ) (ii) 2 ( 3−2 7 0 ) −3 ( 6−5 2 1 )
Solution
(i) 3 ( 4 5 911 )=( 3 × 4 3 ×5 3 ×9 3 ×11 )=( 12 1527 33 )
(ii) 2 ( 3−2 7 0 ) −3 ( 6−5 2 1 )

¿ ( 6−4 14 0 )−( 18−15 6 3 )

¿ ( 6−18−4−(−15) 14−6 0−3 )

¿ (−12 118−3 )

Exercise
Given that A=( 1−2 6 5 0 4 ) , B=( 0−2 3 102 7 ), Express 2A – B as a single matrix.
MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

● Matrix multiplication is done Row by column.

● The number of rows of the matrix on the left must be equal to the number of columns
of the matrix on the right for multiplication to be done.
Examples
Given that A=( 12 3 4 ) B=( 5 6−7 8 9 0 ) C=( 10−1−3 4 2−2 ) D=( 10 12 ), express as a single
matrix.

(a) AD ( b ) A 2 ( c ) BC
Solutions
(a) AD=( 1 23 4 ) ( 10 12 )=( 1× 10+2 ×12 3× 10+4 ×12 )=( 10+ 24 30+48 )=( 34 78 )

(b) A2= AA=( 1 23 4 ) ( 12 3 4 )=( 1 ×1+2 ×3 1 ×2+2 × 4 3 ×1+4 ×3 3 ×2+4 ×4 )

=( 1+6 2+8 3+12 6+16 )

¿ ( 6 10 15 22 )

(c) BC= (5 6−7 8 9 0 )( 10−1−3 4 2−2 )

¿ ( 5 ×10+ 6×−3±7 × 25 ×−1+6 × 4+(−7 ×−2)8× 10+9 ×−3+ 0× 2 8×−1+ 9× 4 +0 ×−2 )

¿ ( 50+ (−18 )+(−14) (−5 ) +24 +14 80+ (−27 ) +0 (−8 )+36 +0 )

¿ ( 50−18−14−5+24 +14 80−27+0−8+36+ 0 )

¿ ( 18 33 5328 )

Exercise
Given that A=( 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ), B=( 0−2 10 ) ,C=(−5 1112 ) , D= ( 0−1 2−4 9−7 5 811 )
Express as a single matrix.
(i) AB (ii) CD (iii) AD (iv) BC

Determinants of 2 ×2 matrices
● This is a number that shows if a matrix has an inverse

● A matrix without an inverse (singular matrix) has a determinant equal to zero.

 Calculating the determinant
For the matrix A=( a b c d ) the determinant of written as | A| or det A is given by the
formula det A = ad −bc
Examples
Find the determinant of the matrix A=( 2−1 3 4 )
Solution
A=( 2−1 3 4 )

det A = ad −bc=( 2 ) ( 4 )−(−1 ) ( 3 )=8−(−3 ) =8+3=11

Calculations involving determinants
Given that A=( 2 w−4 2 3 1 ) B= ( 4−1 23 ), Find
(i) The value of w for which the determinant of A is equal to the determinant of B.
(ii) The value of w for which A is singular (has no inverse).
Solution
(i) Det A= (2w – 4)(1) – (2)(3) = 2w – 4 – 6
Det A = 2w – 10

Det B = (4)(3) – (-1)(2) = 12- (-2) = 12 + 2 = 14

detA =detB
2 w−10=14
2 w=14+10
2 w=24
2 w 24
=
2 2
w=12

(ii) Singular means det A = 0

Det A = 2w – 10 = 0
2 w=10
2 w 10
=
2 2
w=5
Exercise
Given that B=( 3 w +12 3 4 ) C=(−2 4 0 1 ) Find the
(i) Value of w if the determinant of B is 22.
 (ii) Determinant of C

INVERSE OF A 2 X 2 MATRIX
● The inverse of a matrix A is denoted by A-1.

● If A=( a b c d ), the inverse, A is given by the formula:

−1

−1 1
A = ( d−b−c a )
detA
Where detA is the determinant of A, and
(i) Interchange a and d
(ii) Change the signs of b∧c .
● The identity matrix, I =( 1 0 0 1 ) is found by multiplying a matrix by its inverse.

● Any matrix multiplied by the identity remains the same.

Example
Given that B=(−3 4−25 ), Find the inverse of B.
Solution
First find the determinant of B
detB= (−3 ) (5 )−( 4 ) (−2 )=−15−(−8 )
¿−15+8
¿−7

Then in the matrix B=(−3 4−25 ) interchange -3 and 5, and change the signs of 4
and -2 to get ( 5−4 2−3 ). Therefore the inverse is given by
−1 1
A = ( 5−4 2−3 )
−7
−1
● Note that A A =( 10 0 1 ) .
Exercise
Given that A=( 2 4 3−2 )∧B=( 8−10 ) . Find
(i) The inverse of A
−1
(ii) AA B
SOLVING SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES USING MATRICES
● There are two methods that will be used to solve systems of equations in two variables.
(i) Matrix method
(ii) Crammers rule.
 Matrix Method
This is a method in which we use the inverse to solve the equations.
Example
Solve the equations below using matrix method.
2 x−3 y=−13
4 x+ 6 y=10
Solutions
First write the system in matrix method where the coefficients of x occupy the first column and
the coefficients of y the second column.
( 2−3 4 6 )( x y )=(−13 10 ) (i)

Let D= ( 2−3 4 6 ). Find the inverse of D.

detD=( 2 )( 6 )−(−3)( 4)

detD=12−(−12)
detD=24

−1 1
D = ( 6 3−4 2 )
24
Now multiply the inverse on both sides of equation (i)
1 1
( 6 3−4 2 ) (2−3 4 6 ) ( x y )= ( 6 3−4 2 ) (−13 10 )
24 24

1
( x y )= ( 6 ×−13+ 3× 10−4 ×−13+2 ×10 )
24
1
( x y )= (−78+ 3052+20 )
24
1
( x y )= (−48 72 )
24

( x y )= ( −48
24 24 )
72
=(−2 3 )

∴ x=−2∧ y=3
CRAMMERS RULE
 ● This method of solving systems of equations uses determinants.
Example
Solve the equations below using crammers rule.

2 x−3 y=−13
4 x+ 6 y=10
Solutions
Write the equation in matrix form.
( 2−3 4 6 )( x y )=(−13 10 )
Let D= ( 2−3 4 6 ) (i)
detD=( 2 ×6 )−(−3 × 4 )=12−(−12 ) =12+ 12=24

D x =(−13−3 10 6 ) , replace 2 and 4 in matrix (i) with -13 and 10.

det Dx =(−13 × 6 )− (−3× 10 )=−78−(−30 ) =−78+30=−48

D y = ( 2−13 4 10 ) .replace -3 and 6 by -13 and 10 in matrix (i)

det D y =( 2 ×10 ) −(−13 ×4 )=20−(−52 )=20 +52=72

D x −48 D y 72
∴ x= = =−2 and y= = =3
D 24 D 24
Exercise
1. solve the equations below using matrix method
x−2 y=−7
3 x=2 y−5

2. solve the equations below by crammers rule

x−2 y=7
3 x−2 y=−5

SIMILARITY AND CONGRUENCY

Application of ratio and proportion
Scale on a map
● A map is a picture that represents an area on the ground.

● A scale is a ratio that gives a numerical relationship between the object on the map and
actual object on the ground.
● It is usually given as a :b where a and b are numbers, and the smaller number represents
the distance on the map while the bigger number is the actual distance.
● Usually, the units used are centimeters (cm).
2 2
● To calculate area, you have to square the scale (ie (a :b ) ).
Examples
The scale of a map is given as 1:500 000.find the
(i) Actual length of a road that appears 0.0025cm on the map.
(ii) Length of a river in centimeters that appears 200km on the ground.
(iii) Area on the map in square centimeters that is 200km2 on the ground.
Solution
NOTE: the scale 1 : 500 000 means that 1cm on the map represents 500 000cm
on the ground.
(i) 1 : 500 000 (cross multiply)
0.0025 : x
x=500 000 × 0.0025=1250 cm
(ii) First change 200km to centimeters (1km = 100 000cm)
∴ 200 km=20 000 000 cm
1 :500 000
x : 20 000 000
500 000 x=20 000 000
500 000 x 20 000 000
=
500 00 500 000
x=40 cm
(iii) First change 200 km2 ¿ cm2 (1km = 100 000cm)
2 2
(1km) = (100 000cm)
2 2
1 km =10 000 000 000 cm
2 2
200 km =2000 000 000 000 cm
Square the ratio given now.
2 2
(1) :(500 000)
1 :250 000 000 000

∴ 1:250 000 000 000

x : 2000000 000 000
 2000 000 000 000
x=
250 000 000 000
200
x=
25
2
x=8 cm

Exercise
1. The scale of a map is given as 1 :20 000. Calculate the
(i) Length of a road in centimetres that shows 200 000cm on the
ground.
(ii) Actual area on the ground in square kilometers of a field
whose area is 0.00125 cm2 on the map.
1
2. The map has a fractional representation of . Find the
20 000
(i) Actual length of a road that shows 0.000135cm on the map.
(ii) The area in centimeters of a shopping mall on the map that
appears to be 2000cm2.
SIMILAR OBJECTS

● Similar objects are objects with the same shape but do not have to be of the same size.

● Corresponding sides are in a constant ratio.

● Corresponding sides are equal.

Example

The two triangles above are similar because:

● They have the same shape.

● <BAC = <EDF=30, <BCA = <EFD= 60 and <CBA = <FED = 90 (corresponding angles are
equal).
● Corresponding sides are in a constant ratio
 Eg. AB: DE = 8:4 =2:1
AC: DF = 10:5 =2:1
BC: EF=6:3 = 2:1
Length, area and volume.
For any two geometrically similar objects:
● Ratio of sides is a :b
2 2
● Ratio of areas is a :b
3 3
● Ratio of volumesa :b .

● NOTE: when rewriting ratio of area to ratio of sides, find the square root of the numbers
in the ratio and when finding ratio of sides from ratio of volumes, get the cube roots.
Examples
1. The ratio of areas of two geometrically similar objects is 4 :9,find the
(i) Ratio of sides
(ii) Volume of the larger object if the smaller object has a volume of 432 cm3 .
Solution
(i) 4 :9 (ratio of areas)
√❑
2 :3 (Ratio of sides)
(ii) Start by changing ratio of sides to ratio of volumes.
3 3
2 :3
8 :27 - Ratio of volumes
8 : 27
432 : x
8 x=27 × 432
58
27 × 432 3
x= =27 × 58=1566 cm
8
2. The two cylinders below are geometrically similar. The height of the smaller cylinder is
9cm and the height of the larger cylinder is 12cm.

(i) Write down the ratio of their radii.

 (ii) If the radius of the larger cylinder is 8cm, find the radius of the
smaller cylinder.
(iii) If the total surface area of the larger cylinder is 320 cm 2 . Find the
total surface area of the smaller cylinder.
(iv) If the smaller cylinder has a capacity of 810l . Find the capacity of
the larger cylinder in cubic centimeters. [ 1 l=1000 cm3 ¿
Solution
(i) 12 :9 simplify the ratio by dividing 3
¿ 4 :3

(ii) 4 :3
8: x
4 x=24
24
x= =6 cm
4
(iii) 4:3 change to ratio of areas
2 2
4 :3
16 :9
320 : A
16 A=9 ×320
20
9× 320 2
A= =9 ×20=180 cm
16
(iv) 4 :3 change to ratio of volumes
3 3
4 :3
64 :27
V :810
27 V =810 ×64
810 × 64 51840
V= = =1920l Convert to cubic centimeters now.
27 27

3
1 l−1000 cm
1920 l−V
3
V =1,920,000 cm .
3. A box has length 3 cm and surface area 81 cm2 . Find the total surface area of another
box with length 5 cm .
Solution
3 :5
2 2
3 :5
9 :25
81: A
9 A=81× 25
 9 A=2025
2025 2
A= =225 cm
9
Exercise
The ratio of volumes of two geometrically similar cylinders below is 8 :27

(a) Calculate the ratio of their curved surface areas.

(b) Given that the height of the larger cylinder is 24cm, calculate the height of the smaller
cylinder.

TRAVEL GRAPHS
A travel graph is a line graph that shows how an object moves.
DISTANCE – TIME GRAPH
This is a graph that shows how the distance changes over time.
Calculating average speed, distance and time.
A summary of how to calculate average speed, distance and time is given below.

● Distance ( D )=Speed ( S ) × Time ( T ) ; D=S × T

Distance (D) D
● Speed ( S )= ; S= T
Time (T )
Distance(D) D
● Time ( T )= ;T=
Speed (S ) S
 NOTE: If the speed is not constant, we calculate average speed which is given as:
Total distance covered
Average speed=
Total timetaken
Example

John starts walking from his home to the market and back home as shown in the graph below.

(i) How far did John go before he started his return journey?
(ii) How far from his home is the bar
(iii) How long did he stop at the bar.
(iv) At what time did he arrive back home.
(v) What was the average speed between the bar and the market?
(vi) Find the gradient of the line between the starting point and the bar.
(vii) What was the total distance covered by John?
Solution
(i) 56 km
(ii) 26 km
1
(iii) 10:30hrs – 09:00hrs = 1hr 30min (1 hrs¿ .
2
(iv) 15:45hrs
 Total distance
(v) average speed=
total time

Total distance = 56 – 26 = 30km

Total time (between the bar and the market) = 12:15 – 10:30
3
= 1hr 45min = 1 hrs
4
30 7 4 120 km
∴ average speed = =30 ÷ =30× = =17.14
3 4 7 7 hr
1
4
change∈ y values
(vi) Gradient =
change∈ x values

26−0
¿
9 :00−7 : 45
26
¿
1hr 15 min

26
¿
1
1 hr
4
26
¿
1.25

km
¿ 20.8
hr
(vii) 56 km+56 km=112 km.
Exercise
The graph below shows the return journey Mweene took to church on Saturday.
 (i) How far did Mweene go before he started his return journey?
(ii) How far from church did he make his first stop?
(iii) How long did he spend at his first stop when going to church?
(iv) Calculate the average speed between B and G.
(v) How long did the whole journey take
(vi) Calculate the gradient between E and A.
VELOCITY – TIME GRAPHS
This is a graph that shows the relationship between the velocities of an object with the time
taken.
Acceleration and Deceleration
Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity with time.
Deceleration: This is defined as negative acceleration.
v−u
● The formula for acceleration is a=
t
, where
a=acceleration , u=initial∨starting velocity , v=final velocity∧t=timetaken .
Distance travelled
The distance travelled on a velocity time graph is equal to the area under the graph (the shape
formed).

● If the graph formed is a trapezium, the area under the graph is given by:
 1
A= ( a+b ) h , Where a , b∧h are as shown in the diagram below.
2

a=OA , b= AB∧h= AE (The height of the trapezium).

Examples
1. Below is a velocity time graph for a car that moves from rest to reach a velocity of
50m/s in 8 seconds then moves at a constant speed for 22 seconds and finally retards
for 2 seconds before finally coming to rest.

(a) Calculate the acceleration in the first 8 seconds of the journey.

(b) Calculate the distance covered in the first 8 seconds.
(c) Calculate the distance covered in the first 30 seconds of the journey.
(d) Calculate the average speed of the whole journey.
Solutions
v−u
(a) a=
t
 50−0
a=
8−0

50
a= =6.25 m/s
8
(b) A triangle is formed in the first 8 seconds.
1
Area= bh [Remember: Area = distance].
2

1
A= ×8 ×50
2

A=200 m.
(c) In the first 30 seconds, a trapezium is formed.
1
d= ( a+b ) h
2

1
d= (22+30)× 50 [a =30 – 8 = 22], b = 30, h = 50
2

1
d= × 52× 50
2
d=1300 m
(d) The shape formed in the whole journey is a trapezium.
1
d= ( a+b ) h a = 22, b = 32, h = 50
2
1
d= (22+32)×50
2
1
d= × 54 ×50
2
d=1350
D
S=
T

1350
S= =42.1875=48.2 m/s
32
2. The diagram below is of a speed time graph of a particle which accelerates uniformly
from rest for 5 seconds until it reaches a speed of V m/s . It moves at constant speed for
a further 15 seconds before it decelerates uniformly at 2.5m/s 2 to rest.
(i) If the distance covered in the first 5 seconds is 100m, calculate the value of the
maximum speed, Vm/s reached.
(ii) Calculate the acceleration in the first 3 seconds.
(iii) Calculate the value of t.
(iv) Find the average speed for the whole journey.
Solution
(i) In the first 5 seconds the shape formed is a triangle and its distance is
1
given by d= × b ×h .
2

d=100 m∧b=5
1
100= × 5 ×h
2

5h
100=
2
100=2.5 h

2.5 h 100
=
2.5 2.5
h=40 m/s .
(ii) The acceleration is constant, so we can use 5s to find it since we know
that the particle reaches 40m/s in 5s.

v−u
a= u=0 m/s (Rest), v=40 m/ s, t=5 s
t

40−0
a=
5
 2
a=8 m/s
(iii) Since deceleration (retardation) is negative acceleration then:
a=−2.5 m/s , u=40 m/s , v=0 m/s
2

v−u
a=
t
0−40
−2.5=
x

−40
−2.5= Cross multiply now.
x

−2.5 x=−40 Divide both sides by -2.5

−40
x=
−2.5

x=16 Then we now add this to 20 in order to get t.

∴ t=16+20 = 36 s .
(iv) First find the total distance covered (Trapezium)
1
d= ( a+b ) h
2

1
d= (15+ 36 ) 40
2

1
d= × 51× 40
2

2040
d= =1020 m.
2

Then find the average speed now.

D 1020
S= = = 510m/s .
T 2

Activity
The diagram below is a speed time graph of a car that accelerates uniformly from 5m/s for 10
seconds to reach a speed of 24m/s, it continues constantly at this speed for 5 seconds and then
uniformly retards to rest in a further 5 seconds.

(i) Calculate the acceleration in the first 10 seconds of this journey.

(ii) Calculate the distance covered in the first 10 seconds.
(iii) Calculate the retardation in the last part of the journey.
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC
This is a type of mathematics that involves shares, dividends and investment bonds.
Calculations that involve shares
Shares: Parts of the capital a company offers for sale.
Shareholders: people who buy shares of a company.
Stock broker: a person who buys and sells shares and bonds for others.
Brokerage fee: a fee charged by a stockbroker.
Example
Mr Chisanga bought 1000 shares of a company at k3 500 per share. The nominal value of a
share was k2 000.
(a) How much did he pay for 1000 shares
(b) What is the total nominal value of the shares?

Solution
(a) We can use direct proportions here.
1 share = k3 500
 1000 shares = x so we cross multiply

x=3500 ×1000=K 3500 000.

(b) Total nominal value = 1000 ×k 2 000=k 2 000 000.

Activity
Mr Chenga bought 200 shares at k12 000.00. Calculate the cost per share.
Calculations involving dividends
Dividends: the part of a company’s profit that is paid to shareholders.
total dividend amount
Dividend per share =
number of shares
Examples
1. Mr Tolompo owns 45% of the shares in his company. The company made a profit of
K4 670 000.00. An amount of K1 500 000.00 was paid out as dividends to the
shareholders who had bought 200 000 shares.
(i) Calculate the amount paid out as dividend on a share.
(ii) What amount was paid out in dividends to the shareholders?

Solution
total dividend K 1 500 000
(i) dividend per share= = =K 7.50
number of shares 200 000
(ii) The shareholders hold 100% - 45% = K 55%

∴ amount paid=55 % × 200 000 ×7.5

55
¿ ×200 000 × 7.5
100

82500 000
¿
100
¿ K 82500
2. The initial capital of a company consists of 60 000 8% preference shares 0f K140.00 each
and 240 000 ordinary shares of K70.00 each. The profits available are K1 740 000.00.
(a) What dividend can be paid to the ordinary shareholder?
(b) What is the dividend percentage of an ordinary shareholder?
Solution
(a) First calculate dividend for preference shareholders
Preference dividend = 8 % × K 140× 60 000
 8
¿ ×140 × 60 000
100

8 ×140 ×60 000

¿
100

¿ 8 ×140 × 600

¿ K 672 000

∴ ordinary dividend =profits− preference dividend

ordinary dividend =1740 000−672 000

¿ K 1068 000.
(b) First we find the dividend per share
1 068 000
dividend per share= =K 4.45
240 000

4.45 4.47 ×100

Dividend percentage= ×100= =6.36 %
70 70
3. Chenga has 800 ZANACO shares with a nominal value of K60.00, which she bought at
K35.00 each. The declared dividend is 10% of the nominal value of the shares. Calculate
how much she gets in dividends?
Solution
Calculate the dividend per share first
dividend per share=10 % × K 60.00

10 10 × 60
¿ × K 60=
100 100
600
¿
100

¿ K 6.00
∴ dividends received=800 × 60=K 48 000.

Activity
1. The capital of a company consists of 2 000 000 12% preference shares of K300.00
each and 3 500 000 ordinary shares of K100.00 each. The profits available are
K88 000 000.00. What is the dividend percentage that can be paid to the ordinary
shareholders?
 2. A small company with paid up capital, consists of 90 000, 8% preference shares at
K8.00 and 220 000 ordinary shares at K20.00 each. If a dividend of 20% is declared,
what is the company’s profit?

Calculations involving investment bonds

Example
Nkombo buys a bond worth K200 000.00 that pays interest of 9% per annum. It matures after
10 years.The interest is paid to him every six months.
(i) Calculate the interest payable per year.
(ii) How much interest will Nkombo receive after six months?
(iii) What amount will he receive on maturity of the bond?

Solution
PRT 200 000 ×8 × 1
(i) interest = = , Principal (P) = 200 000, Rate(R) = 8%, Time(T) =
100 100
1year

1600 000
¿
100

¿ K 16 000
1
(ii) Since per year he receives K16 000, in six months ( year ¿ we have:
2
1
¿ ×16 000
2
¿ K 8 000
(iii) K 200 000 (as interest was paid every six months).

Activity
A company issued a bond of K2 750 000.00 at the rate of 5.5% to mature after 15 years.
(a) What is the interest paid over the full period?
(b) If the bond is paid back after 8 years, what is the full amount of the face value and the
interest to that date?

BEARINGS
These are angles measured clockwise from the north line.

● They are given as three figure bearings, e.g if the bearing is 60o, it is given as 060o.
 Examples
1. The bearing of B from A is 126o.

Calculate the bearing of A from B.

Solution
● Note: the angle will be at B, so draw a north line parallel to AN at B and measure the
angle clockwise from the north line BN to the line AB as shown below.

o
¿ 180 −126
o
(Co – interior angles add to 180o).
o
¿ 54
∴ ¿ get the marked angle at B .
o o o
360 −54 =306

2. In the diagram below, the bearing of C from B is 130o and AB = BC.

 Calculate the
(i) Size of <ABC.
(ii) Bearing of B from C.
(iii) Bearing of A from C.
(iv) Bearing of A from B.
(v) Bearing of B from A
Solution
(i) Extend the north line into the triangle and create two equal angles first (green and
red).

The red angle will be found as follows:

180 −130 =50 (Angles on a straight line).
o o o
 Since Green = Red ie green = 50o
o
∴< ABC=50 +50 =100
o o
(Green + Red)
(ii) The bearing of B from C.
First draw a north line at C and measure the angle clockwise from the north to the
line joining B and C. Two methods will be used.

Method 1.
The yellow angle = 130o (alternating angles)
o
The green angle = 180 (angles on a straight line)
∴ Bearing of B ¿C :
o o o
Green+Yellow =180 +130 =310

Method 2
Find the red angle first.
o o
180 −130 =50
o
(Co interior angles add up to 180o).
∴ the bearingis givenby :
o
360 −50 =310
o o
(Red, green and red add up to 360o).

(iii) The bearing of A from C.

Draw a north at C and measure the angle clockwise from the north line to the line
connecting A and C.
 The bearing from A to C is the Red angle so to find it, add yellow and green and subtract
from 360o.
Green = 50o (calculated in part (ii) method 2)
Yellow = 180o – 100o (100 was found in part (i) above)
o
¿ 80
o
80 o
yellow= =40 (Divided by 2 because triangle ABC is isosceles).
2
o o o
∴ the bearingis givenas 360 −(50 + 40 )
o o
¿ 360 −90
o
¿ 270
(iv) To find the bearing of A from B add 100o (found in part(i)) and 130o.
o o o
∴ the bearingis givenas 100 +130 =230
(v) To find the bearing of B from A, two methods can be used. First draw a north line at
A and measure the angle clockwise from the north line to the line joining A and B.
Method 1
Extend the north line at B inside the triangle as shown below.
 The yellow angle is the bearing we are finding and it is equal to the green angle
(alternating angles).
Since the red and green angles are also equal = 50o.
o
∴ Green=50 = yellow
o
the bearing of B ¿ A=50 .
Method 2

We first find the blue angle.

Remember that the total of the red angles is 230o (check part (iv)).
o o o
∴ Blue=360 −230 =130
Thus the bearing of B from A is given by
o o o
180 −130 =50
Activity
In the diagram below B is due east of A, angle BAC = 55o and angle CBA = 45o.
Calculate the bearing of
(i) C from B
(ii) A from C.
SYMMETRY
In the following lessons the following will be determined:

● The order of rotational symmetry.

● The symmetry of solids.

● Plane symmetry in solids

Rotational symmetry
An object is said to have rotational symmetry if it can be rotated a certain number of times to
fit its original outline.
Order of rotational symmetry
This is the number of times an object is rotated to fit its original outline.
Example
State the order of rotational symmetry of the square below.
 Solution
The square will be rotated through the center in order to show how many times it fits its
original outline.
Note that the colors in the square below have just been added to show how the square
rotates.

The object has been rotated 4 times to return to the original shape, therefore the square has
rotational symmetry of order 4.
NOTE: on each rotation the resulting shape fits the original outline until you return to the
original that’s when you stop.
Regular shapes
These are objects with equal number of sides like the square, regular pentagon (5 sides),
regular Hexagon (6 sides).

● The order of rotational symmetry of regular objects is equal to the number of sides of
the object.
Example
What is the order of rotational symmetry of a regular nonagon?
Solution
A Nonagon has 9 sides, therefore, it also has order of rotational symmetry equal to 9.
Activity
What is the order of rotational symmetry of a regular decagon?
Symmetry of solids
A solid is a 3 dimensional object such as a cube, a pyramid, cuboid (eg a brick).
Axis of rotation
A 2 Dimensional shape like a square has a center of rotation while a 3 dimensional object like a
cube has an axis of symmetry that goes through the centers of rotation.
Some examples of objects with their axes of symmetry are:
(i) The Cube has 13 axes of symmetry.
(ii) The Cuboid has 3 axes of symmetry.
Plane symmetry
A 3d object is said to have plane symmetry if it can be cut in such a way that the resulting parts
are mirror images of each other.
The formula below may be used to determine the number of planes of symmetry of a 3 D
object, apart from a cube that has 9 planes of symmetry.

Examples
Determine the number of planes of symmetry of the regular pentagonal prism below.

Solution
The face (pentagon) has 5 sides
Therefore, planes of symmetry = 5 + 1= 6
Activity
State the number of planes of symmetry in the triangular prism below.
 COMPUTER
A computer is a programmable device that stores, retrieves and processes data
Basic components of a computer.
Anything that is bought to be used with a computer is either hardware or software.
Hardware: The physical components of a computer.
Examples of hardware include: Central Processing Units, the monitor (screen), mouse, keyboard
and cables.
Software: programs that are used by a computer.
Examples of software include, programming software and application software.
Activity
Give at least two examples of programming software.
Algorithms
An algorithm is a set of instructions used to solve a problem in a step by step procedure.
Methods of implementing an algorithm
Flowcharts and decision loops
A flow chart is a way of carrying out an algorithm by showing the steps in a process using
rectangles, ovals, rhombi and parallelograms.
Pseudo code: a program design that contains statements written in a natural language.
Examples
The program below is given in form of a pseudo.
Start
Enter Radius
If Radius¿ 0
Then display error message and reenter positive radius.
Else enter height
If height¿ 0
Then display error message and reenter positive height.
1
Else volume= ∗pi∗square radius∗height
3
End if
Display volume
Stop
Draw the corresponding flow chart for this program.
 Solution
Flow chart for calculating volume of a cone
 Activity
The program below is given in form of a pseudo code.
 Start
Enter radius
If radius <0
Then display error message and reenter positive radius
Else enter height
If height <0
Then display error message and reenter positive height
Else Volume = pi∗square radius∗height
End if
Display volume
Stop
Calculations involving flow charts.
Example
Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.
 (a) What is the flow chart calculating?
(b) Calculate the area if
(i) .r = 10cm
(ii) .r = -12cm
Solutions
(a) Area of a circle
(b) (i) Area = 3.142*square radius (since r >0)
= 3.142 *10
= 31.42cm2
(ii)Area = 0 (since r<0)
Activity
1. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.

(a) What is the flow chart calculating?

(b) Calculate the tax when the salary is
(i) K 500 (ii) K100
(c) Calculate Mr Nyirongo’s salary if he gets a salary of K 5000.00.
APPROXIMATIONS
Approximations are estimations of true values.
Least unit of measurement
Some examples of least units of measure for different types of numbers are given in the table
below.

Type of number Least measure

Integers (…..-3, -2,-1,0,1,2,3,….) 1

Decimal Numbers
1 decimal place (eg 1.2, 8.0, 25.1, 391.0,… 0.1
2 decimal places (e.g 1.02, 3.00, 430.01, … 0.01
3 decimal places (e.g1.002, 3.215, 312.784,… 0.001

Relative and Absolute Errors

Absolute error: this is the absolute difference between the true value and the measured value.
Least unit of measure
Absolute error (AE) =
2
absolute error
Relative error (RE) =
true value

Examples
Calculate the absolute error and relative error in each of the following measurements
(i) 50kg (ii) 3.2cm (iii) 25.00kg

Solutions
1
(i) Absolute error = =0.5 kg (least unit of measure for whole numbers is 1)
2

0.5
Relative error = =0.01
50
(ii) The least unit measure of 3.2 is 0.1
 least unit of measure 0.1
Absolute error = = =0.05 cm
true value 2

0.05
Relative Error = =0.015625
3.2
(iii) 25.00kg has 2 decimal places so its least unit of measure is 0.01 (note that the least
unit of measure always has the same number of decimal places as the true value
given.)

0.01
Absolute error = =0.0004 kg
25

0.0004
Relative error = =0.000016
25

Activity
Calculate the absolute error and the relative error in each of the following measurements.
(i) 15.0kg (ii) 8.01cm

Absolute error, relative and percentage error

● Absolute error = |recorded value−true value|
absolute error
● Relative error = true value
● Percentage error = relative error × 100
Examples
1. Kabika measured the length of a road to be 3.2cm, if the actual length of the road is
5.3cm. Calculate the
(i) Absolute error
(ii) Relative error
(iii) Percentage
Solution
(i) Absolute error = |recorded value−true value|
=|3.2−5.3|
¿|−2.1|
¿ 2.1cm (absolute errors are always positive)
2.1
(ii) Relative error = =0.3962 true value = 5.3, absolute error = 2.1
5.3
(iii) Percentage error = 0.3962×100=39.62 %
 2. Duna and Kantu measured the height of igwe to be 1.8m and 2.1m respectively. If Igwes
true height is 1.9m, calculate
(i) The absolute error in Dunas measurement.
(ii) The percentage error in Kantus measurement.
Solution
(i) Dunas measure = 1.8m, true value = 1.9m
Absolute error = |1.8−1.9|=|−0.1|=0.1 cm

(ii) Kantus measure = 2.1m, true value = 1.9m

First calculate the absolute error
AE = |2.1−1.9|=|0.2|=0.2m AE = Absolute Error
Then calculate the relative error

0.2
RE= =0.1052 RE= Relative error
1.9

Then calculate the percentage error.

PE = RE ×100
PE = 0.1052×100=10.52 % PE = Percentage Error

Activity
Kelvin and Peter measured the weight of a bag of beans to be 50Kg and 62Kg respectively. If the
actual weight of the bag of beans is 75Kg. calculate
(i) The absolute error in Peter’s measurement.
(ii) The percentage error in Kelvins measurement.

UPPER AND LOWER BOUNDS

● Upper Bound: the biggest number of the interval within which a dimension can fall. It’s
also called the upper limit.
Upper bound = Measurement + Absolute Error.
● Lower Bound: The smallest number of the interval within which a dimension can fall. It’s
also called the lower limit.
Lower bound = measurement + absolute error
Examples
1. A bag of maize has a weight of 50Kg. Calculate the Upper bound and the lower bound of
this measurement.
Solution
 The absolute error of 50kg is 0.5Kg.
∴ upper bound=( 50+0.5 )=50.5 Kg

lower bound=( 50−0.5 ) Kg=49. Kg

Activity
A bag of rice has a weight of 25.5kg. Calculate the upper bound and the lower bound of this
measurement.
Example 2
The height of a tree was given as 8m.complete the statement below.
¿…….)

Solution
To complete the statement, find the upper bound and the lower bound.
Upper bound=8+0.5=8.5 m
Lower bound=8−0.5=7.5 cm
∴ the statement becomes 7.5 ≤ l< 8.5

Activity
The mass of a rock is given as 7.2Kg. Complete the statement below:
…….¿ m ≤…………

Tolerance
This is the difference between the upper limit and the lower limit.
Example
The length of a car is recorded as l=( 50 ± 0.5 ) cm . Calculate the
(i) Relative error
(ii) Tolerance
Solution
0.5
(i) Relative error¿ =0.01
50
(ii) First find the upper limit
 50+0.5= 50.5cm

Then find the lower limit

50 – 0.5 = 49.5

∴ Tolerance=Upper limit −lower limit

¿ 50.5−49.5
¿ 1.0

Activity
1. The length of a corona virus was recorded as l=( 3.2 ± 0.05 ) mm . Calculate the
(i) Relative error
(ii) Tolerance
2. Mr Phiris height was measured as 1.4 meters. Calculate the tolerance.

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

A sequences is an ordered set of numbers in which a pattern exists.

● Term: the numbers in a sequence are called terms, denoted as T1 = first term, T2
=second term,….., Tn = nth term.
● Note that the first term is usually denoted as a instead of T 1

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS (AP)

An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which a common difference (d) exists.
Calculating the common difference (d)
The common difference (d) is found by subtracting two terms of a sequence that follow each
other, eg if the terms are T1,T2,T3,…. The common difference is found by subtracting T2 – T1
(second term minus the first term) or T3 – T2 (third term minus the second term).
Example
A sequence is given as 3, 7, 11, 15… find
(i) T3
(ii) The common difference (d)

Solution
(i) T3 = 11 (11 is term number three)
(ii) D = 7 – 3 = 4 or 11 – 7 = 4 or 15 – 11 = 4
 ● Please study the example above carefully to see the order in which subtraction is done
to avoid subtracting wrongly.
Activity
A sequence is given as: 2, 7, 12, 17,…
Calculate the value of the common difference.

Finding the nth of an Arithmetic progression (AP)

● A term of an AP can be found by adding the preceding term.

Example
In an arithmetic progression, the third term is 4 and the common difference is 3.
Calculate
(i) The fifth term
(ii) The first term
Solution
(i) The third term = 4, d = 3
fourth term=4+3=7
∴ fifth term=7+3=10

(ii) The third term = 4 , common difference (d) = 3

second term=4−3=1
∴ first term=1−3=−2

Activity
In an arithmetic progression, the fourth term is -5 and the common difference is -5. Calculate
the second and sixth terms.

● The general formula for the nth term is given as

T n=a+ ( n−1 ) d

Where a=first term , n=number of terms , d=common difference∧T n=nth term .

Examples
1. A sequence is given by 3, 7, 11, 15, … find the
(i) th
n term formula
 th
(ii) 120 term .

Solution
(i) To find the nth term formula, you first write down the general formula.

T n=a+ ( n−1 ) d
The find the common difference by using any two consecutive terms (terms
following each other.
∴ d=7−3=4 , a=3
then we substitute ∈the equation above

T n=3+(n−1)(4)
T n=3+ 4 n−4 (Multiply everything by 4 in the brackets).
T n=3−4+ 4 n
T n=−1+ 4 n (This is the required formula)
(ii) Use the formula found in (i) above.
Substitute n = 120 in T n=−1+ 4 n
T 120=−1+ 4 (120)

T 120=−1+ 480
¿ 479
2. The first term of an arithmetic progression is 3 and the sixth term is 28. Calculate the
value of the common difference.
Solution
a=3 , T 6 =28 now use the general formula where you substitute n =6
T n=a+ ( n−1 ) d

T 6=3+(6−1)d
28=3+5 d
28−3=5 d
25=5 d
25 5 d
=
5 5

d=5

Activity
1. An arithmetic sequence is given as -4, -2, 0, 2,…
(i) Find the nth term formula of this sequence.
(ii) Calculate the 90th term.
 2. The first term of an arithmetic progression is 12 and the seventh term is 0. Calculate the
value of the common difference and the tenth term.
Arithmetic mean
The arithmetic mean of two numbers a∧ban arithmetic progression is given by the formula:

a+b
AM =
2

Examples
Find the arithmetic mean of 4 and 10 and write down the sequence formed by the three
numbers.
Solution
4+10 14
AM = = =7
2 2
¿ the sequence formed is :4 , 7 ,10 , …

Activity
Find the arithmetic mean of 8 and 17.
Sum of an arithmetic progression

● Arithmetic series: this is the sum of an arithmetic sequence. For example if an

arithmetic sequence is given by 3, 8, 13, … then the arithmetic sequence will be given by
3 + 8 +13 +…. And the symbol Sn is used for the series or sum.
● The formula for the sum of an AP is given by:

n
Sn =
2
[ 2 a+ ( n−1 ) d ]

where Sn=∑ ¿
a=first term
n=number of terms
d=common difference .

Example
An arithmetic sequence is given as 1, 4, 7, 10, … calculate the sum of the first 200 terms.
Solution
First find the common difference (d)
d=4−1=3 , a=1 , n=200
n
Now substitute in the formula Sn=
2
[ 2 a+ ( n−1 ) d ]
200
S200 = [2 ( 1 ) + ( 200−1 )( 3 )]
2
¿ 100[2+ ( 199 ) ( 3 ) ]
¿ 100[2+597]
¿ 100[599]
¿ 59 900
Activity
An arithmetic sequence is given as 10, 17, 24, 31, … calculate the sum of the first 100 terms.

● If the first and last terms are known the formula below must be used to find the sum.

n
Sn= [a+l]
2

Where Sn=∑ , a=first term∧l=last term

Example
Calculate the sum of the integers from 11 to 50.
Solution
First find n as follows
n=50−11+ 1=40
n
Then substitute in the formula Sn= [a+l]
2

40
S40= [11+50 ]
2
¿ 20 [ 61 ]
¿ 1220
Activity
Find the sum of all the integers from 17 to 111.
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS

● A geometric progression is a sequence with a common ratio (r).

Calculating the common ratio (r)

If a sequence is given by T 1 , T 2 , T 3 , … where T 1=a ,the first term of the sequence, then the
common ratio r is found by dividing as follows:
T2 T3
r= =
T1 T2

Examples
1. A geometric sequence is given as 4, 6, 9, … Calculate the value of r.

Solution
6 3
r= =
4 2

9 3
¿ =
6 2

2. The numbers x−1 , x∧x+ 3 are consecutive terms of a GP. Find:

(i) The value of x
(ii) The common ratio r
(iii) The first term
Solution
(i) We use the formula for finding the common ratio
x x +3
r= or r=
x−1 x
x x +3
∴ =
x−1 x
x x +3
=
x−1 x
( x−1 ) ( x+ 3 )=x 2
2 2
x + 2 x−3=x
2 2
x −x + 2 x−3=0
2 x−3=0
 2 x=3
2x 3
=
2 2

3
x= ∨1.5
2
x 1.5 1.5
(ii) r= = = =3
x−1 1.5−1 0.5

∴ r=3
(iii) The first term is given by x−1 ,substitute x=1.5

∴ a=1.5−1=0.5

Activity
The first three terms of a GP are x−2 , x+1∧x+ 7. Find:
(i) The value of x
(ii) The common ratio
(iii) The third term.
The nth term formula
The nth term formula of a geometric progression (GP) is given by:

n−1
T n=a r

Examples
−2 1 1 1
1. A geometric progression is given by: ,− ,− ,− , …Find the nth term formula.
3 3 6 12

Solution
First find the common ratio
−1 2
r= ÷−
3 3
1 3
¿− ×−
3 2
 1 −2
r = , a=
2 3

Substituting in the formula T n=a r n−1

()
n−1
−2 1
T n=
3 2

2. The fifth (T5) and eighth (T8) terms of a GP are 80 and 640 respectively. Find the values of
r and a
Solution
First use the formula to find the fifth term with n = 5.
n−1
T n=a r
5−1
T 5=a r
4
80=a r ……………………….(1)
The use the formula to find an expression for the eighth term with n =8
n−1
T n=a r
8−1
T 8=ar
7
640=a r … … … …( 2)

Now divide equation (2) by equation (1)

7
640 ar
= 4
80 ar

7
r
4
=8
r
3
r =8

r =√ 8
3

r =2
To find a , we will use equation ( 1 ) by substituting r=2

4
ar =80
4
a ( 2 ) =80
16 a=80
a=5
 Activity
4 1
The third and sixth terms of a GP are ∧4 respectively. Find:
3 2
(i) The common ratio
(ii) The fifth term

Geometric Mean (GM)

The geometric mean of two numbers x∧ y is given by the formula below:
gm=√ ❑
Example
Find the geometric mean of 6 and 12.
Solution
gm=√ ❑
gm=√ ❑
gm=√ ❑
gm=8.485
Activity
Find the geometric mean of 5 and 20.
The sum of a Geometric Progression (GP)
The formula for the sum of a geometric progression is given by:

n
a (r −1)
Sn =
(r −1)

Where a=first term , r =common ratio , n=number of terms .

Examples

1. Find S10 of the GP: 1, 3, 9, …

Solution
9
n=10 , a=1 , r= =3
3
 n
a (r −1)
Sn =
(r −1)
10
(1)(3 −1)
∴ S 10=
3−1
59049−1
¿
2
59048
¿
2
¿ 29524
2. If S7 of a GP is 6 558 and the common ratio is 3, calculate the value of the first term.
Solution

a (r n−1)
Sn=
(r −1)
7
a(3 −1)
∴ S 7=
3−1
a(2187−1)
∴ =6 558
2
2186 a
∴ =6 558
2
∴ 1093 a=6558

6558
a=
1093

a=6
Activity
1. Find the sum of the first term terms of the GP: 4, 12, 36, ……
2. The first term of a GP is -20 and the tenth term is 10 240. Find S 11 of this GP.
Sum to infinity

The sum to infinity of a GP is denoted as S∞ and the formula is given as:

a
S∞ =
1−r
 ∞
Where S∞ =∑ , a=first term∧r=common ratio

Examples
2 1
1. Find the sum to infinity of the GP: 1 ,− , , …
3 3
Solution
First find the common ratio
−2 −2
r= ÷1= , a=1
3 3
Substituting in the formula, we have
a
S∞ =
1−r
1
S∞ =
−2
1−( )
3
1
S∞ =
2
1+
3
1 3 3
S∞ = =1× =
5 5 5
3
2. The sum to infinity of a GP is 6 and the first term is 2, find the common ratio.
Solution
We use the formula
a
S∞ =
1−r
2
6=
1−r

6 2
=
1 1−r

6 ( 1−r )=2
6−6 r=2
 2
∴ r=
3

Activity
4 2
1. Find the sum to infinity of the GP: ,− ,1 , …
9 3
2. The sum to infinity of a GP is 10 and the common ratio is -2, find the first term.

CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
In this topic, you will learn how to find the lengths of straight lines, midpoints between
two points, gradient or slope, and equations of straight lines.
● NOTE: The origin is the point (0 , 0).

Length of a straight line

The length of a straight line passing through the points ( x 1 , y 1 ) ∧(x 2 , y 2 ) is given by the formula
below:

d= √ ❑

Example
Calculate the length of a straight line passing through the points (2,5) and (-3,9).
Solution

Note that: x 1=2 , y 1=5 , x 2=−3∧ y 2=9

Substituting in the formula, we have

d= √ ❑
d= √ ❑
d= √ ❑
d= √ ❑
6.40 units
Activity
Calculate the distance between the points ( 3 ,−4 )∧(−3 , 4 ) .
Midpoint between two points

The midpoint of two points between any two given points ( x 1 , y 1 ) ∧(x 2 , y 2 ) is given by:
 m p= ( ( x +2 x ) , ( y +2 y ) )
1 2 1 2

Examples
1. Given that a straight line passes through the points A ( 2 ,5 )∧B(4 , 6). Find the midpoint
of AB.

Solution
Note that x 1=2 , y 1=5 , x 2=4∧ y 2=6
We substitute in the formula

m p= ( ( x 1+ x2 ) ( y 1 + y 2)
2
,
2 )
m AB= ( 2+24 , 5+62 )
m =( , )
6 11
AB
2 2

∴ m =( 3 , )
11
AB
2

2. The point A has coordinates (4, 8), if B (2, 5) is the midpoint of AD. Find the coordinates
of D.

Solution

We apply the formula for mid points m p= ( ( x +2 x ) , ( y +2 y ) )

1 2 1 2

Notice that D will have the form (x, y).

x1+ x2
∴ =2 The 2 on the right hand side is from the midpoint B (2, 5).
2
4+ x2
=2 Cross multiply
2
4 + x 2=4
x 2=4−4
x 2=0

Then we solve for y 2

 y 1+ y 2
=5 The 5 on the right hand side is from the midpoint B (2, 5)
2

8+ y 2
=5 Cross multiply
2

8+ y2 =10

∴ y 2=2

Thus the coordinate of D is (0, 2)

Activity
1. Calculate the midpoint of the straight line that passes through the points P (-2, 7)
and Q (1, 3).
2. A straight line passes through the points A and D. If A has coordinate (0, -5) and the
midpoint of AD is C with coordinate (8, 11). Find the coordinate of D.

The gradient of a line segment

● The gradient of a straight line is the steepness or slope of the line and we denote it by
the letter m .
● The gradient of a straight line passing through the points ( x 1 , y 1 ) ∧( x 2 , y 2 ) is given by:

y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1

Examples
1. Calculate the gradient of a straight line passing through the points A (-1, 2) and B (3, -7).
Solution

y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1

Note that x 1=−1 , y 1=2 , x 2=3∧ y 2=−7

−7−2
m=
3−(−1)
 −9
m= ∨−2.25
4
2. A straight line passes through the points P (5, -2) and Q (3, b). If the gradient of the
−1
straight line PQ is . Find the value of b.
2
Solution
We apply the gradient formula.

y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1
−1
m= , x 1=5 , y 1=−2 , x 2=3∧ y 2=b
2

b−(−2)
m=
3−5

−1 b +2
=
2 −2
2 ( b+2 ) =2

2 b+ 4=2

2 b=2−4=−2
∴ b=−1

Activity
1. Calculate the gradient of a straight line passing through the points A (1, 7) and
B (2,-2).
2. A straight line passes through the points P (-3, 4) and Q (a ,−3 ¿ . If the gradient of
the straight line is -3. Find the value of a .

The equation of a straight line.

Here, you will learn how to find the equation of a straight line from the given information.

y− y 1=m(x−x 1)
Where m is the gradient.
Note: The formula below can also be used to find the equation of a straight line.
y=mx+c
Where m=gradient ∧c= y −intercept (wherethe line crosses the y −axis)
Examples
3
1. Find the equation of a straight line with gradient of ∧¿that passes through the point (-
4
2, 3).
Solution

We use the formula y− y 1=m(x−x 1)

3
With m= ∧the point (−2 , 3 ) ∈which x 1=−2∧ y 1=3
4
3
y−3= (x −(−2 ))
4
3
y−3= (x +2)
4
3 3
y−3= x+
4 2
3 3
y= x + +3
4 2
3 9
y= x +
4 2
2. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points P (3, 5) and Q (11, 21).
Solution

First calculate the gradient by using the formula.

y 2− y 1
m= P (3, 5) , Q(11, 21).
x 2−x 1
21−5 16
m= = =2
11−3 8
We will use the point P (3, 5) and the gradient m = 2
NOTE: you can use any of the points given to find the equation using any of the general
equations above. (We will use both for this question)
Method 1

We will use the equation: − y 1=m(x−x 1 ) , with P (3, 5) and m = 2

so x 1=3∧ y 1 =5

y−5=2(x−3)
y−5=2 x−6
y=2 x−6 +5
∴ y=2 x−1
Method 2
We use the formula: y=mx+c
This time we can use the point Q (11, 21) and m = 2.
In this formula you first have to calculate the value of the intercept c by substituting
x=11, y=21∧m=2
21=2 ( 11 )+ c
21=22+ c
∴ c=21−22=−1
There to write the equation we substitute m= 2 and c = -1 in the equation y=mx+c
∴ y=2 x+(−1)
∴ y=2 x−1
Activity
1. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points P(3, -5) and Q (-6, 1).
2. Find the equation of a straight line with gradient -2 and passing through the point

(
−3
4
,5 .)
Gradient from a straight line
You will now learn how to determine the gradient from the equation of a straight line.
 ● Remember that if the equation is in the form y=mx+c ,the gradient is m.

● So to determine the gradient from an equation, it will be easy to determine the gradient
by first changing the subject of the formula to y and writing the equation in the form
y=mx+c
Examples
State the gradient of the equation 3 x−5 y=9
Solution
3 x−5 y=9
−5 y=−3 x +9
−5 y −3 x 9
= +
−5 −5 −5
3 9
y= x −
5 5

∴ the coefficient of x isthe gradient which is

3
∴ m=
5
Activity
State the gradient of the equation 4 y +3 x=7.
Equations of Parallel lines

● Two straight lines are said to be parallel if they have the same gradient.

● If m1 and m2 are the gradients of the two parallel lines then m1 = m2.
Examples
Find the equation of a straight line passing through the point (3, 5) and parallel to the line with
equation 3 x+ 4 y =8.
Solution
First get the gradient from the equation 3 x+ 4 y =8.
4 y=−3 x +8
 −3 x
y= +2
4
−3
∴ the gradient m=
4
So using the gradient and the point given (3, 5)
−3
We use the equation y− y 1=m(x−x 1) with x=3 , y=5∧m=
4
−3
y−5= (x−3)
4

−3 9
y−5= x+
4 4

−3 9
y= x+ + 5
4 4

−3 29
∴ y= x+
4 4
Activity
Find the equation of a straight line that passes through the point P (0, -4) and parallel to the line
with equation 2x – 3y = 6.
Equations of perpendicular lines

● Two straight lines are said to be parallel if the product of their gradients is negative one.

● If two perpendicular lines have gradients m1∧m2 then

m1 × m2=−1
Example
Find the equation of a straight line that passes through the point (4, 6) and is
perpendicular to the line 3 x−2 y=4.
Solution

First determine the gradient from the equation 3 x−2 y=4.

 −2 y=4−3 x
4 3
y= − x
−2 −2
3
y=−2+ x
2
3
∴ m 1=
2
Next we change the gradient using m1 × m2=−1
3
m =−1
2 2
3 m2=−2

−2
∴ m 2=
3
−2
Now using m 2= ∧(4 , 6) we can find the equation of the straight line by using
3
y− y 1=m(x−x 1) , x 1=4 , y 1=6
−2
y−6= (x−4 )
3
−2 8
y−6= x+
3 3
−2 8
y= x + +6
3 3

−2 26
∴ y= x+
3 3
Activity
Find the equation of a straight line that passes through the point (- 3, 9) and is perpendicular to
5
the line with equation y=−3 x + .
6

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

● A function is a one to one or many to one mapping.

 ● A function is denoted by f (x) read as f of x .
Example
A function is given as f ( x )=3 x−2, find:
(i) f (−2)
(ii) The value of x for which f ( x )=−4
Solution
(i) f ( x )=3 x−2
Replace x with−2.
f (−2 )=3 (−2 )−2
¿−6−2
¿−8

(ii) f ( x )=3 x−2

Replace f ( x ) with−4

−4=3 x−2
−4+2=3 x
3 x=−2

−2
∴ x=
3

Activity
A function is given as g ( x )=4 x+3 , find
3
(i) g( )
8
(ii) x if g ( x )=5.

Inverse functions
The inverse of a function is a function that reverses the mapping of the original function. To find
the inverse of a function:
(i) Change the subject of the formula to x .
(ii) Interchange x∧ y .
(iii) Replace y with the symbol for the inverse.

NOTE: If a function is given as f (x) then its inverse is denoted f −1 (x) .

Examples
1. Find the invers of the function f : x →5 x−3
Solution
In the function f : x →5 x−3
Replace f : x with y

y=5 x−3
Change the subject of the formula to x .
y +3=5 x

y +3
x=
5
Interchange x and y.

x +3
y=
5

Replace y with f −1 ( x )

−1 x+ 3
∴f ( x )=
5
3
2. Given that h ( x )= ; x ≠−2. Find h−1 (2).
x+ 2
Solution

First you find the inverse h−1 (x)

3
h ( x )=
x+ 2
Replace h(x) with y

3
y=
x +2
Change the subject to x

y ( x+ 2 )=3

xy +2 y=3
 xy=3−2 y

3−2 y
x=
y
Interchange x and y
3−2 x
y=
x

Replace y with the inverse.

−1 3−2 x
h ( x )=
x
Now substitute -2 for x
3−2(−2)
h−1 (−2 ) =
−2
−1 3+ 4 7
h (−2 ) = =
−2 −2

−1 −7
h (−2 ) = ∨−3.5
2
Activity
x
1. If g ( x )= +2 ,find:
3
−1
(i) g (x)

−1
(ii) g ( 0)

−1 2 x +1
2. Given that h ( x )= , find h .
4

Composite functions
● A composite function is a combination of two or more functions

● For any two functions f ( x )∧g (x), the composition of f and g is written as fog ( x )∨fg
read as f of g of x .
Examples
1. Given that f ( x )=2 x−1∧g ( x )=3 x +5, find:
(a) fοg( x)
 (b) fog(4)
Solution
(a) fog ( x )=f [g ( x ) ]

¿ f [3 x +5]

Now substitute 3x + 5 wherever x appears in the function 2x – 1

¿ 2 ( 3 x +5 )−1
¿ 6 x +10−1

∴ fog ( x )=6 x +9

(b) f ( x )=2 x−1∧g ( x )=3 x +5

First find g(4)
g ( 4 )=3 ( 4 ) +5
¿ 12+5
¿ 17
Then find f (17)
f ( 17 )=2 ( 17 )−1
f ( 17 )=34−1
∴ fog ( 4 )=33

3 x−2
2. Given that f ( x )=x −1∧g ( x )= , find go f −1 ( x ) .
5
Solution

First find f-1

f ( x )=x −1
y=x −1
y +1=x
x +1= y
−1
f ( x )=x +1

Then go f −1 ( x )=g [f −1 ( x ) ]

−1
gof ( x )=g[ x+1]
 3 ( x +1 )−2
¿
5

−1 3 x+ 1
∴ gof ( x )=
5

Activity
If f : x → x +2∧g : x → x 2−5, find
(a) g f −1 (−2)
(b) fog ( 2 )
(c) go f −1 (−2)

Applications
A linear cost function is a function of the form C ( x )=ax+ b, where
a=¿ Cost of making or selling a single item.
b=¿The fixed cost of production or sales.
x=¿The number of items made or sold.

Example
It costs a car factory K 6 000 to produce 10 cars and K 16 000 to produce 30 cars of the same
make.
(a) Find the linear cost function for this situation.
(b) What is the fixed cost?
(c) What is the cost per car?
Solution
(a) Let C ( x )=ax+ b
C ( 10 )=6000
10 a+ b=6000 (1)

C ( 30 )=16000
30 a+ b=16000 (2)

Subtract (1) from (2)

30 a+ b=16000
- 10 a+ b=6000
 20 a=10 000
∴ a=500
To find b, substitute 500 into (1)
10 ( 500 ) +b=6000
5000+b=6000
∴ b=1000
∴ C ( x )=500 a+1000

(b) The fixed cost is K 1000

(c) The cost per car is K 500.
Activity
A company that produces maheu has a fixed overhead cost of K 4000 per week. In addition
each pack of maheu costs K 0.40 to produce.
(a) Write an equation that represents the total cost, C(x) of producing x packs of maheu per
week.
(b) How many packs of maheu were produced in a given week if the total cost was K7 600.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A quadratic is an expression of the form y=ax 2+ bx+ c, where a , b∧c are real numbers and
a ≠ 0.

In these lessons, we will look at the methods used in solving quadratic equations.
Solving quadratic equations

● Solving quadratic equations means finding the value of x.

Factorization Method
Remember earlier in algebra you learned how to factorize quadratics. Make sure you go back
and do revisions on quadratic factorization so that you can use it to solve the equations here.
The zero product rule is usually used when solving quadratic equations. The zero product rule
states that if AB=0, then A = 0 or B =0 (i.e. you separate them).
Examples
Solve each of the following equations by factorization.
(a) 2 x 2−7 x+5=0
(b) 2 x 2−7 x=0
 (c) 4 x 2−9=0
Solutions
(a) 2 x 2−7 x+5=0 factorize 2 x 2−7 x+5 to get
( x−2 ) ( x−5 ) =0 Now apply the zero product rule to get

x−2=0∨x−5=0
∴ x=2∨x=5

(b) 2 x 2−7 x=0 factorize and apply the zero product rule to get
x (2 x−7 )=0

x=0∨2 x−7=0
7
∴ x=0∨x= =3.5
2
(c) 4 x −9=0
2
factorize by difference of squares
( 2 x−3 ) ( 2 x +3 ) =0

2 x−3=0∨2 x+ 3=0

3 −3
∴ x= =1.5∨x= =−1.5
2 2
Activity
Solve each of the following by factorization.
(a) 3 x 2+5 x−2=0
(b) x 3−9 x=0

The Quadratic Formula

The quadratic formula is mostly used to solve quadratic equations that cannot be factorized.
The quadratic formula for the equation ax 2 +bx +c=0 is given below.
−b ± √❑
x=
❑
Where a , b∧c are real numbers .
Examples
Solve each of the following equations giving your answers correct to two decimal places (2dp).
(a) 2 x 2−3 x −11=0
(b) 1−5 m−m2 =0
(c) −m2=2 m−1
(d) x 2−17=0

Solutions
(a) 2 x 2−3 x −11=0
From the equation above, a=2 , b=−3 ,c=−11, we substitute ∈the equation

−b ± √❑
x=
❑

−(−3) ± √ ❑
x=
❑

3 ± √❑
x=
❑

3 ± √❑
x=
❑
3 ± 9.8488578
x=
4
3−9.8488578 3+ 9.8488578
∴ x= ∨x =
4 4

−6.8488578 12.8488568
x= ∨
4 4

x=−1.71221445∨x=3.2122142

x=−1.71∨x=3.21

(b) 1−5 m−m2 =0

For the equation above
2
a=−1(coefficient of m )
b=−5(coefficient of m)
c=1(the constant term)
We substitute in the quadratic formula
−b ± √ ❑
x=
❑

−(−5)± √ ❑
m=
❑

5 ± √❑
m=
❑

5 ± √❑
m=
❑
5+5.38516 5−5.38516
∴ m= ∨m=
−2 −2

10.38516 −0.38516
m= ∨m=
−2 −2
m=−5.19∨m=0.19
(c) −m2=2 m−1
First collect the terms on one side
2
−m −2 m+1=0
Now solve using the quadratic formula in which a=−1 , b=−2, c=1
−(−2)± √ ❑
m=
❑

2 ± √❑
m=
❑
2+2.828427 2−2.828427
m= ∨m=
−2 −2
m=−2.41∨m=−0.41
(d) x 2−17=0
2
x =17
 Find the square root on both sides and remember to put ± on the square root for two
solutions.
x=± √❑
x=4.123∨x=−4.123.

Activity
Solve the equation 3 x 2+7 x =1, giving your answers correct to 2dp.

Completing the squares

This is another method used to solve quadratic equations that cannot be factorized.
Examples
Solve the following equations by method of completing the squares.
(a) x 2−4 x−8=0
(b) 3 x 2+5 x +1=0

Solutions
(a) x −4 x−8=0
2

First collect like terms

2
x −4 x=8 …………….(1)
1
Next multiply b whichis−4 by ,square it, and add it on both sides.
2

( )
2
1 2
×(−4) = (−2 )
2

Add it on both sides of (1) to get

2 2 2
x −4 x+ (−2 ) =8+ (−2 )
2 2
x −4 x+ (−2 ) =8+ 4

2 2
x −4 x+ (−2 ) =12

The factorize as follows

( x−2 )2=12
Find the square root on both sides.

x−2=± √❑
x−2=±3.46410
x=3.46410+2∨x=−3.46410+2
 x=5.46∨x=−1.46
(b) 3 x 2+5 x +1=0
Collect like terms to get

2
3 x +5 x=−1
Then make the coefficient of x 2 equal to 1 by dividing everything by 3 to get
2 5 −1
x + x= ……………………(ii)
3 3
5 1
Now multiply by , square the answer and add it on both sides of (ii)
3 2

( ) ()
2 2
1 5 5
× =
2 3 6

() ()
2 2
2 5 5 −1 5
x + x+ = +
3 6 3 6

()
2
2 5 5 −1 25
x + x+ = +
3 6 3 36

()
2
2 5 5 13
x + x+ =
3 6 36

Then factorize as follows.

( )
2
5 13
x+ =
6 36

Square root both sides to get

5
x + =± √ ❑
6
x +0.833333=±0.600925
x=0.600925−0.833333∨x=−0.600925−0.8333333
 x=−0.232∨x=1.434
Activity
Solve the equation 2 x 2−3 x −6=0 by method of completing the squares.

Applications
Example
The product of two consecutive numbers is 306. Find the numbers.
Solution
If one number is x, then the other number is x + 1.
( x ) ( x +1 ) =306
2
x + x=306
2
x + x−306=0
We will use the quadratic formula in which a=1 , b=1∧c=−306
−b ± √❑
x=
❑

−(1)± √❑
x=
❑

−1 ± √ ❑
x=
❑

−1 ± √ ❑
x=
❑

−1 ±35
x=
2
x=−18∨x=17
Activity
The perimeter of a rectangle is 26 cm and the area is 42 cm2 .Find the dimensions of the
rectangle.
Quadratic functions
A quadratic function is a function of the form f ( x )=ax 2+ bx+ c , where a , b∧c are real numbers.

● The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.

NOTE: if a is positive then the parabola opens downwards (has a maximum point) and opens
upwards when a <0 (has a minimum).
Turning points
−b
The x coordinate of a parabola is found by the equation x= . To find the y coordinate,
2a
substitute the x value in the original equation.

● The x coordinate also gives the axis of symmetry of the curve

Example
The equation of a curve is given as y=2 x 2 +5 x −7. Find the

(i) Axis of symmetry

(ii) The coordinates of the turning points
(iii) The y intercept.
Solution
(i) 2
y=2 x +5 x −7
−b
The axis of symmetry is given by: x= where a=2 , b=5 .
2a

−5 −5
x= = =−2.5
2 (2 ) 2

∴ x=−2.5
(ii) For the turning point, the value of x has been found above.
x=−2.5 , substitute in the equation y=2 x 2 +5 x −7
 2
y=2 (−2.5 ) +5 (−2.5 )−7

y=2 ( 6.25 )−12.5−7

y=12.5−12.5−7
∴ y=−7

(iii) For the y intercept substitute x=0 in the equation y=2 x 2 +5 x −7 to get

2
y=2 ( 0 ) +5 ( 0 )−7
∴ y=−7

Activity
The equation of a curve is given y=x 2−3 x−3. Find the

(i) Axis of symmetry

(ii) Coordinates of the turning point.

Sketching graphs
To sketch the parabola the following steps should be followed.
(i) Determine the sign of a , to know the shape of the curve (whether it opens
downwards or upwards.
(ii) Calculate coordinate of turning point
(iii) Calculate the y intercept.
Examples
Sketch the graphs of the equations below.
(a) y=1−2 x 2
(b) y=(x−2)(x−1)

Solution
(a) y=1−2 x 2

First a=−2<0 (negative) so the graph opens downwards.

Then find the turning point.
−b
x= , a=−2 , b=0
2a
−0
∴ x= =0
2 (−2 )
 2
y=1−2 ( 0 ) =1
Turning point (0, 1)
Then find the y intercept by substituting x = 0 in the equation to get y=1
∴ y=1 isthe y intercept

2
y=1−2 x

(b) y=(x−2)(x−1)
Solution

When you multiply x by x , you will get positive x2 which shows that a is positive and
therefore the curve opens upwards.

Then we find the y intercept by substituting x = 0 into the equation to get

y= ( 0−2 ) ( 0−1 )=(−2 ) (−1 )=2
∴ y=2

For this type of a quadratic, you can also get the x intercept by substituting y = 0 to get
( x−2 ) ( x−1 )=0

x−2=0∨x−1=0
x=2∨x=1
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
Graphs of functions are graphs of quadratic, cubic and other functions. We looked at quadratic
equations and functions, now we will look at how to solve quadratic and cubic equations using
graphs.
3 2
● Cubic function: these are function of the form f ( x )=ax + bx + cx+ d where a , b , c∧d
are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
Solutions of functions
The solutions from the graphs are found on the x – axis. To get solutions from two intersecting
graphs:
(i) Go to the point where the two graphs meet.
(ii) From the point, go directly down or up to the x – axis and get the x values as your
solutions.
Finding gradients from the graphs
To find the gradient at a particular point on the graph:
(i) Draw a tangent at the point.
(ii) Get any two points from the tangent and then use the formula for gradient to
calculate the gradient
Examples
1. (a) The variables x and y are connected by the equation y=x 3 + x 2−5 x+ 3. Some
corresponding values of x∧ y are given in the table below.
 x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -25 0 9 8 3 0 5 p

(a) Calculate the value of P.

(b) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on the x- axis for −4 ≤ x ≤3 and 2cm to
represent 10 units for −30 ≤ y ≤ 30, draw the graph of y=x 3 + x 2−5 x+ 3.
(c) Use your graph to
(i) Calculate an estimate of the gradient at the point (2 ,5).
(ii) Solve the equations
(a) x 3 + x 2−5 x +3=0
(b) x 3 + x 2−5 x +3=5 x
Solutions
(a) y=x 3 + x 2−5 x+ 3

To find the value of p substitute x = 3 into the equation and y =p.

3 2
p=(3) +(3) −5 ( 3 ) +3
p=27+9−15+3=24
 (b)

(c) (i) The black line shows the gradient at (2,5) an d the point on the x axis where the
graph cuts the y axis is (0,-17), so we use the formula
y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1

In which x 1=2 , x 2=0 , y 1=5∧ y 2=−17

−17−5 −22
m= = =11
0−2 −2
∴ m=11
(ii). x 3 + x 2−5 x +3=0
 After comparing with the original equation y=x 3 + x 2−5 x+ 3, you will notice that y = 0
(equation of x axis). So you get the answers from the x axis where the graph (Red) cuts the x
axis and you get:
x=−3∨x=1
(iii).compare the original equation y=x 3 + x 2−5 x+ 3 with the equation you are asked to solve
x + x −5 x +3=5 x, and you will immediately notice that y=5 x , which you have to
3 2

draw(green) on the same graph paper as the other graph(Red).

To get answers, you go to where the two graphs (Red and Green) meet and then get the
x−coordinates of those points as your answers as shown on the graph and you will get
x=−3.8 , x=0.3 , x=2.5
Calculating Area under the graph
(1) trapezium rule
● The trapezium rule should be used to estimate area under any given graph.

● After dividing, the area into trapezia, we then find the individual areas and add them.
1
● The formula for the area of a trapezium that is usually used is A = 2 ( a+ b ) h.
(2) Method of counting squares.
● To use this method, the steps to follow are
(i) Multiply the units per box on the x –axis by the units per box on the y- axis.
e.g 2cm to represent 5 units on the x- axis and 2cm to represent 10 units on the
y axis.
NOTE: so you multiply 5units by 10units to get 50units2
(ii) Count the number of boxes which are approximately full and estimate those that
are not to give a full box or a fraction of a box, add them and multiply the result
by what you got in (i) above.
Examples

6
2. The variables x and y are connected by the equation y=3− + x . Some corresponding
x
values of x∧ y are given in the table below.

x 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5
y -8.5 -2 0.5 2 4 5.5 r
 (a) The value of r.
(b) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on the x- axis for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6 and 2cm to represent
6
2 units for−10 ≤ y ≤ 8, draw the graph of y=3− + x .
x
(c) On the same axes draw the line y=3 x−6 and use it to estimate the solutions to the
6
equation 3− + x=3 x −6
x
6
(d) By drawing a tangent to the curve, estimate the gradient of the curve y=3− + x at the
x
point where x = 2.
(e) Estimate the area bounded by the curve, the y = 0 and the lines x = 2 and x = 5.
Solutions
(a) Substitute 5 for x in the equation
6
r =3− +5
5
∴ r=6.8

(b)
(c). The graph (red) and the straight line (green) are meeting at the points where
x=0.8∧x=3.7.

(d) (2,2) and (0, -3) ; points from the tangent (Black line).
−3−2 −5
m= = =2.5
0−2 −2
∴ m=2.5
(e) We shall use the method of counting
Step 1: from the question in part (b) above, 2cm represents 1 unit on the x –axis
and 2cm to 2units on the y – axis.
So the first step is: 2 units ×1 unit=2 units2
 Step2: from the graph (which you draw or will be drawn for you sometimes) you
count the number of boxes, so

Approximately complete boxes = 6

Incomplete boxes (are three) and added together give approximately 1 box.
Therefore we have a total of approximately 7 boxes.
2 2
∴ Area=2units ×7=14 units
3. The variables x and y are connected by the equation y=3+ 13 x −4 x 2. Some
corresponding values of x∧ y are given in the table below.

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y -39 -14 3 12 13 6 -9 r

(a) Calculate the value of r.

(b) Using a scale of 2cm to 1 unit on the x –axis and 2cm to 10 units on the y- axis for
−2 ≤ x ≤5 and −40≤ y ≤20 , draw the graph of y=3+ 13 x −4 x 2 .
(c) Use your graph to solve the equation
(i) 2
3+13 x−4 x =0.
2
(ii) 13 x−4 x =−23
(d) Estimate the area bounded by the curve, the y – axis, the lines y=-10 and x= 3

Solution
2
(a) r =3+13 ( 5 )−4 ( 5 )
r =3+65−100
r =−32

(b)
 (c) (i) You compare 3+13 x−4 x 2=0 with the original equation y=3+ 13 x −4 x 2 and from
this comparison y=0.
Therefore you get the answers where the graph (red) meets the x – axis which gives
x=−0.2∧x=3.5

(ii). After comparing 13 x−4 x2 =−23 with the original equation y=3+ 13 x −4 x 2, you
notice that 3 is missing from the first equation, so you have to make them the same by adding 3
to both sides to get
2
3+13 x−4 x =−23+3=20
∴ y=−20
NOTE: draw the graph of y = -20(green straight line) and write down the x – values of the
coordinates of the points where the two graphs (the green and red) meet which gives
x=−1.3∧x=4.5
 (d) The area is shaded blue, yellow and green
On the x- axis (2cm represents 1 unit)
On the y – axis (2cm represents 10 units)
So we have 1 unit × 10unit =10 units2

From the diagram

Number of complete boxes = 6 (after estimating with the incomplete boxes)
2 2
∴ area=6× 10 units =60 units
Activity
1 2
4. The variables x and y are connected by the equation y= x (10−x ). Some
5
corresponding values of x∧ y are given in the table below.

x -1 0 1 2 3 3.5 4
y -1.8 0 1.8 2.4 0.6 -1.6 P

(a) Calculate the value of P.

(b) Using a scale of 2cm to 1 unit on both axes for −1 ≤ x ≤5 and −5 ≤ y ≤ 3, draw the
1 2
graph of. y= x (10−x )
5
(c) By drawing a tangent to the curve, estimate the gradient of the curve at the point
(1, 1.8)
(d) On the same graph draw the line whose equation is 5 y +4 x =4 .
1 −4 4
(e) Use your graphs to find the solutions of x ( 10−x )=
2
x+
5 5 5
(f) Estimate the area under the curve between x=1 , x=3∧the line y=0.

VARIATIONS

● A variation is a change to something.

In the following lessons, you will learn about variations. There are four variations:
1. Direct variation
2. Inverse variations
3. Joint variations
4. Partial variations
 Notation
The symbol α is used as a symbol of variation and k is used as the constant of
variation.
e.g if A varies directly as B, we write it symbolically as
A α B using the symbol of variation and
A=kB you now introduce the symbol of variation.

Direct variation
Two quantities A and B are in direct variation if as A increases B also increases in a constant
ratio and vice versa.
Examples.
y varies directly as the square of x . Given that y = 15 when x= 3. Find the

(i) Value of the constant k.

(ii) Equation connecting x and y.
500
(iii) Possible values of x for which y =
3
Solution
(i) Y varies directly as the square of x written symbolically becomes
2
y ∝x
Introduce the constant k to get
2
y=k x
Substitute the values given: x = 3 and y = 15 to find k.
15=k ¿
15=9 k
15 5
∴k= =
9 3
5
(ii) To write the equation, you substitute k = into the equation y=k x2 to get
3
2
5x
∴ y=
3
2
500 5x
(iii) Substitute y= into y= to get
3 3

2
500 5 x
=
3 3
 2
15 x =1500
2
x =100

y=± √ ❑
y=10∨ y=−10

Activity
36
y varies directly as √ ❑. y=9 when x = , find the
25
(i) Equation connecting x and y.
(ii) Value of x when y= -6.

Inverse variation
Two quantities A and B are in inverse variation if A increases while B reduces and vice versa.
If A varies inversely as B, this is written symbolically as:
1
A∝
B
After introducing the constant of variation k, we get
k
A=
B
Examples
1. Given that y varies inversely as the square root of x, and y = -2 when x = 25. Find the
(a) value of the constant k.
(b) equation connecting x and y.
(c) y when x = 36.
Solution
1
(a) y ∝
√❑
k
y=
√❑
k
−2=
√❑
k
−2=
5
 ∴ k =−10
−10
(b) y=
√❑

−10
(c) Substitute x = 36 into the equation y=
√❑
−10
y=
√❑

−10 −5
∴ y= =
6 3
2. y varies inversely as x . Complete the table below.

X 4 5 b

y 2 a -2

Solution
1
y∝
x

k
y=
x
k
2=
4
∴ k =8

8
y=
x
Substitute 5 into x to get the value of a.
8
a= =1.6
5
Substitute -2 for y to get b.
8
−2=
x
−2 x=8
 −2 x=8
8
x= =−4
−2
Activity
3
y varies inversely as the square of x , and y = when x = -3. Find the
2
(i) Value of the constant k
(ii) Equation connecting x and y.
(iii) Possible values of x if y = 5400.

Joint Variation
Joint variation happens in atleast two ways.
(i) When a quantity y varies directly as the product of x and z, which we write as y ∝ xz
x
(ii) When a quantity y varies directly as x and inversely as z, which we write as y ∝
z
(iii) When a quantity y varies inversely as the product of x and z, which we write as
1
y∝
xz
Examples
1. Given that y varies jointly as x and z. y= 100 when x= 2.5 and z= 20, find the;
(i) Value of the constant k
(ii) Equation connecting x, y and z.
(iii) Value of x when y= 8 and z= 10.
Solution
y ∝ xz

(i) y=kxz
100=k (2.5)(20)

100=50 k
k =2
(ii) y=kxz
y=2 xz

(iii) y=2 xz
8=2(x)(10)
 8=20 x
8 2
∴ x= =
20 5
2. Y varies directly as x and inversely as z. y = 10, x= 12 and z=-2, find the
(i) Equation connecting x, y and z.
(ii) Value of z when x= 16 and y= 7.
Solution
x
(i) y∝
z
kx
y=
z

k (12)
10=
−2

10=−6 k
10
k=
−6

−5
k=
3
−5 x
∴ the equation is: y =
3z

−5 x
(ii) y=
3z

−5 (16)
7=
3z
−80
7=
3z

21 z=−80

−80
z=
21

Activity
Given that x varies directly as z and inversely as the square of y.
(i) Write down the equation connecting x, y and z.
(ii) If x= 2, y= -1 and z= 4, find the value of the constant k.
 (iii) Find the possible values of y if x=1 and z= 8.

3. Given that y varies inversely as x and z, and x= 2, y= -3 and z= 4. Find the

(i) Value of the constant k.
(ii) Value of z when x= 3 and y= -2.

Solution
1
(i) y∝
xz
k
y=
xz

for x=2 , y=−3∧ z=4

k
−3=
(2)(4)

k
−3=
8

∴ k =−24
(ii) The equation now becomes
−24
y=
xz
for x=3∧ y=−¿2
−24
−2=
3z

−6 z=−¿ 24

−24
z=
−6

∴ z=4

Activity
1. x varies jointly as y and z. x=−24 when y=15∧z =−2. Find the
(i) Equation connecting x, y and z.
(ii) Value of z when x= -3 and z= 12.
 2
2. z varies directly as the square of x and inversely as the square root of y. z= when x=3
3
and y=36. Find the
(i) Value of the constant k.
4 25
(ii) Values of x when y= and z=
9 6
3. y varies inversely as x∧z . y=2 when x=4∧z=−7. Find the
(i) Equation connecting x, y and z.
−3
(ii) Value of y when x=6∧z= .
2

Partial variation
This is a type of variation in which a quantity partly varies and is partly constant.

● If y partly varies as x and is partly constant, then y=mx+c is an equation that

represents a partial variation where c is the constant of variation (fixed part) and m
is the variable part.
Example
The points (0, 6) and (1, 10) lie on the graph of a partial variation.
(a) Find the equation that connects x∧ y .
(b) If the point (13, k) lies on the graph, find the value of k.
Solution
(a) Use the equation y=mx+c
y 2−¿ y
To find the value of m use the equation m= 1
¿
x 2−x 1
In which x 1=0 , y 1=6 , x 2=1 , y 2=10.

10−6
m= =4
1−0

∴ m=4

Then c is now calculated by using one of the coordinates chosen as shown below
m=4 ,(0 ,6) , y=mx+c , x =0∧ y=6
6=( 4 ) ( 0 ) +c
c=6

Now substitute m= 4 and c= 6 in the equation y=mx+c to get

∴ y=4 x+ 6

(b) Since y=4 x +6 and from (13, k), x= 13 and y= k

k =4 ( 13 ) +6

∴ k =58

Activity
Given that y is partly constant and partly varies as x . Given that x=3 when y=−6, and
x=1 when y=0. Find the

(a) Equation of this partial variation.

(b) Value of x when y=16.

CIRCLE THEOREM
In this lesson, you will learn about the terms that we use to describe a circle.

Chord: A straight line that joins any two points on the circumference of a circle (e.g the straight
line AB in the diagram above.
Circumference: the total distance around a circle (ABCDA).
Arc: a small part of the circumference (e.g BC along the circle).
Radius: a straight line drawn from the center of the circle to any point on the circumference
(e.g OC or OD etc). The plural is radii.
Diameter: a chord that passes through the center of the circle (e.g line BD).
Segment: The area formed by a chord and an arc. (e.g. the green part in the diagram).
Sector: The area formed by two radii and an arc (e.g the red part in the diagram).
The bilateral symmetry of a circle

● A diameter drawn perpendicular to the chord bisects the chord (ie cuts it in half).

● The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center of the circle.

● Equal chords are equidistant from the center of the circle.

Example
In the diagram below O is the center of the circle. The chord ST is 6cm from the center of the
circle and the length of ST is 16cm.

Calculate the radius of the circle.

Solution
The radius is OS, so first we divide 16cm by two since the 6cm line passes through the center
and therefore divides ST in half.

16
∴ SM = =8 cm
2
2 2 2
OS =SM + OM
2 2 2
OS =8 + 6
2
OS =64 +36=100
 ∴ OS=√ ❑
OS=10 cm
Activity
In the diagram below, O is the center of the circle, and OM=5cm and PQ= 24 cm.

Calculate the lengths of

(i) OP
(ii) MX
(iii) MY
Angle properties
In the following lessons, you will learn about angle properties of circles, cyclic quadrilaterals
and tangents.
Property #1
The angle made at the center of the circle is twice (two times) the angle made at the
circumference.

NOTE: Yellow = 2×Green .(ie multiply the green angle by 2 to get the yellow angle).
Examples
In the diagram below, O is the center of the circle, A, B, C and D are points on the
circumference of the circle and <ABC = 55o.

Calculate the size of

(i) <AOC (ii) <ADC
Solution
(i) <AOC = 2×< ABC ( angle at the center is twice bigger)
o
¿ 2 ×55

o
∴< AOC=110
¿ AOC (reflex )
(ii) ¿ ADC=
2

<AOC (reflex)= 360o −110 o=250o

250 o
∴< ADC= =125
2

Activity
In the diagram below, A, B, C, D and E are points on the circumference of the circle center O.
the reflex angle <AOC = 150o.
Calculate the size of
(i) < ABC (ii) < ADC (iii) <CEA
Property #2
The angle made in a semi-circle is 90o (right angle).

<BCA (green) = 90o

Example
In the diagram below A, P and B are points on the circumference of the circle center O. <OAP =
56o and <BPO = 27o.
Calculate the size of
(a) <APB (b) <OPA (c) < ABP (d) <BOP

Solution
(a) < APB = 90o (angle in a semi- circle).
(b) <OPA = 90 - 66 = 24o
o o

(c) <ABP = 90o – 56o = 34o. (or 180o – (90o + 56o)) = 34o (angles in a triangle).
(d) <BOP = 180o −(66 o +34 o)
o o
¿ 180 −100

¿ 80
o
(Angles in a triangle).

Activity
In the diagram below O is the center of the circle, A, P and B are points on the
circumference of the circle.

Calculate the size of

(i) <BAP (ii) < OBP

Cyclic quadrilaterals
A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral (four sided object) in which all four vertices touch the
circumference of the same circle.
Property #3
Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180o (supplementary).
 o
ie x+ y=180
o
w +v =180
Example
In the diagram below, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral in which O is the center. <AOC = 117 o, <DCO
= 73o, <BCO = 67o.

Calculate the size of

(i) <OAD (ii) <ADC (iii) <OBC
Solution
(i) <OAD + <BCD = 180o (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180o).
<OAD + (73o+67o) = 180o

0 o
¿ OAD+140 =180
o
∴<OAD=40
(ii) Angles in the quadrilateral OADC add up to 360 o.
So 40o + 117o + 73o + <ADC = 360o
o 0
230 + ¿ ADC=360

o o
¿ ADC=360 −230
o
∴< ADC=130
 o
(iii) ¿ OBC=180 −¿ ADC (Angles in a cyclic quadrilateral add to 180o).
o o
¿ OBC=180 −130
∴<OBC=50 .
o

Activity

In the diagram below, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, <ABC = 76o, <BDC = 68o and
<DAB = 135o.

Calculate the size of

(i) <ADB (ii) <BCD
Property #4
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the opposite interior angle.

¿ ADC=¿ CBP
x= y
Example
In the diagram below ABDC is a cyclic quadrilateral, <BOC = 98o and BDP is a straight line.
Calculate the size of
(i) <BAC (ii) <CDP
Solution
98 o
(i) <BAC = =49 (The angle at the center is twice the one at the circumference).
2
(ii) <CDP = <BAC (exterior angle of cyclic quadrilateral = opposite interior angle).
o
∴<CDP=49

Activity
In the diagram below, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral and O is the center. <AB0 =36 o.

Calculate the size of

(i) <OBC (ii) <OAB (iii) <ADQ (iv) <BCA

Same segments
Property # 5
 ● Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal or

● Angles subtended by the same arc are equal

¿ ABD=¿ ACD
ie x= y
Note: The arc the two angles stand on is the arc AD.
Example
In the diagram below A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of the circle center
O. <BOC = 50o.

Calculate the size of

(i) <ODC (ii) <BAC
Solution
50 o
(i) <ODC = =25 (angle at the center is twice the angle at the circumference.
2
(ii) <BAC = <ODC = 25o (angles standing on the same arc are equal).

Activity
In the diagram below ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, <CAB = 35o, <CAD = 20o and <DCA = 98o..
Calculate the size of
(i) <ADB (ii) <CBA (iii) <CBD

Properties involving tangents.

Tangent: A straight line that touches a circle a point.
Property #6
A straight line that passes through the center of a circle meets a tangent at an angle of 90 o.

AT and BT are tangents to the circle at A and B respectively while OB and OA are straight lines
passing through the center O and therefore meet the tangents at 90 o.
o
¿ OBT =90
o
¿ OAT =90
o
x + y=180
Examples
In the diagram below ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, O is the center of the circle, AT and BT are
tangents to the circle at A and B respectively. BCT is a straight line and <ADB = 75 o.
Calculate the size of
(i) <OAF (ii) <AOB (iii) <ACF (iv) <ATB (v) <OAB

Solution
(i) <OAF = 90o ( a radius (OA) meets a tangent (AT) at 90 o)
(ii) <AOB =25o ×2=150o (the angle at the center is twice the angle at the
circumference).
(iii) <ACF = <ADB = 75o. (exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the opposite
interior angle).
(iv) <ATB = 180o – 150o = 30o. (<AOB + <ATB = 180o)
(v) Since <AOB = 150o and triangle AOB is isosceles then
180o – 150o = 30o
o
30 o
∴<OAB= =15
2

Activity
In the diagram below ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, O is the center of the circle, AT and BT are
tangents to the circle at A and B respectively. BCT is a straight line and <ACB = 75 o.
 Calculate the size of
(i) <AOB (ii) <ADB (iii) <OBT (iv) <FTB

Property #7
The angle formed by a chord and a tangent is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.

BC is the chord and BD is the tangent, therefore angle DBC is equal to angle BAC (ie x= y ¿ .
Examples
In the diagram below BDET is a cyclic quadrilateral and ABC is a tangent to the circle at B.
<CBD = 60o, <BDT = 55o, <DTE = 35o.
 Calculate the size of
(a) <ABT (b) <BTE (c) <DET

Solution
(a) <ABT = <BDT (by property #7)
o
∴< ABT =55

(b) ¿ BTE=¿ BTD+¿ DTE

¿ BTD=¿ CBD=60
o
(by property #7)
o o o
∴< BTE=35 + 60 =95
(c) ¿ DET =¿ TEB +¿ DEB
o
¿ TEB=¿ ABT =55
o
¿ DEB=¿ CBD=60
o o o
∴< DET =55 +60 =115

Activity
In the diagram below O is the center of the circle, BT and CT are tangents to the circle at
B and C respectively which meet at T, ABFC is a cyclic quadrilateral. Given that angle
<BAC = 65o.

Calculate the size of

(i) <BOC (ii) <DBC (iii) < DFB (iv) <DTB (v) <OCT (vi) <OBC

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS AND LOCI

Construction is an accurate drawing of diagrams using geometrical instruments. In this topic,
you will need to have the following instruments:

● Ruler
 ● Compass

● Protractor (for measuring angles).

● A pencil.

Bisecting straight lines

You must follow the following steps when bisecting straight lines.

● Draw any straight line AB using a ruler.

● Get a compass, open the compass to a radius that is more than half of the line, with the
center at A and draw two arcs above and below the line.
● Make B as your center, with the same radius as before, draw two more arcs intersecting
the first arcs at X and Y.
● Draw a straight line through X and Y, this is the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Bisecting Angles
To bisect angles, the following steps should be followed:

● Draw <BAC

● Using a compass with any radius of your choice and A as your center, draw arcs to cut
AB at X and AC at Y.
 ● With centers at X and Y and a large radius of your choice, construct two more arcs that
intersect at D.
● Draw the angle bisector through A and D.

Activity
1. Construct ∆ ABC in which AB = 10cm, AC = 7.5cm and BC = 8cm.
(a) Bisect <ABC
(b) Bisect the line AC.
2. Construct an equilateral triangle MNO with side MN = 6cm.
(i) Bisect the straight lines MN and MO.
(ii) Label the point X where the two bisectors meet and draw a circle with center X
and radius XM.

Loci in two dimensions

A locus is a path in which a point moves to satisfy one or more conditions. The plural for locus is
loci.
Types of loci
There are many types of locus which can be understood as follows:
1. The locus of points which are Pcm from a point A on the line AB is a circle or an arc
with radius Pcm which is found as follows.
(a) Make a radius of Pcm with the compass.
(b) With A as your center, draw the circle or arc.
Example
(a) Draw a straight line AB = 10cm.
(b) On the line AB, construct a locus of points that are 5.5 cm from A.
Solution
Activity
(a) Construct a straight line PQ = 8.5 cm.
(b) On PQ, construct a locus of points that are 5.2 cm from Q.
2. A locus of points that are kcm from a straight line AB is a straight line that is parallel to
AB found as follows:
(a) Make a radius of k cm.
(b) With A as your center, radius k cm, draw a circle and draw another circle with B as
your center and radius k cm.
(c) On top or below the circles, draw a tangent touching both circles, and this tangent is
the required locus.
Example
(a) Construct a straight line PQ = 9 cm.
(b) Draw the locus of points that are 3.5 cm from PQ.

Solution
Activity
(a) Draw triangle ∆ ABC in which AB = 8.7cm,BC = 6cm and AC 7cm.
(b) Construct a locus of points within the triangle that are 3.5 cm from AB.
3. A locus of points that are equidistant from A and B on the straight line AB is the
perpendicular bisector of AB.

4. A locus of points equidistant from AB and AC is the angle bisector of the common
angle A. (refer to the diagram below).
 Activity (use plain papers to construct)
Question 1
(a) Construct triangle ∆ ABC in which AB = 10cm, AC = 9cm and 7cm. Measure and
write down the size of <ACB.
(b) On your diagram, draw the locus of points within the triangle which are:
(i) 4cm from B
(ii) Equidistant from B and C.
(c) Q is a point inside triangle ABC such that it is 4 cm from B, and equidistant from B
and C. Label the point Q.
(d) Another point P within triangle ABC is such that P is nearer to B than C, greater than
or equal to 4 cm from C. Indicate by shading, the region in which P must lie.

Question 2
(a) (i) Construct parallelogram PQRS in which PQ = 8cm, QR = 5.3cm and <PQR = 60 o .

(ii)Construct a perpendicular from P to meet RS at point A and write down the length
of PA.
(b) On your diagram, draw the locus of points within the parallelogram PQRS which are
(i) 2.5 cm from PQ,
(ii) 3cm from R,
(iii) Equidistant from QR and RS.
(c) B is a point inside parallelogram PQRS such that B is:
Nearer to QR than to RS
Less than or equal to 3cm from R
Less than or equal to 2.5 cm from PQ.
Indicate clearly by shading, the region in which B must lie.

Question 3:
(a) Construct triangle DEF in which EF = 10cm, <DEF = 38o and <DFE = 95o.
(b) On your diagram, draw the locus of points which are :
 (i) 4.5 cm from F.
(ii) Equidistant from DE and EF.
(c) P is a point inside the triangle DEF such that it is 4.5cm from F and is equidistant
from DE and EF. Label the point P.
(d) Measure and write down the length EP.
Question 4
(a) Draw triangle ABC in which AB = 12cm, <ABC = 50o and BC = 7cm. measure and
write down the size of <CAB.
(b) On your diagram draw the locus of points within the triangle which are
(i) 2.5cm from AB
(ii) Equidistant from AC and BC
(iii) 6cm from C
(c) A point P within triangle ABC is such that P is:
Less than or equal to 2.5cm from AB
Nearer to BC than to AC
Less than or equal to 6cm from C.
On your diagram shade the region in which P must lie.
Question 5
(a) (i) Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in which PQ = 8cm, QR = 6cm, <PQR = 110 o, RS =
4cm and PS = 9cm.
(ii)Measure and write down the size of <PSR.
(b) On the same diagram and within quadrilateral PQRS, construct the locus of points
(i) Equidistant from RS and RQ,
(ii) 3cm from PQ.
(c) X is a point inside the quadrilateral PQRS such that X is 3cm from PQ and
equidistant from RS and RQ. Mark and label the point X.
(d) Another point Y, within quadrilateral PQRS, is such that it is equal to or more than
3cm from PQ and nearer to RQ than RS.
Shade clearly the region in which Y must lie.
 TRIGONOMETRY
This is a study of the relationship between the sides and angles of a triangle.
Trigonometric ratios
There are three (3) trigonometric basic ratios and these are:
(i) Sine (Sin)
(ii) Cosine ( Cos)
(iii) Tangent (Tan)
Right angled triangles.
Note: 1. on a right angled triangle, the side opposite the 90o angle is called the Hypotenuse (H),
and the other two sides are the Adjacent(A) and the Opposite (O).
2. The Adjacent and Opposite depend on the position of the angle θ .
Identifying sides
Note: To identify the sides, you need to know the position of the angles, the side opposite 90 o is
the hypotenuse, the side opposite the any other angle θ is the opposite and the other side is
the adjacent side as shown in the diagrams below.

Using the diagrams above, the three trigonometric ratios are defined as:
 opposite adjacent opposite
( i ) sineθ= ( ii ) cosine θ= ( iii ) Tangent θ=
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
We use the following abbreviations for sine, cosine and tangent:
Opp
( i ) Sinθ=
Hyp

Adj
( ii ) Cosθ=
Hyp

Opp
( ii ) Tanθ=
Adj
Example
Triangle ABC is given below in which AB= 8cm and AC = 6cm.

Write down as a fraction in its lowest form:

(i) Tanθ ( ii ) Cosθ ( iii ) Sinθ

Solution
From the diagram
Opposite ( <ACB) = 8cm
Adjacent (of <ACB) = 6cm
Using Pythagoras theorem, the hypotenuse can be calculated as follows.
BC2 = AB2 + AC2
BC2 = 82 + 62 = 100
BC = √ ❑
 Opp 8 4
(i) Tanθ= = =
Adj 6 3

Adj 6 3
(ii) Cosθ= = =
Hyp 10 5

Opp 8 4
(iii) Sinθ= = =
Hyp 10 5

Activity
In the triangle below, PR = 25cm, QR = 20cm and <PQR = 90o.

Find as fractions in their simplest form the values of

( i ) cosθ ( ii ) sinθ ( iii ) cosθ
Calculating sides of right angled triangles

● To calculate the sides of right angled triangles, you apply the three trigonometric ratios.

● You start by identifying the side given with respect to the given angle.

● Then identify the unknown side you are finding.

● Choose the ratio to use and apply it.

Examples
1. In the triangle below PQ = 7cm and <QRP = 54o.
Calculate the length of :
(a) QR (b) PR
Solution
(a) QR= Adjacent (the side you are finding).
PQ=Opposite=7 cm
From the three trigonometric ratios, we will use the Tangent since its formula has
opposite and adjacent.
opp
Tanθ=
adj

o 7
tan54 =
QR

7 7
∴ QR= =
tan 54 1.376382
o

∴ QR=5.085797696=5.1 cm
(b) First we note that
PR = Hypotenuse
PQ (7cm) = Opposite
Since we are finding the hypotenuse and we are given the opposite, we shall use the
sine.

opp
sinθ=
hyp

7
sin 54=
PR
You now cross multiply to get
o
PRsin 54 =7

7
PR= =8.6524758
sin 54

∴ PR=8.65 cm

Activity
In the triangle ADC below, DC = 6.2cm and <ADC = 35o.

Calculate the length of

(a) AD (b) AC

Calculating angles
● To calculate angles you follow the same steps as you did when calculating sides.

● First identify the sides you are given.

● Then choose the trigonometric ratio that has the sides you have identified.
Example
In triangle ABC below, AB = 5.6cm and BC = 8.9cm.
 Calculate the size of
(a) <ACB (b) <ABC

Solution
(a) Identify the sides given as follows
AB (5.6cm) is opposite to the angle <ACB we are finding
BC (8.9cm) is the hypotenuse

Therefore the sine should be used.

5.6
sin< ACB=
8.9

sin< ACB=0.6292134831
¿ ACB=(0.6292134831)

¿ ACB=38.99211856
o
∴< ACB=39.0

(b) We are finding <ABC

AB = Adjacent to the angle
BC = Hypotenuse
Adj AB
cos < ABC = =
Hyp BC

5.6
cos < ABC =
8.9

cos < ABC =0.6292134831

¿ ABC=(0.6292134831)
 o
∴< ABC=51.0

Activity
In the triangle below, MN = 8.6cm and ON = 13.1cm.

Calculate the size of the angle <MON

Special triangles
There are two special triangles that contain special angles, the 45o triangle and the 30o
and 60o triangle. They are evaluated without the use of calculators.

The 45o triangle.

● We first note that Tan45o = 1
1 Opposite
● Since Tan 45o = = , therefore the special triangle is
1 Adjacent

1
Therefore sin sin 45 o=
√❑
 Example
In the diagram below, AB = 5cm and <ABC = 45o.

Calculate the length of BC.

The 30o and 60o triangle

1 o 1
From the fact that Sinθ= ∧cos 60 = , we get the special triangle below.
2 2

From this triangle, the three trigonometric ratios can be found for any of the angles in the
triangle,
1 ❑ and
e.g sin 30 = , cos 30 = √❑
o o
2

sin 60o = √ ❑
❑
Examples

1. Given that Sinθ= √ ❑ , calculate the value of the angle θ without using a calculator.
❑
Solution
 From the special triangle with angles 30o and 60o, we notice that sin 60 = √ ❑
o
❑

Therefore , if Sinθ= √❑ , then θ=60o

❑
2. In the triangle below, PQ = 5cm and <RPQ = 60o

Calculate without using a calculator, the length of

(a) QR (b) PR

Solution
(a) The side given is PQ = 5cm and the angle is <RPQ = 60o, and we are finding QR.
PQ is the adjacent to the angle.
QR is the opposite to the angle
Since we have opposite and adjacent, we use the tangent to calculate as follows:

opp QR
Tan60o = =
adj 5

√❑

Cross multiplying we get

QR=5 √ ❑

o adj 5
(b) cos 60 = =
hyp PR

1 5
=
2 PR

∴ PR=10 cm

Activity
 In the diagram below, SQ = 12cm.

Without using a calculator, calculate the length of PR.

The Sine Rule

In the following lessons, you will learn about the sine rule which is used to solve non
right angled triangles. For the sine rule to be applied, the following conditions must be
fulfilled:
● At least two angles and a side must be given.

● Two sides and a non-included angle must be given.

For the triangle below:

The sine rule states that:

a b c
= =
sinA sinB sinC
Examples
In triangle ABC below, AB = 2.6km, BC = 2.9km and B ^ o
A C=57 .
Calculate the
(i) Size of <ACB (ii) length of AC

Solution
a c
(i) =
sinA sinC

2.9 2.6
=
sin 57 sinC
o

o
2.9 sinC =2.6 sin 57

o
2.6 sin 57
sinC=
2.9

2.180543477
sinC=
2.9
sinC=0.7519115437

C=(0.7519115437)
∴ C=48.8

b a
(ii) =
sinB sinA

<B= 180o −(57 o +48.8 o)

<B = 180o −105.8o=74.2 o

b 2.9
o
= o
sin 74.2 sin 57
 o
2.9 sin 74.2
∴ b= o
sin 57
∴ b=3.327208904

∴ 3.3 km

Activity
1. Calculate the value of x in each of the following.

2. In ∆ ABC ,< B=95o ,<C=30o ∧c=18.9 cm .Calculate the

(a) Length of AC
(b) Length of BC.
(Hint: draw a sketch of the triangle).

The Cosine Rule

In the following lessons, you will learn about the cosine rule and how to calculate shortest
distance. The cosine rule is used for non-right angled triangles in which:

● All three sides are given.

● Two sides and an included angle are given.

For the triangle below:

The cosine rule states:

 2 2 2
a =b +c −2 bcCosA
To find angles, the alternative form of the cosine rule states:
2 2 2
b +c −a
CosA=
2 bc
Examples
1. In triangle PQR below, PQ = 5.5 cm, PR = 4cm and <QPR = 68 o.

Calculate the length RQ.

Solution
Labelling the sides we have

.q = 4cm, r= 5.5cm, <P=68o and p =RQ ,substitute in the formula

2 2 2
p =q +r −2 qrCosP
2 2 2
p =(4 ) +(5.5) −2 ( 4 )( 5.5 ) cos 68
2
p =16+ 30.25−16.48269011
2
p =29.76730989
p= √ ❑
∴ p=5.46 cm .
2. The diagram below shows three towns in Zambia. Mongu (M) is 14.6km from Lusaka (L)
and 11.4 km from Ndola(N). Ndola is 6km from Lusaka.
Calculate the size of angle <LNM.
Solution
l=11.4 km , m=6 km∧n=14.6 km
2 2 2
l +m −n
CosN=
2 lm

2 2 2
(11.4) +(6) −(14.6)
CosN=
2(11.4)(6)

−14.2
CosN=
136.8

CosN=−0.1038011696

N= (−0.1038011696 )

o
∴ N=96.0

Area and shortest distance

The area of triangle ABC below can be expressed in terms of any two sides and the included
angle.
The area of the triangle below is given by:
1
Area= bcSinA
2
And the shortest distance from the vertex C to the line AB is given by the formula:
1
Area= bh
2
Where the base(b) = AB and the height (h) is the shortest distance.
Example
Three towns Mbala (M), Chingola (C) and Zambezi (Z) are such that the distance of Mbala
to Chingola is 98 km and Mbala to Zambezi is 118 km. The bearing of Mbala from chingola
is 058o and the bearing of Chingola from Mbala is 282o.

Calculate the
(a) Value of x
(b) Distance from Zambezi to Chingola
(c) Area of triangle CMZ
(d) Shortest distance from M to CZ.
Solution
(a) x=360 o−282o=78o
(b) m2=c 2 + z 2−2 czCosM
 <M = 78o + 58o = 136o.
2 2 2 o
m =(118) +(98) −2 ( 118 )( 98 ) cos 136
2 o
m =23528−23128 cos 136

2
m =23528−23128(−0.7193398003)
2
m =23528+16636.8909

2
m =40164.8909
∴ m=√ ❑

m=200.4 km

1
(c) Area= czSinM
2

1 o
Area= ( 118 ) ( 98 ) sin 136
2

8033.029396
Area= =4016.515
2

2
Area=4016 km

(d) CZ=200.4 km , Area=4016 km2

1
Area= bh
2

1
4016= ×200.4 ×h
2
100.2 h=4016

4016
h= =40.1 km
100.2

Activity
1. In the diagram below, the bearing of M from R is 105o and the bearing of M from O is
65o. Given that the distance of R to M is 140m and the distance of R to O is 55m.
 Calculate the
(a) Value of <ORM
(b) Area of triangle ORM
(c) Shortest distance from R to OM.
(d) Length of the lie OM
2. Three shopping malls Manda Hill (M), Levy mall (L) and East Park (E) are located in such
a way that they form a triangular shape. East Park is 22 km from Manda hill and 12 km
from Levy Park, while East Park is 32km from Levy Park.

(a) Calculate the size of <LME

(b) Calculate the area of triangle LME
(c) Given that Arcades (A) is a shopping mall between Manda hill and East Park such
that LA is the shortest distance from Levy park to Arcades, Calculate this shortest
distance LA correct to two decimal places.
(d) Calculate the size of <MLE.

Quadrants

in this lesson, you will now learn about the three trigonometric ratios on the Cartesian plane
(or xy plane).

Note: the four parts of the Cartesian plane are known as quadrants.

Determine the signs of the three trigonometric ratios in the four quadrants
We will now determine the signs of the three trigonometric ratios ( ie sine, cosine and tangent)
in each of the four quadrants.

The CAST diagram

This is a diagram that gives where each of the three trigonometric ratios are positive, and the
formula that can be used to calculate angles in the other quadrants when you have the first
quadrant angle.

2nd quadrant 90o 1st quadrant

S A
o
180 −α α

180o 0o/ 360o

T 360 −α
o
C
3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
o
180 + α 270o

NOTE: 1. All angles between 0o and 90o lie in the 1st quadrant, 2nd quadrant is between 90o and
180o, 3rd quadrant is between 180o and 270o while 4th quadrant is between 270o and 360o.

2.The letters CAST helps you to remember which trigonometric ratio is positive and in which
quadrant as illustrated below with examples:

Examples

A stands for all three trigonometric ratios are positive in the 1st quadrant ( from 0o to 90o).
As an example if you take 56o.

Sin 56o = 0.829

Cos 56o = 0.559

Tan 56o = 1.483

Note: as you can see from the examples above that all three trigonometric ratios are positive in
the first quadrant.

S stands for only Sin is positive in the 2nd quadrant (from 90o to 180o). Take 126o for example.
Sin 126o = 0.809

Cos 126o = - 0.5878

Tan 126o = - 1.376

Note that only the sine is positive in the 2nd quadrant, the other two are negative.

T stands for, only Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant (from 180o to 270o).

C stands for only Cos is positive in the 4th quadrant (from 270o to 360o).

Example

In the triangle below, AB = 5cm and BC = 12cm.

Find as a fraction

(a) Sin <ACD

(b) Cos <ACD
(c) Tan<ACD
Solution
opp AB
(a) Sin<ACD = =
hyp AC

First find AC by Pythagoras theorem.

AC2 = AB2 + BC2

AC2 = 52 + 122 = 169

∴ AC=√❑

5
∴ sin< ACD=
13
 Adj BC −12
(b) Cos <ACD = = =
Hyp AC 13
Note that the negative shows that its an angle in the second quadrant were the cosine is
negative.
Opp AB −5
(c) Tan <ACD = = =
Adj BC 12
Again the negative shows that the tan is for the angle in the 2nd quadrant.

Activity
In the diagram below AB = 5cm, BC = 7cm, DC = 5cm and <ACD = 90o.

Write down as a fraction

(i) Cos<CAD
(ii) Tan <DBA

Solving trigonometric equations

● First find the 1st quadrant angle α by changing it to a positive and then use it
to find the solutions in the quadrants where the trigonometric ratio falls.
Example

Solve the following equations for 0 o ≤ θ ≤360 o

(a) tan tan θ=1.25

(b) sin sin θ=−0.3165
(c) 3 cos cos θ+2=0
Solution
(a) tan tan θ=1.25
−1
θ=tan (1.25)
o
∴ θ=51.3
 (b) sin sin θ=−0.3165
Since sine is negative here, first find the 1st quadrant angle as follows

sin sin α =0.3165

α =(0.3165)
o
α =18.5

Since sine is negative, we will use the 3rd and 4th quadrants to find the solutions because
that’s where sine is negative.

In the 3rd quadrant

o
θ=180 +α
o o o
θ=180 +18.5 =198.5

In the 4th quadrant

o
θ=360 −α
o o
θ=360 −18.5=341.5

(c) 3 cos cos θ+2=0

−2
cos cos θ= =−0.6666667
3
First find the 1st quadrant angle by using the positive value of the cos

cos cos α =0.6666667

o
∴ α =( 0.6666667)=48.2

Since the original question has a negative (-0.6666667) of cos, so the solutions of the
equation will be found in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants where cos is negative.

In the 2nd quadrant

o
θ=180 −α
o o o
θ=180 −48.2 =131.8

In the 3rd quadrant

o
θ=180 +α
o o o
θ=180 + 48.2 =228.2
Activity

Solve the following equations for 0 o ≤ θ ≤360 o

2
(i) 5 sin sin θ=
3
(ii) tan tan θ=−0.4187

Graphs of quadratic functions

● To sketch the graphs of trigonometric functions, you can construct a table of
values of θ and y =sin sin θ .
Example

Sketch the graph of y=2sin sin x

Solution
x
0o 90o 180o 270o 360o
2 sin sin x
0 2 0 -2 0

Activity

Sketch the graphs of the following functions for 0 o ≤ θ ≤360 o.

(a) y=−cosθ (b) y=tanθ

 Applications of trigonometry

The diagram below shows a rectangular pyramid with vertex V and edges VP, VQ, VR and VS,
each 18cm long. The rectangular base has PQ =RS =10cm and PS = QR = 12cm.

(a) Calculate the length of QS

(b) Calculate VT, the height of the pyramid.
(c) Calculate the size of the angle between the base ∆ VSR .
Solution
(a) QS =QP 2 + PS2
2

2 2 2
QS =10 +12
2
QS =244

QS= √ ❑

1
(b) TS= ×15.6=7.8 cm
2
2 2 2
VS =VT +TS
2 2 2
(18) =VT +(7.8)

2
324=VT +60.84
2
VT =324−60.84=263.16

VT =√❑
(c)

Where M is the midpoint between S and R.

2 2 2
VR =VM + MR

2 2 2
18 =VM +5
2
324=VM + 25
VM =√ ❑
15.6
∴ sin sin<VMT = =0.902172
17.3
o
∴<VMT =(0.902172)=64.4

Activity
1. The cube below has side of lengths 10cm.

Calculate the
(a) Lengths of PR, QL and OQ.
(b) Sizes of <QOS and <QLP.
 MENSURATION

This is a topic that deals with measurements of objects.

Area

Area is the space occupied by an object.

Area of a sector

For the sector given below

The area of the sector OPQ (Red) is given by:

2
θ
Area= o
× πr
360

Arc length

The length of an arc is given by the formula below:

θ
Arclength (l)= o
×2 πr
360

Examples

A cars windscreen wiper left a part of the windscreen unwiped, as shown in the diagram below.
 (a) Calculate the length of the arc AB
(b) Calculate the length of the arc DE
(c) Calculate the area of the shaded part of the wind screen.
Solution
θ
(a) l( AB)= o
×2 πr
360

o
100
l ( AB ) = o
×2 ×3.142 ×15
360

∴ l ( AB )=13.1 cm
θ
(b) l(DE )= o
×2 πr
360

o
100
l ( DE )= o
×2 ×3.142 ×12
360

∴ l ( DE )=20.9 cm

(c) We first calculate the area of the larger sector OAB, then we calculate the area of
sector ODE and then subtract the two.
2
θ
Area= o
× πr
360

2
100
Area(OAB)= o
× 3.142×(15)
360

∴ Area ( OAB ) =196.4 cm2

 2
100
Area(ODE)= o
×3.142 ×(12)
360
2
∴ Area ( ODE )=125.7 cm

Subtract now to find the area of the shaded part.

2 2 2
∴ shaded area=196.4 cm −125.7 cm =70.7 cm

Activity

1. In the diagram below, O is the center of the circle, OP = 8cm and <POQ = 120 o.

Calculate the
(a) Area of the shaded sector
(b) Length of the major arc PQ.
2. In the diagram below, 10cm is the diameter of the semi circle.

Calculate the area of the shaded part of the sector.

Surface area of three dimensional figures

The total surface area (TSA) of an object is the sum of the areas of all the faces of the object.

Surface area of pyramids

The total surface area of a pyramid is found by adding the area of the base and the four
triangles.

Example

The diagram below shows a rectangular pyramid with vertex V and edges VP, VQ, VR and VS,
each 12cm long. The rectangular base has PQ =RS =10cm and PS = QR = 8cm.

Calculate the

(i) Area of the base

(ii) Total surface area of the pyramid
Solution
(i) The base is a rectangle
area=length× breadth

Area=10 cm× 8 cm
2
∴ Area=80 cm
(ii) Calculate the area of the four triangles
 2 2 2
VR =VM + MR
2 2 2
(12) =VM +(5)
∴ VM =√ ❑

∴ VM =10.9 cm
1 2
Area ( ∆ VSR )= ×10 ×10.9=54.54 cm
2
Since area of the base (rectangle) = 80 cm2

Area of the four triangles = 54.54 cm2 × 4=218.2cm2

2 2 2
∴ total surface area=80 cm + 218.2 cm =298.2cm

Activity
The diagram below shows a rectangular pyramid with vertex V and edges VP, VQ, VR and VS,
each 8cm long. The square base has length 10cm.

Calculate the

(a) The angle between the base and the line VS.
(b) The total surface area of the pyramid.

Total surface area of a cone

For the cone below

The total surface area of the cone is given by:

 TSA=πr (r +l)

Where r =radius ,l=slant height ∧h=perpendicular height .

Example

Calculate the total surface area of a cone with perpendicular height 16cm and height 12cm.

Solution

First find the slant height (l ¿

2 2 2
l =16 +12
∴ l=√ ❑

∴ TSA=3.142(12)(12+ 20)
TSA=(3.142)(12)(32)

2
∴ TSA=1206.5 cm

Activity

Calculate the total surface area of a cone with diameter of the base 14 cm and perpendicular
height 10cm.

Volume

This is the amount of space occupied by an object. In this topic, you will learn how to calculate
the volume of cones, pyramids and frustums of cones and pyramids.

Cones
The cone is given below in which r = radius, h = perpendicular height and l = slant height, V is
the vertex and the base is a circle center O.

The formula for a volume of cone is given by:

1 2
Volume= π r h
3

Examples

1. Calculate the volume a cone with perpendicular height 7cm and base radius 4cm.
2. Calculate the volume of a cone with perpendicular height 13cm and base area 18.5 cm2 .
Solution
1. h=7 cm ,r =4 cm

1 2
Volume= π r h
3

1 2
volume= ×3.142 ×(4) ×7
3
3
∴ volume=117.3 cm

2. The alternate formula that can be used is

1
volume= base area × height
3

1 2
volume= ×18.5 cm × 13 cm
3
 3
1 3
∴ volume= × 240.5 cm =80.2 cm
3

Activity

1. Calculate the volume of a cone with perpendicular height 9.3cm and radius 15.2cm.
2. Calculate the volume of a cone with diameter 13cm and perpendicular height 7.8cm.

Pyramids
A pyramid is given below:

h=perpendicular height ¿ the vertex V ¿ the center of the base T .

The volume of the pyramid is given by:

1
volume= base area × height
3
Examples
1. Calculate the volume of a rectangular based pyramid with dimensions 8cm by 13cm
and perpendicular height 11.5cm.
2. Calculate the volume of a triangular pyramid with sides 6mm, 8mm, 10mm and
perpendicular height 140cm.
3. The pyramid below has a base area of 15 cm2 and perpendicular height 20cm.

Solutions
1
1. volume= base area × height
3
2
base area=8 cm ×13 cm=104 cm
1 3
∴ volume= × 104 ×11.5=398.7 cm
3

1
2. volume= base area × height
3
1 2
base area ( triangle )= ×6 × 8=24 mm
2

Converting 140cm to mm, we divide by 10 to get 14mm

1 2 3
∴ volume= × 24 mm ×14 mm=112mm
3
 1
3. volume= base area × height
3

1 2 3
volume= ×15 cm × 20 cm=100 cm
3
Activity
1. Calculate the volume of a rectangular based pyramid with dimensions 7cm by
10cm and perpendicular height 11.5cm.
2. Calculate the volume of a triangular pyramid with sides 3mm, 4mm, 5mm and
perpendicular height 170cm.
3. A pyramid has a base area of 23 cm2 and perpendicular height 12cm.
The frustum of a cone

The frustum of a cone is a part of a cone that remains when the top part is cut off.

h=height of small cone

r =radius of top part of frustum∧small cone

H=height of frustum

R=radius of bottom ( base ) of a frustum .

The volume of the frustum of a cone can be found by two methods that are given below:

Method 1
1 2 1 2
Volume= π R H− π r h
3 3
Or volume of the full cone – volume of the cut off cone, where

r =radius of small cone

R=radius of base of the frustum

H=height of thebig cone which includes the cut off part

h=height of small cone

π=3.142

Method 2

The formula used in this case is:

πh 2 2
volume= [r 1+r 2 +r 1 r 2 ] Where:
3

r 1=radius of the base of the frustum

r 2=radius of thetop part of the frustum

h=height of frustum .

Examples

1. The frustum of a cone is given below with the cut off part shown. The height of the
frustum is 25cm and the radii of the frustum are 6cm and 10cm.
Calculate the

(a) Height (h) of the small cone

(b) Volume of the frustum.
Solution
(a) We use similar objects
Ratio of radii = ratio of heights
6 h
=
10 h+25
10 h=6(h+ 25)
10 h=6 h+150
10 h−6 h=150
4 h=150
∴ h=37.5 cm

(b) We will use the two methods

Method 1
1 2
volume ( big cone )= π R H
3
H=37.5+ 25=62.5 cm

R=10 cm
1 2 19637.5 3
volume ( big cone )= ×3.142 ×(10) ×62.5= =6545.8 cm
3 3

1 2
volume ( small cone )= π r h
3
1 2 4241.7 3
volume ( small cone )= ×3.142 ×(6) ×37.5= =1413.9 cm
3 3

3 3 3
volume ( frustum )=6545.8 cm −1413.9 cm =5131.9 cm

3
∴ volume ( frustum ) =5131.9 cm

Method 2

πh 2 2
volume= [r 1+r 2 +r 1 r 2 ]
3
r 1=6 cm, r 2=10 cm, h=25 cm, π=3.142
(3.142)( 25) 2 2
volume= [ ( 6 ) + ( 10 ) + ( 6 )( 10 ) ]
3

78.55
volume= [ 36 +100+60 ]
3

volume=( 26.183333 ) (196 )=5131.9 cm3

2. Mr Kapini bought a flower pot with diameters 10cm and 14 cm.

Given that the height of the frustum is 15cm. Calculate the volume of the frustum.
Solution

πh 2 2
volume= [r 1+r 2 +r 1 r 2 ]
3

Since we have diameter, we need to change to radius

10
r 1= =5 cm
2
14
r 2= =7 cm
2
h=12 cm
(3.142)(12) 2 2
volume= [ (5 ) + (7 ) + ( 5 ) (7 ) ]
3
volume=( 12.568 ) [ 25+ 49+35 ]
3
volume=( 12.568 ) (109 )=1369.9 cm
Activity

The diagram below is the frustum of a cone with radii 6cm and 14cm.

Given that the height of the frustum is 24cm. calculate the volume of the frustum.

The frustum of a pyramid

For the frustum of the pyramid below:

h=height of frustum

The volume of the frustum is given by:

 h
volume= ¿
3

Where A1=area of top part of the frustum

A2=area of base of the frustum

Example

The diagram below is the frustum of a rectangular based pyramid.

Given that the height of the frustum is 11.4cm, calculate the volume of this frustum.

Solution
h
volume= ¿
3
2
A1=10 cm× 8 cm=80 cm
2
A2=12cm ×14 cm=168 cm

√❑
11.4
∴ volume= [ 80+168+115.93 ]
3
volume=3.8 [ 363.93 ]
 3
∴ volume=1382.9 cm

Activity

The diagram below is a square based frustum with lengths 8cm and 10cm.

If the height of the frustum is 9cm, calculate the volume of the frustum.

PROBABILITY

Greetings friends! Welcome one, welcome all to this wonderful topic on probability. In this
lesson you will learn the laws of probability and complementary events.

Probability is the likelihood of an event happening. If A is one possible outcome of an event, the
probability of A happening is given by:
number of favourable outcomes
P ( A )=
number of possible outcomes

Laws of probability

● Probabilities are always greater than 0 but less than 1, ie it’s a fraction
(0 ≤ P( A)≤ 1.
● The probability of an event that is certain to happen is 1 and the probability
of an event that can never happen is 0.
 Examples
1. A letter is selected at random from the word MATHEMATICS. What is the probability
that it is the letter
(a) M (b) C
Solution

Examples

number of ×M appears 2
1. (a) P ( M )= =
total number of letters∈the word 11

1
(b) P ( C ) =
11

2. Given the set of numbers {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}. If a number is selected at random, what

is the probability that it is
(i) An even number
(ii) An odd number
(iii) A factor of 14
(iv) 17
Solution
total number of even numbers
(i) P ( even )=
total number of numbers

Even numbers from the set = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

There are five (5) even numbers

5 1
P ( even )= =
10 2

number of odd numbers

(ii) P ( odd )=
total number of numbers∈the set

5 1
P ( odd )= =
10 2
 number of factors of 14
(iii) P ( factors of 14 ) =
total number of numbers

There are three (3) factors of 14 (1, 2, 7)

There are ten (10) numbers in the set
3
∴ P ( factors of 14 )=
10
(iv) There is no 17 in the set, therefore
number of ×17 appears
P ( 17 )=
total number of numbers ∈the set

0
P ( 17 )= =0
10

Exercise

A set contains the letters { A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K}. If a letter is chosen at random from the
set, find the probability that it is:

(a) A consonant
(b) A vowel
(c) The letter G.

Complimentary events

If A and B are complimentary events then P ( A ) + P ( B )=1.

Example.

3
The probability that Manchester united wins a football match is . Find the probability that
5
Manchester united loses a football match.

Solution
P ( win ) + P ( lose ) =1
3
P ( win ) =
5

3
+ P ( lose ) =1
5
 3 2
∴ P (lose )=1− =
5 5

Exercise
When a coin is tossed, the probability of getting heads is 0.6. Calculate the probability
that heads show when a coin is tossed.
11.13.1.1 Greetings dear all! Welcome one, welcome all. Remember previously you learnt how
to Compute probabilities using the laws of probability and complimentary events. Today we
will move a step further to discuss mutually exclusive events and independent events. All the
best as you learn.

Mutually exclusive events

Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if they cannot happen at the same time.
If A or B then P ( A∨B ) =P ( A )+ P ( B ) .

Example
There are 3 Black, 4 Green and 7 White balls in a box. If a ball is picked at random from
the box, find the probability that it is either Black or White.
Solution
total number of balls=3+ 4+7=14
3
P ( Black )=
14

7 1
P ( White )= =
14 2

P ( Black∨White )=P ( Black ) + P(White )

3 1 3+7
P ( Black ∨White )= + =
14 2 14

10 5
∴ P ( Black ∨White )= =
14 7

Activity
1
The probability of getting a two when a dice is rolled is , and the probability of getting
6
1
a six is also . Find the probability that when a dice is rolled, you will either get a two or
6
six.
 Independent events
Two events are independent if they do not have an effect on each other. If A and B are
independent, the A and B can happen at the same time , then probability of A and B is
given by

P ( A∧B ) =P (A )× P (B)

Example

A bag contains 5 Red, 4 White and 2Green balloons. If two balloons are selected at random
from the bag one after the other with replacement, find the probability of selecting

(a) Red first then Green

(b) Two White balloons.
Solution
(a) P ( RG ) =P(R)× P(G)
5
P ( R )=
11

2
P ( G )=
11
5 2 10
∴ P ( RG )= × =
11 11 121

4 4 16
(b) P ( WW ) = × =
11 11 121

Activity

2
The probability that Peter will have a cup of tea on any given day is and the probability that
5
5
Peter will go to school on any given day is . Calculate the probability that Peter will have a cup
6
of tea and go to school.

Greetings friends. Welcome one, welcome all. Previously you learnt about independent events
and mutually exclusive events. Today we will move a step further

Tree Diagrams

Tree diagrams are used to solve questions involving compound events.

Probabilities with replacement

This is where the total number of objects remains the same because a replacement happens
before the next selection.

Example

A bag contains 5 Red, 4 White and 2Green balloons. Two balloons are selected at random from
the bag one after the other with replacement. By constructing a tree diagram, find the
probability of selecting

(a) Red first then Green

(b) Red and Green
(c) Two balls of the same colour.
(d) Two balls of different colours.

Solution
(a) P ( RG ) =P(R)× P(G)

5 5 25
P ( RG ) = × =
11 11 121

(b) P ( RG∨GR )=P ( RG ) + ( GR )=P ( R ) P ( G )+ P ( G ) P( R)

P ( RG∨GR )= ( 115 )( 112 )+( 112 )( 115 )=( 121

10
)+( 121
10
)
20
∴ P ( RG∨GR ) =
121

(c) P ( same colour )=P ( RR∨WW∨¿ )=P ( R ) P ( R )+ P ( W ) P ( W ) + P ( G ) P (G)

¿ ( 115 )( 115 )+( 114 )( 114 )+( 112 )( 112 )

¿( ) +( ) +(
121 )
25 16 4
121 121

45
¿
121
 (d) P ( different colours )=1−P(same colours)

45 76
P ( different colours )=1− =
121 121

Activity

A box contains 3 Red, 2 White and 1 Green balls. Two balls are selected at random from the bag
one after the other with replacement. By constructing a tree diagram, find the probability of
selecting

Probability with replacement

This is a case in which the first object selected is not replaced when selecting the second object.
The number of objects will reduce by one each time a second object is selected.

Example

A bag contains 14 sweets in which 8 are red and the rest green. A sweet is selected at random
from the bag and not replaced then a second sweet is selected. By constructing a tree diagram,
find the probability of selecting

(a) Two green sweets.

(b) Sweets of different colours.
(c) Red first then green

Solution
Green = 14 – 8 =6
6 3
P ( Green ) = =
14 7
8 4
P ( Red ) = =
14 7
(a) P ( ¿ )=P ( G ) P (G )= ( 37 )( 26 )
6 1
∴ P ( ¿ )= =
42 7

(b) P ( RG∨GR )=P ( R ) P ( G ) + P ( G ) P (R)

P ( RG∨GR )= ( 74 )( 36 )+( 37 )( 46 )= 1242 + 1242

24 4
∴ P ( RG∨GR ) = =
42 7

(c) P ( RG ) =P ( R ) P(G)

P ( RG ) = ( 47 )( 36 )= 1242 = 27
Activity
A bag contains 3 Red, 2 White and 1 Green balls. Two balls are selected at random from the bag
one after the other without replacement. By constructing a tree diagram, find the probability of
selecting

(a) Red first then Green

(b) Red and Green

(c) Two balls of the same colour.

(d) Two balls of different colours.

Probability grids

A probability grid is a table that shows all possible outcomes of a trial

A red and a blue die are rolled

(a) Construct a grid to show all possible outcomes.

(b) Calculate the probability of getting
(i) A sum of 7 when the results are added
(ii) A product of 12 when the results are multiplied.
(iii) The same score on both dice.
Solution
(a) A dice has six faces and the grid is given as shown below with the two numbers in
each box coming from the blue die and the red die.

(b) (i) The numbers adding to 7 are (1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)
The total number of possibilities is 36 and there are 6 possibilities of numbers adding
to 7 therefore
 6 1
P ( ∑ of 7 )= =
36 6
(ii)results that multiply to 12 are (3,4),(4,3),(2,6),(6,2)
4 1
P ( product of 12 )= =
36 9
(iii)results with same score on both sides are (1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), ((5,5), (6,6)

6 1
∴ P ( same score )= =
36 6
Activity
1. Die 1 and Die 2 are rolled at the same time.
(i) Construct a probability grid.
(ii) Calculate the probability of getting:
(a) A sum of 8 if the results are added together.
(b) A product of 30 if the results are multiplied.
(c) Two factors of 20 on both die.
2. A dice and a coin are tossed at the same time.
(a) Construct a probability grid.
(b) Calculate the probability of getting
(i) Tails and an even number
(ii) Heads and a factor of 20
(iii) Tails and a 5
(iv) Heads and a number greater than 4
(v)

STATISTICS

Hello dear friends! You are welcome, hope you enjoyed the previous theme on probability. Please if
you are still facing challenges on the aforementioned topic do not hesitate to get back to us, we
exist to save you better. The new topic that we will start is statistics. Thus, Statistics is defined as a
branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, analysis and presentation of data. The major
focus for todays lesson is on completing cumulative frequency tables and cumulative
frequency curves.

Completing cumulative frequency tables

 Example

The amount of fees charged in 900 high schools is shown in the table below.
330< x ≤340 340< x ≤350 350< x ≤360 360< x ≤370 370< x ≤380 380< x ≤390 390< x ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

Number of 20 70 150 180 300 160 20

schools

(a) Copy and complete the following cumulative frequency table below.
≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350 ≤ 360 ≤ 370 ≤ 380 ≤ 390 ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

frequency 0 20 90 a b c d e

Solution

To find the values of a, b, c, d and e, we use the two tables together to complete the table
below.

. a = 90 +150 = 240

. b = 240 + 180 = 420

. c = 420 + 300 = 720

. d = 720 + 160 = 880

. e = 880 + 20 = 900

Activity

The police force in a community recorded the number of drug related crimes that were
reported weekly on a number of consecutive weeks.
1−5 6−10 11−15 16−20 21−25
Number of drug
related crimes
 Number of 4 8 13 10 17
weeks

Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table below.

≤1 ≤5 ≤ 10 ≤ 15 ≤ 20 ≤ 25
Number of
drug related
crimes

Number of 0 4 12 52
weeks

Cumulative frequency curves

A cumulative frequency curve also called an ogive is a curve obtained by plotting a graph of the
cumulative frequencies against the number of data values.

Example

The amount of fees charged in 900 high schools is shown in the table below.

330< x ≤340 340< x ≤350 350< x ≤360 360< x ≤370 370< x ≤380 380< x ≤390 390< x ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

Number of 20 70 150 180 300 160 20

schools

(a) Copy and complete the following cumulative frequency table below.
 ≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350 ≤ 360 ≤ 370 ≤ 380 ≤ 390 ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

frequency 0 20 90 a b C d e

(b) Using a horizontal scale of 2cm to represent K10 for values between K330 and K400 and
a vertical scale of 2cm to represent 100 schools, draw a smooth cumulative frequency
curve.

Solution

(a) To find the values of a, b, c, d and e, we use the two tables together to complete the
table below.

. a = 90 +150 = 240

. b = 240 + 180 = 420

. c = 420 + 300 = 720

. d = 720 + 160 = 880

. e = 880 + 20 = 900

Therefore the completed table is

≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350 ≤ 360 ≤ 370 ≤ 380 ≤ 390 ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

frequency 0 20 90 240 420 720 880 900

 (b)

Activity
The number of days pupils of class B were absent from school are recorded in the table
below.
0< x ≤5 5< x ≤10 10< x ≤15 15< x ≤20 20< x ≤25 25< x ≤30
Days

Pupils absent
3 15 42 28 10 2

(a) Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table below.

≤0 ≤5 ≤ 10 ≤ 15 ≤ 20 ≤ 25 ≤ 30
Days

Pupils absent
 0 3 18 60

(b) Using a horizontal scale of 2cm to represent 5 days for 0 ≤ x ≤ 30 and a vertical scale of
2cm to represent 10 pupils for 0 ≤ y ≤ 30 ,draw a smooth cumulative frequency curve.
Relative cumulative frequency

The relative cumulative frequency is found by dividing the relative frequency by the total
frequency.

Example

The table below shows the distribution of the ages of 30 football players at a school.

Age(x) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
years

frequency 0 2 5 7 8 6 2

(a) The table below was constructed using the table above, complete the relative
cumulative frequency table below.

Age(x) years ≤10 ≤11 ≤12 ≤13 ≤14 ≤15 ≤16

Cumulative frequency 0 2 7 14 22 28 30

Relative cumulative 0.00 0.07 0.23 1.00

frequency

(b) Using 2cm to 1 unit on the x –axis for 10 ≤ x ≤ 16 and 2cm to represent 0.1 for
0 ≤ y ≤ 1 , draw a smooth relative cumulative frequency curve.

Solution

(a) The second row is used to complete the third row by dividing the cumulative
frequency by the total frequency.
So to find the value under 14, we divide
14
=0.47
30
 The value under 22 will be found as
22
=0.73
30
Under 28, we have
28
=0.93
30
∴ the completed table is

Age(x) years ≤10 ≤11 ≤12 ≤13 ≤14 ≤15 ≤16

Cumulative frequency 0 2 7 14 22 28 30

Relative cumulative
frequency 0.00 0.07 0.23 0.47 0.73 0.93 1.00
 (b)

(c)
Activity
(a) Complete the relative cumulative frequency below.

≤ 400
Days absent ≤330 ≤340 ≤350 ≤360 ≤370 ≤380 ≤390

Cumulative frequency 0 20 90 240 420 720 880 900

Relative cumulative
frequency 0.00 0.02 0.10 0.98 1.00

(b) Using 2cm to 1 unit on the x –axis for 330 ≤ x ≤ 400 and 2cm to represent 0.1 for
0 ≤ y ≤ 1 , draw a smooth relative cumulative frequency curve.
Measures of dispersion

Measures of dispersion gives information about the spread of the data values. The measures of
dispersion include the range, quartiles, percentiles, variance and the standard deviation.

Range

This is the difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set.

Example

Find the range in the data set: 3,4,8,10,7,6,5

Solution

Range = 10 – 3 = 7

Activity

Calculate the range of the data set: 90, 95, 88, 76, 81, 67, 65

Quartiles

The quartiles divide an ordered data set into four parts. There are three quartiles, the lower
quartile, the middle quartile (Median) and the Upper quartile.

The Lower quartile (Q1): divides the lower half of the data set. The formula below can be used
to find the lower quartile,

1
Q1 = ×Total frequency
4

The middle quartile (Q2): also known as the median divides the data set in half. The formula
that is used to find the middle quartile is:

1
Median = ×Total frequency
2

The Upper quartile (Q3): this divides the upper half of the data set. The formula used to find the
upper quartile is:

3
Q3 = ×Total frequency
4

The interquartile range

This is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile.
IQR = Q3 – Q1

The semi interquartile range

This is half of the interquartile range.

Q3−Q1
SIQR =
2

Example

For the data set 5, 0, 2, 7,6, 3, 1. Find the

(i) Lower quartile

(ii) Median
(iii) Upper quartile
(iv) Interquartile range
(v) Semi inter quartile range.
Solution
(i) First arrange the data set in ascending order.
0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 (seven numbers in the set so we solve as below).
Since 3 is the median, the lower data set contains 0, 1 and 2. So the middle value of
the lower data set is the lower quartile.
∴Q1 = 1.

(ii) The middle value of the whole data set is

∴ Q2=3

(iii) Since the middle number is 3, the upper data set contains the numbers 5, 6 and 7.
Therefore the upper quartile is
Q3 = 6.
6−1 5
(iv) IQR = = =2.5
2 2

2.5
(v) SIQR = =1.25
2

Activity

For the data set 56, 72, 65, 28, 45, 68, 56, and 98. Calculate the

(i) Lower quartile

(ii) Median
 (iii) Upper quartile
(iv) Interquartile range
(v) Semi inter quartile range.
Percentiles

Percentiles divide a set into 100 equal hundredths. The nth percentile is given by the formula:
th n
n percentile= × Total frequency
100

Variance and Standard deviation

These are measures of dispersion that show how far the data is from the mean.

Ungrouped data

The variance for ungrouped data is given by:

❑
❑

Var = ∑
2
x−( x )
❑ , where
❑
x=data values

n=number of datavalues

x=the mean

● The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It is denoted by SD or σ .

SD=√ ❑

Example
Chibuye Musonda recorded the following mathematics results for 10 tests she had
written: 7, 4, 8, 2, 5, 4, 9, 9,6,5. Calculate the
(i) Variance
(ii) Standard deviation
Solution
(i) First create the following table
x x
2
 7 49

4 16

8 64

2 4

5 25

4 16

9 81

9 81

6 36

5 25

Total 59 397

Then by using the table, you calculate the mean( x ) now as follows:

❑
59
∑
❑
x= =5.9
10
x=
❑
Substituting in the formula we have:

❑
❑

Var = ∑
❑
x−( x )2
, n=10 , x =5.9 , ∑ ( x ) =397
2
❑
❑
❑

397 2
∴ Var= −( 5.9 )
10
 ∴ Var=39.7−34.81=4.89 .
(ii) SD=√ ❑

Activity

The following masses were recorded at mwafa kudala community clinic for 7 under five babies:

5.3kg, 4.7kg, 2.9kg, 6.1kg, 5.1kg, 6.7kg and 9kg. calculate the

(i) mean mass

(ii) standard deviation.

Grouped data

The variance for grouped data is given by:

❑
❑

Var = ∑
2
fx−( x )
❑ , where f =frequency , x =data values∧x=mean.
❑

● The standard deviation is always given by the square root of the variance:

SD=√ ❑

Example
The following table shows the number of drug related crimes that were reported
weekly.

Number of crimes 1-5 6 - 10

11-15 16-20 21-25

weeks
4 8 13 10 17

Calculate the standard deviation

Solution
First create a table that will help you to solve by looking at the variables in the
equation.

x
2
f fx fx
2

Midpoints ( x ¿

3
9 4 12 36

8
64 8 64 512

13
169 13 169 2197

18
324 10 180 3240

23
529 17 391 8993

Total
❑ ❑ ❑
∑ f =¿ ¿52
❑
∑ fx=¿ ¿816
❑
∑
❑
2
fx =¿ ¿1497
8

Note
 ● To get the values of x (midpoints), add the first and last number in the range and divide
by two. For example, for the range (1 – 5):

1+ 5 6
Midpoint (x) = = =3.
2 2
● The frequencies (f) are the values in the lower part of the table. For example the
frequency of the range 11 – 15 is 13.
● The other columns are found by multiplying. For example, fx is found by multiplying
corresponding values in the f ∧x columns, in the first row, x=3∧f =4 , therefore
fx=3 × 4=12.
Now to answer the question, we will use the table we have created as follows.
First find the mean by:
❑
816
∑❑
fx=
52
=15.69
x=
❑

Then substitute in the formula below

SD=√ ❑

SD=√ ❑

SD=√ ❑

∴ SD=6.46

Activity

The amount of fees charged in 900 high schools is shown in the table below.
330< x ≤340 340< x ≤350 350< x ≤360 360< x ≤370 370< x ≤380 380< x ≤390 390< x ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

Number of 20 70 150 180 300 160 20

schools
 Calculate the standard deviation and the variation.

Example

The table below shows the amount of money spent by 100 learners at school on a particular
day.
0< x ≤5 5< x ≤10 10< x ≤15 15< x ≤20 20< x ≤25 25< x ≤30
Amount in
kwacha

frequency 13 27 35 16 7 2

(a) Calculate the standard deviation.

(b) Answer this part of the question on a sheet of graph paper.
(i) Using the table above, copy and complete the cumulative frequency table.

≤0 ≤5 ≤ 10 ≤ 15 ≤ 20 ≤ 25 ≤ 30
Amount in
kwacha

frequency 0 13 40 100

(ii) Using a scale of 2cm to represent 5 units on the horizontal axis and 2cm to
represent 10 units on the vertical axis, draw a smooth cumulative frequency
curve.
(iii) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the
(a) Interquartile range.
(b) 60th percentile.

Solution

(a)

x
2
f fx fx
2

Midpoints (x)

2.5 6.25 13 32.5 81.25

7.5 56.25 27 202.5 1518.75

 12.5 156.25 35 437.5 5468.75

17.5 306.25 16 280 4900

22.5 506.25 7 157.5 3543.75

27.5 756.25 2 55 1512.5

❑ ❑ ❑
Total
∑ f =¿ ¿100
❑
∑ fx=¿ ¿1165
❑
∑
❑
2
fx =¿ ¿17025

1165
mean ( x )= =11.65
100

SD=√ ❑

∴ SD=5.88

(i)
≤0 ≤5 ≤ 10 ≤ 15 ≤ 20 ≤ 25 ≤ 30
Amount in
kwacha

frequency 0 13 40 75 91 98 100
 (ii)

(iii) (a) First find the upper quartile

3 th
Q3= × 100=75
4

This mark on the y axis corresponds to K15 on the x axis.

∴ Q3=K 15.

Then find Q1, the lower quartile by:

1 th
Q 1= ×100=25
4

25 on the y- axis corresponds to K7.5 on the x- axis.

∴ Q1=K 7.5
 Then subtract to find the interquartile range
∴ IQR=k 15−k 7.5=k 7.5

60 60 th
(b)The 60th percentile is found by ×total frequency= ×100=60
100 100

The 60th mark on the y – axis corresponds to k 13 on the x – axis.

∴ 60 percentile=k 13.
th

Activity

1. The amount of fees charged in 900 schools is given in the table below.
330< x ≤340 340< x ≤350 350< x ≤360 360< x ≤370 370< x ≤380 380< x ≤390 390< x ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

Number of 20 70 150 180 300 160 20

schools

(a) Calculate the standard deviation

(b) Copy and complete the following cumulative frequency table below.
≤ 330 ≤ 340 ≤ 350 ≤ 360 ≤ 370 ≤ 380 ≤ 390 ≤ 400
Fees in
kwacha

frequency 0 20 90 900

(c) Using a horizontal scale of 2cm to represent K10 for values between K330 and K400 and
a vertical scale of 2cm to represent 100 schools, draw a smooth cumulative frequency
curve.
(d) By showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate the
(i) Semi interquartile range.
(ii) Median amount charged
(iii) 40th percentile
(e) Find how many schools charged more than k 385.
2. The table below shows the distribution of the ages of 30 football players at a school.

Age(x) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
years
 frequency 0 2 5 7 8 6 2

(a) Calculate the variance and the standard deviation

(b) The table below was constructed using the table above, complete the relative
cumulative frequency table below.

Age(x) years ≤10 ≤11 ≤12 ≤13 ≤14 ≤15 ≤16

Cumulative frequency 0 2 7 14 22 28 30

Relative cumulative 0.00 0.07 0.23 1.00

frequency

(c) Using 2cm to 1 unit on the x –axis for 10 ≤ x ≤ 16 and 2cm to represent 0.1 for
0 ≤ y ≤ 1 , draw a smooth relative cumulative frequency curve.
(d) Showing your method clearly, use your graph to estimate
(i) The interquartile range of the distribution.
(ii) The 48th percentile.

VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction, e.g. acceleration, velocity, Force
etc.

Vector representation

A vector can be represented in two different ways as:

● a line segment with an arrow showing the starting point and the end point.

A B
⃗
AB
● a coordinate, e.g ⃗
OB = ( x y ), where x and y are real numbers. Note that the vector ⃗
OB
can be written in coordinate form as B( x , y ) .
Activity
1. write the following vectors as coordinates.
(a) ⃗
OP= ( 7−2 ) (b) ⃗
OQ=(−5−3 )
 2. The coordinate of a point P is given as P (2, 3). Express P as a vector.
Magnitude of a vector

OP= ( x y ) is denoted as |⃗
The magnitude of a column vector ⃗ OP| and is given by:

|⃗
OP|= √❑

Examples

1. Calculate the length of the vector ⃗p= ( 4−5 ) .

Solution
|⃗p|=√❑

|⃗p|=√❑
∴|⃗p|=6.4 units

2. Given that q⃗ =( x 4 ) and |q⃗|=5units . Calculate the possible values of x .

Solution

|q⃗|= √❑

5=√ ❑
5=√ ❑

Squaring both sides we get

2
25=x +16
2
x =9

Finding the square root of both sides we get

x=± √❑
∴ x=−3∨x=3

Activity

1. Given that a⃗ =( 5 7 ) . Calculate |⃗a|.

2. Given that ⃗p= ( 4 y ) . Find the possible values of x if |q⃗|=8units .
Position vectors
These are vectors that start from the origin. If the coordinate of the point A is (x , y ), then the
position vector of A is given by ⃗
OA = ( x y ) .

Examples

1. Given that ⃗OA =(−12 7 ) and ⃗

OB =( 5 9 ) . Find
⃗
(a) AB
(b) The coordinate of the point B.
Solution
(a) We first write the formula for ⃗
AB
⃗AB=⃗ AO +⃗OB
Note that ⃗
OA =−⃗
AO, so
⃗
AB=−(−127 )+ ( 5 9 )=( 17 2 )

(b) Since ⃗
OB =( 5 9 ) . The coordinate for B is ( 5 , 9 ) .
2. Given that ⃗PQ =( 129 ) and Q is ( 2 , 3 ) . Find the coordinate of P.
Solution
Q as a position vector is ⃗OQ=( 23 )
⃗
PQ =⃗ PO + ⃗
OQ

( 12 9 )=⃗PO + ( 2 3 )
( 12 9 )− (2 3 ) =⃗
PO

( 10 6 ) =⃗
PO

∴⃗
OP=−( 10 6 ) =(−10−6 )

∴ the coordinate for P is (−10 ,−6 ) .

Activity
1. Given that ⃗ AB= (−117 ) and the position vector of A is ( 1−2 ) . Find the coordinate of B.
2. Given that ⃗ OB =(−5 9 ) . Find |⃗
OA =( 8 3 ) and ⃗ AB|.
3. Find the position vector of a vector that has the starting point at A (3, 5) and end point
at B ( -4, 7).
Collinearity

The points P, Q and R are collinear if

● ⃗
PQ =k ⃗
QR where k is a scalar

● PQ∧QR have the same gradient (k ).

Example

Given A (8,10), B (4,12) and C (2, 13). Show that the points A, B and C are collinear.

Solution

Method 1

We first find the vectors ⃗

AB and ⃗
BC

⃗
AB=⃗
AO +⃗
OB ⃗
OA =( 8 10 ) , ⃗
OB=( 4 12 ) , ⃗
OC= ( 213 )
⃗
AB=−( 8 10 ) + ( 4 12 )=(−4 2 )

⃗
BC =⃗
BO+ ⃗
OC
⃗
BC =−( 4 12 )+ ( 213 )=(−2 1 )

Since ⃗
AB=2 ⃗
BC
∴ A , B∧C are collinear .

Method 2

A (8, 10), B(4, 12) and C (2, 13)

Find the gradients of AB and BC, if they are equal then the points are collinear.
y 2− y 1
m AB=
x 2−x 1

12−10 2 −1
m AB= = =
4−8 −4 2

Using the points B and C, we find the gradient of BC

13−12 −1
mBC = =
2−4 2

Since the gradients are equal, then the points A, B and C are collinear.

Activity

Prove that the points P (16, 20), Q (8, 24) and R (4, 26) are collinear.

Vector geometry
Examples

1. OACB is a parallelogram, ⃗
OA =¿a, ⃗
OB =¿b and ⃗
AC =¿5⃗
DC .

Express the following in terms of a and/or b.

(a) ⃗
BC (b) ⃗
CA (c) ⃗
DA (d) ⃗
OD (e) ⃗
BD
Solution
(a) Since OABC is a parallelogram, ⃗
BC =¿a
(b) ⃗
CA=¿-b
(c) ⃗
AC=5 ⃗ DC
b=5 ⃗DC
⃗ 1
DC= b
5
1 −4
∴⃗DA= b−b= b
5 5

(d) ⃗
OD=⃗
OA +⃗AD
4
∴⃗
OD=¿a + b
5

(e) ⃗
BO +⃗
OD=⃗ BD
+4 1
= −b+ ¿a b=¿a + b
5 5
2. (I) ABC is a triangle such that AM: MB = 3:1 and BE: BC = 2:5, D is the midpoint of AC
and DE and MC intersect at X.⃗ AB=a∧⃗ AC =2 b
(a) Express the following in terms of a and/or b.

(i) ⃗
MC (ii) ⃗
BC

3
(b) Given that ⃗ MC , show that ⃗
MX =h ⃗ DX = (1−h ) a+(h−1)a
4

(c) Show that the points B, E and C are collinear.

Solution

−3
(a) (i) ⃗
MC=⃗ MA + ⃗AC , ⃗
MA= a
4
−3
∴⃗ MC= a +b
4

(ii) ⃗
BC =⃗
BA+⃗
AC
¿−a+b

−3 −3
(b) ⃗
MX =h ⃗
MC =h( a+b) = h a+ h b
4 4
⃗
DX =¿ ⃗
DA + ⃗AM +⃗
MX
⃗ 3 3
DX =−b+ a− h a+ hb
4 4
⃗ 3
DX = (1−h ) a+(h−1)b
4

Activity