SESSION 1:

INTRODUCTION TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

1.1 Definition of culture
• “Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” (E.B. Tylor, 1871)
• “Culture should be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual
and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in
addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems,
traditions and beliefs.” (UNESCO, 2002)
• “Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, norms, and
social practices, which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group” (Lustig &
Koester, 2013, p. 25)
• Culture is a system of beliefs, values, and assumptions about life that guide behavior
and are shared by a group of people. It includes customs, language, and material
artifacts. These are transmitted from generation to generation, rarely with explicit
instructions. (Building Bridges: A Peace Corps Classroom Guide to Cross-Cultural
Understanding)
• “Culture is the shared assumptions, values, and beliefs of a group of people which
result in characteristic behaviors.” (Storti, Figuring Foreigners out, 1998, p. 5)
• Three levels of human mental programming - culture: “the collective programming
of the mind” (Hofstede, 1997)

Exercise 1.1: Matching Values and Behaviors

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1. Being direct A. Use of understatement
2. Centrality of family B. Asking people to call you by first name
3. Fatalism C. Taking off from work to attend the funeral of a cousin
4. Saving face D. Not asking for help from a person next to you on an
5. Respect for age exam
6. Informality E. Disagreeing openly with sb at a meeting
7. Deference (respect) to F. Not laying off an older worker whose performance is
authority weak
8. Being indirect G. At a meeting, agreeing with a suggestion you think is
9. Self-reliance wrong
10. Egalitarianism H. Inviting the teaboy to eat lunch with you in your office
I. Asking the boss’s opinion of sth you’re the expert on
J. Accepting, without question, that sth cannot be changed

Answers: 1E, 2C, 3J, 4G, 5F, 6B, 7I, 8A, 9D, 10H
1.2 Components of culture
• 2 components:
 Material + Spiritual = Culture (by many authors)
 Tangible + Intangible = Culture (UNESCO)
• 3 components:
 Technological + Social + Ideological = Culture (L.A. White, 1949)
 Material + Spiritual + Artistic = Culture (M.S. Kagan, 1974)
 Material + Spiritual + Social = Culture (Le Van Lan; Chu Xuan Dien)
 Perception + Organization + Response = Culture (Tran Ngoc Them, 1995)

1.3 Definition of communication and aspects of communication

1.3.1 Definition of communication
• A two-way process by which two or more individuals try to exchange meaning:
ideas, feelings, symbols, etc.
• “Communication is the process through which participants create and share
information with one another as they move toward reaching mutual understanding.”
(Rogers & Steinfatt, 1998, p. 133)
• “Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that
elicit a response.” (Griffin, Ledbetter & Sparks, 2019, p. 6)

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 • “Human communication as a transactional process in which people generate
meaning through the exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages in specific
contexts, influenced by individual and societal forces and embedded in culture”
(Alberts, Nakayama & Martin, 2019, p. 6)

1.3.2 Aspects of communication

• Aspects of communication: Albert Mehrabian (Verbal + Nonverbal + Paraverbal)

• Barriers of communication:
 Barriers to reception: environmental stimuli, receiver’s
attitudes/values/needs/expectations/personal concerns
 Barriers to understanding: semantics, listener’s ability to listen and receive,
length, status effect, cultural differences
 Barriers to acceptance: prejudices, interpersonal conflicts, cultural differences

1.4 Definition of intercultural communication

• “The phrase cross-cultural communication describes the ability to successfully form,
foster, and improve relationships with members of a culture different from one's
own. It is based on knowledge of many factors, such as the other culture's values,
perceptions, manners, social structure, and decision-making practices, and an
understanding of how members of the group communicate--verbally, non-verbally,
in person, in writing, and in various business and social contexts, to name but a few.”
(East-West Business Strategies)
• “Cross-cultural communication (also frequently referred to as intercultural
communication, which is also used in a different sense, though) is a field of study

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 that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in
similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to
communicate across cultures.”
http://www3.shopping.com/crosscultural/dzGVLeG6H4YfNfPuY4Y6JQ==/info
• According to Stella Ting-Toomey, the necessary elements of intercultural
communication are:
 Two people (or two groups)
 of different cultures (with the definition of «culture» being quite broad)
 in interaction
 who negotiate common meaning
• “Intercultural communication is a communication process in which people from
different cultures try to understand what others from different cultures try to
communicate and what their messages mean.” (Reisinger & Dimanche, 2010, p. 167)

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 SESSION 2:
FACTORS INFLUENCING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
2.1 Low-Context vs. High-Context Cultures (Direct vs. Indirect Culture)
Low-Context Culture High-Context Culture
Relationships depend on trust, build up
Relationships begin and end quickly
slowly, are stable.
RELATIONSHIP
ASSOCIATION/

Things get done by following How things get done depends on

procedures and paying attention to relationships with people and attention
the goal. to group process.
One's identity is rooted in oneself One's identity is rooted in groups
and one's accomplishments. (family, culture, work).

Social structure is decentralized Social structure/authority is centralize

Low use of nonverbal elements. High use of nonverbal elements

Verbal message is implicit

COMMUNICATION

Verbal message is explicit.

INTERACTION/

Verbal message is direct Verbal message is indirect

Communication is seen as
Communication is seen as an art form-
exchanging information, ideas, and
a way of engaging someone
opinions.

Disagreement is depersonalized Disagreement is personalized

TERRITORIALITY/

Space is private Space is communal

SPACE

People stand close to each other, share

Keep distance on first acquaintance
the same space

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 TEMPORALITY/ Time is not easily scheduled; needs of
Things are scheduled to be done at
people may interfere with keeping to a
particular times, one thing at a time
TIME
set time
Change is fast Change is slow
Time is a commodity Time is a process
Thinking is inductive, proceeds Thinking is deductive, proceeds from
LEARNING/REASONING

from specific to general. general to specific

Learning occurs by following Learning occurs by first observing
explicit directions and explanations others as they model or demonstrate
of others and then practicing
An individual orientation is
Groups are preferred for learning and
preferred for learning and problem
problem solving.
solving
Speed is valued Accuracy is valued

 Direct vs. Indirect cultures

Direct Indirect
Say what they mean and mean what they say Rely on non-verbal signs
Rely on content Politeness and ambiguity
Value written word Preserve the relationship
Can appear rude or challenging to other Can appear to be telling “lies” to other
cultures cultures that are direct

2.2 Stereotypes, generalizations, and ethnocentrism

a. Stereotypes: rigid preconceptions which are applied to all members of a group or to an
individual over a period of time, regardless of individual variations.
b. Generalization: a statement describing general behavior that does not apply all the time
c. Ethnocentrism: tendency to interpret or judge all other groups, their environments, and
their communication according to the values and behaviors of our own culture.

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 SESSION 3:
STYLES OF COMMUNICATION
3.1 Communication Styles
3.1.1 Direct vs. Indirect
Direct/Low-context Indirect/High-context
forms of communication forms of communication
• more individualist • more collectivist
• more independent • saving face
• share fewer experiences • imply or suggest meaning
• say what they mean and mean what • messages often do not need words to be
they say • expressed
• no need to read between the lines. • use body language and other forms of
• truth is more important communication
• difficult for outsiders to understand
• tend to avoid confrontation

3.1.2 Linear vs. Circular

• is straightforward • has a high reliance on context.
• has a low reliance on context • telling stories, developing a context around
• has a strong reliance on words the main point

3.1.3 Attached/Emotionally Expressive vs. Detached/Emotionally Restrained

• presented with feelings and emotions • discuss in a calm and objective way
• expresses feelings about a situation • less likely to get emotionally aroused in a
discussion

3.1.4 Concrete vs. Abstract

• prefer to communicate using stories, • use principles and data
metaphors, and examples • emphasize the general rather than the
specific

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3.1.5 Ping pong vs. Bowling
Ping-pong Bowling
• one person has the ball and then hits • each participant waits politely for a
it to the other side of the table. turn and knows exactly when the
• the other player hits the ball back and time is right to speak.
the game continues • one's turn depends on status, age, and
• if one person doesn't return the ball, the relationship to the other person.
then the conversation stops • when it is time to take a turn, the
• each part follows this pattern: the person bowls carefully
greeting and the opening, the • the others watch politely, and do not
discussion of a topic, and the closing leave their places in line or take a
and farewell turn out of order.
Ex: American conversations → high • no one else speaks until the ball has
involvement reached the bowling pins.
• long silences are tolerated.
Ex: Japanese conversations → high
considerateness

3.2 Communication Techniques

Storti (1998). Figuring Foreigners out, p. 101-106
3.3 Switching Styles
Storti (1998). Figuring Foreigners out, p. 107-110.

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 SESSION 4
LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
4.1 Language and culture
• “Knowledge of the world's languages and cultures is more vital than ever. In order
to compete in the global community, we must be able to communicate effectively
and to appreciate, understand, and be able to work in the framework of other
cultures.” (US senator, Paul Simon)
• In the past, culture used to be distinct from language; nowadays, it has become
integral to it
• “A language is part of a culture and culture is part of language; the two are intricately
interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of
either language or culture.” (Douglas Brown, 1994)
• Example:
 Words for colors:

Western cultures Eastern cultures

→ positive meaning (purity, → death &
peace, ..) unhappiness/misfortune
• white lies: lies that are told • Màu trắng tang tóc
to be polite (funerals)
• white hope: person/thing • Thua trắng
expected to bring great • Anh còn tay trắng
success
WHITE • a white stone: sth that is very
favorable, fortunate
• a white chief: an important,
successful, influential
person
• white dresses: worn by
brides

→ passion, excitement → luck, happiness,& long

RED
>< danger, sin life

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 Ex: Ex: in the traditional
▪ red carpet: a welcome for wedding in Vietnam &
sb marked by great China:
ceremony ▪ red dress (for the
▪ be caught red-handed bride)
▪ be in the red: be in debt ▪ red invitation cards
▪ red cakes

 Words for relationships: I vs. Con/Em/Cháu/…

 Comparison between Eastern & Western cultures
Distinctions in geography, history, livelihood, customs,...
→ Reflect clearly in language:
▪ Vocabulary
▪ Idioms
▪ Proverbs
▪ Sayings
Vietnamese English
→ Eastern country: → Western country:
▪ Agriculture ▪ Nomadic farming
▪ Collectivism ▪ Individualism
→ Reflect on the way Vietnamese → Reflect on how they express their
people name objects, phenomena,... → feelings and ideas → Idioms and
Vocabulary proverbs
Example: Example:
▪ The rice-making process: Xay, ▪ Nightingales will not sing in a
giã giần, sàng, gieo mạ, cày sâu case. Thà làm chim sẻ trên cành,
cuốc bẫm,.. còn hơn sống kiếp hoàng oanh
▪ Religion and belief: Đình, miếu, trong lồng
bàn thờ, bài vị... ▪ Every cloud has a silver lining:
Trong họa có phúc

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4.2 Culture and communication
• Culture: Values, attitudes and communication behavious shared by a majority of a
group of people that distinguish that group from other groups
• Communication:
 A two-way process by which two or more individuals try to exchange
meaning: ideas, feelings, symbols, etc.
 “. . . to know another's language and not his culture is a very good way to
make a fluent fool of oneself” (Winston Brembeck)

4.3 Verbal language in cross-cultural communication

4.3.1 Components of Verbal Language
• Word: Words or phrases may have several senses (multiple meanings) be situation-
based or context-bound (and/or) be socially and culturally shaped
• Sounds
• Sentence
• Grammar & Syntax
• Discourse

4.3.2 Characteristics of verbal language that can lead to misunderstandings in IC

• Language is inherently ambiguous
• Language is arbitrary
• Language is diverse
• Language is socio-culturally conditioned

4.4 Non-verbal behavior in cross-cultural communication

4.4.1 Definitions of non-verbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process by which nonverbal behaviours are used, either
singly or in combination with verbal behaviours, in the exchange and interpretation of
messages within a given situation or context. (Malandro, Barker & Barker, 1989)
4.4.2 Forms of non-verbal communication
• Proxemics: Spatial/Distance Behavior: Conversational/Interpersonal Distance
• Kinesics: Body Movement/Gestures and Body Positioning; Facial Expressiveness
• Haptics: Touch Behavior
• Oculesics: Gaze behavior/Eye Contact

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 • Chronemics: Time concepts
• Vocalics: Tone & voice
• Dress and make-up

4.4.3 Characteristics of non-verbal behavior that can cause cross-cultural

misunderstanding
• Non-verbal language is less systematized/systematic than verbal language.
“According to Condon and Yousef (1975), although scholars tend to assume that
nonverbal behaviors conform to some system that is similar to a grammar, syntax,
or vocabulary, little is in fact known about nonverbal communication in different
societies.” (Chen and Starosta, 1998, p. 86)
• Non-verbal language is culture-bound.
No single culture gives significance to much over half of all possible cues, and the
same cue may carry various meanings across cultures.
• Non-verbal language is ambiguous.
 Context-bound
 Relationship between interactants

d. Cultural differences in Non-Verbal Communication

“Americans smile at strangers. I don’t know what to think of that”
Smile
(Russian Engineer)
Americans tend to look people in the eye.
→ They are uncomfortable without continuous eye contact and assume
that the other is hiding something or being less honest if they look away.
In Asia, it is a sign of respect to look down, and of disrespect or
confrontation to have continuous eye contact.
Eye contact
→ Speakers should avoid looking directly into another person’s eyes for
more than a few seconds at a time.
In Vietnam, there is the tendency not to sustain eye contact.
→ Vietnamese people tend not to make continuous eye contact with those
they respect.

Recommendations 3 As rules: Awareness - Alertness - Adaptation

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 SESSION 5:
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

5.1 Individualist-Collectivist → Concept of self

Individualist Collectivist
• Self-identity • Group identity
• Individual needs are satisfied before • By considering the others’ needs
those of the group. and feelings, one protects oneself.
• Looking after and taking care of • Harmony/face-saving and
oneself/being self- sufficient interdependence
guarantees the well-being of the • Little psychological or emotional
group. distance (ingroup)
• Independence/self- reliance • More psychological or emotional
• More psychological and emotional distance (outgroup)
distance
• Group membership: not essential to
one’s identity, survival, or success.

5.2 Universalist-Particularist → Personal vs. societal responsibility

Universalist Particularist
• There are certain absolutes that apply • How you behave in a given
across the board, regardless of situation depends on the
circumstances or the particular circumstances.
situation. • What is right in one situation may
• What is right is always right. not be right in another.
• You treat family, friends, and your
ingroups the best you can.
• To be fair is to treat everyone alike →
• To be fair is to treat everyone as
no exceptions
unique → exceptions are made for
• Ingroup/outgroup distinctions are
certain pp.
minimized
• One’s ingroups and outgroups are
clearly distinguished.

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 • Personal feelings should be laid aside • Personal feelings should not be laid
and situations should be looked at aside but rather relied upon.
objectively.

5.3 Monochronic-Polychronic → Concept of time (Chronemics)

Monochronic Polychronic
• Time is a commodity • Time is a process
→ Time as a tangible, manageable → Time as ubiquitous, vague and
commodity” (linear/ strict/rigid) unmanageable(spatial/flexible/fluid)
• Limited & quantifiable • Limitless and not quantifiable.
• Use time wisely and not waste it. • There is always more time and
• Premium on efficiency and sense of people are never too busy.
urgency • Time is people’s servant and tool
• Time is fixed • Time is adjusted.
• People’s needs are adjusted to suit the • Schedules and deadlines often get
demands of time. changed
• Do one thing at a time. • Do several things simultaneously.
• Interruptions are a nuisance. • No such thing as an interruption

5.4 Internal-External → Locus of control

Internal External
• Within the individual • External to the individual
• Few things or circumstances which • Some things are predetermined.
have to be accepted as they are and • Limits beyond which one cannot go
cannot be changed and certain givens that cannot be
• No limits on what you can do or changed and must be accepted.
become • Your success comes from both your
• Your success is own achievement. effort and good fortune.
• You have to be responsible for what • You tend to blame others for your
happens to you. failure.
• Life is what you do → Activist • Life is largely what happens to you
cultures → Fatalist cultures

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5.5 Hofstede’s Framework (PIMULI)
• A framework to measure national culture and organizational culture in terms of
value dimensions.
• Definition: “culture is defined as the collective mental programming of the human
mind which distinguishes one group of people from another.”

5.5.1 Power distance (PD)

The degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power
is distributed unequally.
Low PD High PD
• Initiative respected • Status respected
• Equal opportunity • Promotion by seniority
• Delegation and power sharing • Supervision/control
• Democracy • Loyalty
• Flat charts • Bureaucracy
• Hierarchy

5.5.2 Individualism
• Individualism: A preference for a loosely-knit social framework. Individuals are
expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Self-image:
“I”
• Collectivism: A preference for a tightly knit social framework. Individuals can
expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in
exchange for unquestionable loyalty. Self-image: “WE”

Individualism Collectivism
• Clarity & directness of • Face-saving, harmony/Nepotism
communication • Relationship-focus
• Deal-focus • Team effectiveness
• Individual accountability • Team accountability
• Personal performance • Networking
• Creativity

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5.5.3 Masculinity vs. Femininity
• Masculinity represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism,
assertiveness and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive.
• Femininity stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak
and quality of life. Society is more consensus-oriented.
• Tough vs. Tender
Masculinity Femininity
• Personal performance valued • Equality valued
• Career success • Life-Family balance
• Ambition and self-promotion • Modesty
• Competition • Cooperation
• Advancement • Compromise
• Decisiveness, assertiveness • Self-doubt & Intuition

5.5.4 Uncertainty avoidance (UA)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members
of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
Weak UA High UA
• Empowerment and delegation • Rules and regulations
• Career change • Career stability/Job security
• Impromptu • Schedule
• Spirit of adventure/taking risks • Accountability

5.5.5 Long Term Orientation

• Also called the Confucian Dynamism Dimension/Pragmatism
• Short term: Societies prefer to maintain time-honored traditions and norms while
viewing societal change with suspicion.
• Long term: Societies take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and
efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.
• Monumentalism vs. Flexhumility

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 Short-term Long-term
• Personal security • Social order
• Personal respect/dignity • Hierarchical respect
• Individual face-saving • Collective face-saving
• Short to medium-term planning • Long-term planning
• Spending centered • Thrift centered
• Short to medium-term outcomes • Long-term outcomes

5.5.6 Indulgence
• Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and
natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.
• Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it
by means of strict social norms.

5.6 Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism affirms that one culture has no absolute criteria for judging
the activities of another culture as "low" or "noble." However, every culture can and
should apply such judgment to its own activities, because its members are actors as well
as observers.

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