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Practical Electronic Design
for Experimenters
This page intentionally left blank
Practical Electronic Design
for Experimenters

Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

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 Contents

Introduction .................................................. . xi

1 Introduction to Electronic Design ..•..••..•..•..••.••..•..••.••..• 1

Defining Design .......................................... ...... . 1
Design Perspective .............................................. . 1
Get a Design Notebook .......................................... . 2
Get a Calculator................................................ . 2
A Standard Design Approach ..................................... . 3
Design Doctrine Dozen .......................................... . 9
Types of Design .......................................... ...... . 10
Prerequisites for Design ......................................... . 11
A Design Example .............................................. . 11
An Alternative Beginning ........................................ . 14
2 Design Resources ............................................... . 15
Books ........................................................ . 15
Sources of Catalogs, Components, and Equipment .................... . 15
Magazines .................................................... . 16
Data Sheets ................................................... . 16
Applications Notes ............................................. . 17
Useful Web Sites ............................................... . 17
Educational Sources ............................................ . 18
Back to Basics ................................................. . 18
Searches ...................................................... . 18
3 Simulation and Prototyping ••.••..•..••..•..•..••.••..•..••.••..• 19
Circuit Simulation .............................................. . 19
Recommendation .............................................. . 21
Breadboarding ................................ .. .............. . . 21
Dead Bug Method .............................................. . 25
Working with Surface-Mount Components .......................... . 25
Components ................................................... . 25
One Good Prototyping Practice ................................... . 26
A Workbench .................................................. . 26
Summarizing ................................. .. ............... . 26
y
vi Contents

A Word About Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Your Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Testing and Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Multimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
How to Use a Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Oscilloscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Function Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Virtual Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Circuits for Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Signal Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Making L and C Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5 Common Circuit Design Techniques • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 39
Drawing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Series-Dropping Resistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Voltage Dividers................................................. 41
Special Sensor Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Potentiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Error and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Variable Voltage Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Transistor Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Design Example 5.1.............................................. 48
Design Example 5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Design Project 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Design Project 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Design Project 5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Design Project 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Design Project 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6 Power Supply Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Power Supply Choices and Specifications............................. 51
The Make vs. Buy Decision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Common Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Designing a Battery Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Ampere-Hour Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Battery Supply Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Battery Supply Enhancements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Specifying a Linear Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Linear Supply Design Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Linear Supply Design Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Pulse-Width Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
 Contents vn

Design Project 6.1 . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Design Project 6.2 . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Design Project 6.3 . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Design Project 6.4 . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

7 Amplifier Design. • • . • • . . • . . • • . • • . . • . . • • . . • . . • . . • • . • • . . • . . • • . • • . . • 69
Amplifier Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Specifying Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Understanding the Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
A Microphone Amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Designing with Op Amps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Primary Op Amp Application Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Error Source Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Power Amplifiers................................................ 83
Design Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Design Project 7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Design Project 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Design Project 7 .3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Design Project 7 .4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

8 Signal Source Design • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 87

Signal Source Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Sine Wave Oscillators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Clock Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Multivibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Frequency Synthesizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Design Project 8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Design Project 8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Design Project 8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Design Project 8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Design Project 8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Design Project 8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

9 Filter Design. . • • . • • . • • . . • . . • • . • • . . • . . • • . . • . . • . . • • . • • . . • . . • • . • • . . • 103

Types of Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Filter Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Filter Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Filter Response Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
RC Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Bandpass LC Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Band Reject Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
RC Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
viii Contents

LC Filter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Switched Capacitive Filters..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
DSP Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Design Project 9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Design Project 9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Design Project 9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Design Project 9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1o Electromechanical Design .••.••..•..••.••..•..••.••..•..••.••..•• 117
Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Relays......................................................... 118
Solenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Motors........................................................ 122
Motor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Servo Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Design Project 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Design Project 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Design Project 10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
11 Digital Design ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 127
Three Design Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Preliminary Design Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Combinational Logic Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
DeMorgan's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Functional ICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Practical Digital Design Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Design Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Designing with a Programmable ROM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
TTL vs. CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Sequential Logic Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Flip Flops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Counters and Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
State Machine Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Design Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Data Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Data Conversion ICs............................................. 144
Design Project 11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Design Project 11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Design Project 11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Design Project 11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Design Project 11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Design Project 11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Design Project 11.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Design Project 11.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Design Project 11.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
 Visit https://ebookluna.com
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 Contents ix

12 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) ..••..•..•..••.••..•..••.••..• 149

Programmable Logic Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Programming PLDs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Complex Programmable Logic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
FPGA Dominance............................................... 151
Application Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
An Introduction to VHDL and Verilog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Development Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Coding the Digital Circuit with an HDL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
FPGA Learning Resources........................................ 155
Development Board Sources....................................... 156
Summary...................................................... 156

13 Designing with Microcontrollers .. ................................ 157

Embedded Controller Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Choosing an MCU and the Software................................ 159
More About Selecting an MCU or Processor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Software and Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Programming Language Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Some Takeaways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Learning to Love BASIC.......................................... 167
The Case for Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Microdesign Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Microinterfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
A Plan for Learning Micros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Committing to a Microfuture...................................... 174
Design Project 13 .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Design Project 13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Design Project 13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

14 Component Selection ............................................ 177

Resistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
E-24 Resistor Values-5 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
E-96 Resistor Values-I percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Special Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Potentiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Semiconductor Selection.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

15 Troubleshooting and Debugging ................................. 187

Mitigating the Need for Hardware Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Prototype Troubleshooting........................................ 188
Electrical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
x Contents

Troubleshooting Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Component Failure Likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
A Troubleshooting Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Continuity Testing....................................... ........ 192
General Troubleshooting Suggestions................................ 193
Software Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Troubleshooting Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
A Recommended Reference Books . ................................. 197

B Solutions to Design Projects • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 199

C Transistor Amplifier Design ••.••..•..••.••..•..••.••..•..••.••..•• 217

D How to Use Karnaugh Maps •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 223
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
 Introduction

This book is for you experimenters and makers wheel? The result is lesser design time and greater
who want to design your own electronic circuits success at lower cost. Your design may not
and equipment. There are not too many books always be "leading-edge" but it will do the job.
like this. Most books tell you how electronic
devices work and provide some projects to learn
You Are the Target Audience
from. But now you have in your hands a book
that is actually going to show you how to design When writing this book, I had the following
your own electronic circuits and equipment. It is people in mind:
written in a way so that any of you who have a • Hobbyists, experimenters, DIYers, and
background in electronic fundamentals can create makers who want to create their own
a circuit or device to do something you want to do. equipment.
You don't have to be an engineer to design things.
• New engineers-graduates who are well
With the knowledge and procedures in versed in math, physics, and electronic
this book, you can create products for resale, fundamentals but have not yet learned to
implement scientific projects that need special apply that knowledge to creating products.
equipment, or produce circuits for your own
• Technicians who are knowledgeable in
DIY (do-it-yourself) idea. The book relies upon
electronics but have not designed.
the availability of popular integrated circuits and
the many finished modules and subassemblies. • Scientists like physicists, chemists,
Using existing products and legacy circuits geologists, and other users of electronic
eliminates most of the difficult circuit design. equipment who often need custom
In many cases, you can piece together existing noncommercial equipment but can learn to
circuits and modules to make a device with design their own.
minimal electronic design. However, some basic • Students who can supplement their
circuit design is usually necessary and hopefully, theoretical studies with practical design
this book will help with that. knowledge. Students in an introductory
The design approach in this book focuses on college design course or taking a design
making a working device using standard parts capstone course or culminating design
and circuits. The recommendations in each project course where the theory is applied to
chapter suggest that you use chips and circuits a specific circuit or device.
that have been used before. Why reinvent the It is likely that you are part of one those groups.

xl
xii Introduction

Book Rationale Prerequisites

Where does one generally go to learn electronic The book assumes that you have some minimal
design? At colleges or universities offering a level of knowledge or experience in electronics.
BSEE degree, of course. These institutions teach While formal college-level electronic education
all the science, math, theory, components, and is preferred, any training or instruction in the
circuits. Some courses actually teach related fundamentals from the military service, company
design. Much of the design taught in college is classes, or by personal self-learning will probably
how to design integrated circuits using special be adequate. At a minimum you should be
software created for that purpose. Yet, many familiar with these topics:
colleges and universities rarely address modem • Ohm'slaw
practical product design. There is a need to learn
• Kirchhoff's laws
how to translate theory into practice by creating
useful end products. This book addresses • Resistors and capacitors in series and parallel
that void. It is unique and serves a need. Not • How transistors operate (BIT and
everyone can go to college, but that does not MOSFET)
mean you cannot learn design. In fact, in the real • Basic digital logic
world BSEE graduates go out to jobs and that
This book reviews some of this material and uses
is where they really learn the design process. On
the "teaching moment" that explains selected
the job training (OJT) is where you get actual
necessary basic theory along with the design
design experience. Now you can get a taste of
processes.
that with this book.

Functions of This Book Math

You should know up front that this book does
• Illustrates a practical, almost "cook book"
use some mathematics. After all, design is
approach that you can use to create new
the process of calculating electronic values to
devices or design equipment to solve a unique
implement a specific circuit. It is a necessary
problem not met by available existing products.
part of design. That may be bad news for some
• Shows you how to create your own devices of you who hate math. Get over it. The good
from scratch. news is that most of the math is pretty simple.
• Introduces basic systems design processes to For example, many calculations are just the
define the product. process of plugging numerical values into a
• Shows how standard off the shelf (OTS) given formula and grinding out the math. Other
products can be used to create the desired math is basically just algebra. You may have
end product. to rearrange a formula to solve for a different
variable but it rarely gets more complex than
• Emphasizes that large segment of electronic
that. Get yourself a good scientific calculator,
design today is actually at the product level
use the calculator that is in your smartphone,
rather than the component and circuit level.
or tap the calculator in the Windows operating
• Illustrates that you do not necessarily need system. It's not that hard.
a college degree to design some types of
electronic products.
 Introduction xiii

Book Features What This Book

• A first design book for the inexperienced Does Not Cover
maker and experimenter. • Leading-edge circuit design. Once you learn
• Chapters covering the most common types and practice the basic design procedures
of circuits and equipment. given in this book, you can then move on to
• Provides the knowledge to immediately more sophisticated and complex designs.
create new devices. • Integrated circuit design. This is usually done
• Describes well-known circuits and short cuts with expensive electronic design automation
that always work. (EDA) software. It also does not cover
the current semiconductor processes and
• Related theory, basic principles, or
chip-making techniques.
background covered briefly as needed.
• Mechanical design and packaging. This
• Provides design projects that will help you
includes printed circuit board (PCB) design
apply and test your design ability.
and manufacturing. Electronic packaging
• Recommends standard available parts. is a whole different field of expertise where
• Includes design examples. you need to know about chemicals, metals,
plastics, and other related technologies.
• Provides a collection of popular circuits that
always work, which you can use as building • PCB design. Another mechanical function
blocks for new designs. that is mostly handled by software these
days. A world of its own.
• Math level: Mainly algebra, some elementary
trigonometry, and basic logarithms. No • Programming. Software and programming
calculus. are mentioned in the chapter on
microcontrollers, but no programming
languages or techniques are taught.
Design Projects Hopefully you know some programming but
Included at the end of each chapter are several if not, don't worry. The amount of software
Design Projects. These are provided to help coverage included here is minimal.
you apply the design procedures. The project
may be just a demonstration or a major design Book Content
assignment. Be sure to do these as they provide
the practice you need to become competent in This is basically a hardware book. Its approach
design. Simulate, build, and test your design. encourages hands-on experimentation by
Typical solutions are given in Appendix B to building things. The book is also a bit "retro."
further illustrate proper techniques as well The book includes many older circuits and
as the kinds of decisions that you may need techniques. Why? Mainly they are still available,
to make. Be sure to read all of the Design affordable, proven to work, and easy to design
Projects and their solutions in Appendix B. with. Your goal is to design some useful device
These solutions give you a significant amount so why try to devise a complex high-tech
of additional design tips, approaches, and circuitry device when cheap simple circuits and
processes. processes work?
xiv Introduction

The main focus is analog or linear circuits Enjoy the Process

but an extensive digital chapter is included.
Introductory chapters on PLDs/FPGAs and I can tell you right now that there is probably
microcontroller design are provided as a starting nothing more satisfying than to design
point for your future work with these subjects. something, build it and see it works successfully.
There is true delight in that accomplishment.
Have the fun and feel the reward of achievement.
\Nhat~inltforYou?
You will be spending time and money working Invest in Yourself
with this book. Why should you do that? Here
Finally, let me say this to you experimenters
are a few benefits to consider.
and makers. Plan to invest in some test
• You get to satisfy your interest in electronics equipment, prototyping hardware, software,
by working with hands-on projects. and components. Without good test and
• You will develop your natural human desire measurement capability, you cannot actually
to create things and solve problems. evaluate what you are designing. Full prototype
construction is recommended despite the
• You will be able to design and build practical
availability of excellent simulation software.
and useful electronic devices.
You never really know for sure how a product
• You will learn more electronics. Design is a performs until you actually build and test one.
great teacher. It makes the theory come alive
in the circuit or device you are designing.
And you will never find a better way to really How to Use This Book
understand electronics until you have to
design actual circuits and equipment. Start by rereading this Introduction again.
Definitely read Chapter 1 first to get the big
• You may even improve your knowledge and
picture about electronic design. Then go on
skills to the extent that they could be useful
and read Chapters 2 through 4 and do what
in your job if you work in the electronics
they say. Specifically, put together a basic book
industry.
library (Appendix A), so you will have some
• Have fun with your hobby. ready references if you need them. Next, set
up your workbench. That includes acquiring
the necessary tools, test equipment, and
Three Pieces of Advice
breadboarding equipment. Track down a circuit
Failure Is an Option simulator software like Multisim and get it
installed on your PC.
First, do not be afraid to fail. Experiment. If
in doubt, try it out. If that does not work, try As a first project, I suggest you next go to
something else. Failure is a common occurrence Chapter 5. It has multiple circuits that you will
in design. Examples are a circuit that does not use again and again in other designs. Complete
work at all and one that works but does not meet the Design Projects given. Simulate them and/or
the specifications. Each failure is just a learning breadboard them and run the physical tests. Get
process. Be patient. You will eventually figure out some experience in breadboarding and testing.
something that works. Failure is just part of the You will come to appreciate how time consuming
overall learning experience that design provides. all this is.
 Introduction xv

Now you can go on to the chapters on specific will give you practice in breadboarding
designs. If you do not have a good laboratory and/or using the simulation software.
power supply, you may want to go to Chapter 6 Some possible design solutions are given in
next and build your own power supply. Appendix B. Finally, as you go through the
You are on your own after that. You can go to book, you will discover a product or circuit
any other chapter as it fits your needs. that interests you. Start the design and
follow through.
Again, I urge you to build and test the
Design Projects given in each chapter. It Now, go design something.
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Electronic Design

Product design is the process of creating an Design Perspective

electronic circuit, device, or piece of equipment.
It may be a new commercial product for sale to Designing electronic circuits has evolved over
generate new revenue and profit. Or it could be the years from designing circuits with discrete
a highly specialized device needed as part of a components to designing in two other major
scientific research effort. Then again it may be ways. The most sophisticated and original
the brainchild of a hobbyist or experimenter for circuit design today is done by engineers in the
entertainment or learning purposes. The design semiconductor companies. These engineers use
process varies widely from engineer to engineer computer-aided design software to facilitate
or from company to company. Yet despite the both the circuit design and the manufacturing of
differences, the processes have common elements semiconductors. This is where the real innovative
or essential steps. This chapter attempts to designs come from. You still get to design with
identify these common and necessary steps and individual transistors and capacitors, but at the
to generate a cookbook design method that you software level. This is probably the highest-level
can use to create a product. design because it requires significant theoretical
knowledge, experience, and natural creativity.
Engineers who do this probably have advanced
Defining Design degrees as well as plenty of experience.
The formal definition of design is to conceive The second form of electronic design is what
and plan from your own mind some idea, some call the connect-the-pins approach. What
process, or object-to create something using that means is that the engineer designs products
one's intelligence and experience by defining by selecting appropriate integrated circuits (ICs)
look, function, and operation. The result is and then connecting their pins to produce the
often original and may be patentable. While final product. Some say this is not a very creative
that definition applies to this book, there is process because it can be done without a whole
another definition that is more applicable. That lot of theory and experience. This is probably the
is, design is developing an electronic product, most common form of electronic design where
circuit, or device for some useful purpose. That engineers are developing products, not chips. If
design can include existing circuits, components, you know how the chips work, you can probably
and techniques. Design is combining standard, do this type of design. The most challenging
well-known circuits, parts, and methods to solve parts of the design are printed circuit board
a problem or produce some useful new device. (PCB) design and writing the software or
Using proven circuits, parts, and methods will firmware for the ubiquitous microcontroller that
improve the chances of success, reduce costs, and is usually part of most designs.
save design time.
1
2 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

This book covers design much like the stores, grocery stores, and pharmacies. Special
connect-the-pins approach. It offers an almost engineering notebooks containing grid paper
cookbook-like method for conceiving of a are great and useful but also expensive and not
product and making it. With literally thousands really necessary.
of different types of ICs out there, you need Do not skip this first step. You must keep
to be creative to put them together in one of notes and record details so that you know what
the almost infinite number of ways possible to works and what does not. You want to maintain
accomplish your design goal. Best of all, you all facts and figures, schematics, calculations, test
really do not have to be a graduate engineer to results, and debugging notes in one place so you
do it. But you do need to meet the prerequisites can reference them later if needed. And be sure
discussed elsewhere. to get into the habit of putting the date on each
Two key points to consider are: page.
• Know your chips. Get familiar with Many companies absolutely require engineers
the available ICs, dig out the details of to maintain a design notebook to document
those of interest, and get relevant data the progress and retain the experience and
sheets, app notes, etc. Keep track of new knowledge they acquire during the design.
chip introductions by monitoring the It also documents the activities in case the
semiconductor company Web sites and outcome is a patentable circuit, process, or
keeping up with industry magazines and product. Writing everything down will take
Web sites. some getting used to, and it may aggravate you
• Become software literate. Learn to code in a at first. Eventually you will discover how useful
popular language, and become proficient in the notebook is since we all tend to forget. You
writing programs for micros. The future is must document everything. This is especially
firmware. true in writing software code. Chances are your
design will include a microcontroller for which
The remainder of this book will take you
you will write some programs. Documenting this
down that path.
process is critical. If you or someone else needs
to revise or fix the software, you will appreciate
any explanations or other details you find there.
Get a Design Notebook Documenting can be aggravating, but get over
Before listing the design steps, you should it-before long you will grow to appreciate the
acquire a notebook that you will use to record-keeping process.
document your design. It will contain
statements of purpose, goals, features, benefits,
specifications, test results, identified problems, Get a Calculator
and other defining data. The notebook will also
When you design, you will be making
be used to contain your calculations, draw your
calculations. Most of the calculations are
block diagrams and schematics, and record test
simple formulas to solve or at worst, some
and measurement data. The design notebook
basic algebra. You may need to rearrange a
can be anything you are comfortable with. A
formula to solve for a different variable, for
standard-size spiral bound school notebook is a
example. For these calculations you need a
good choice. They are available in most big box
scientific calculator. The calculator should
stores like Walmart and Target, office supply
include scientific notation, trigonometry
 Visit https://ebookluna.com
now to explore a diverse
collection of ebooks available
in formats like PDF, EPUB, and
MOBI, compatible with all
devices. Don’t miss the chance
to enjoy exciting offers and
quickly download high-quality
materials in just a few simple
steps!
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Electronic Design 3

functions, logarithms, and other engineering Step

calculation functions. Individual calculators are 1 Name Product
available, but you do not need anything fancy.
Programmable calculators are nice but are not 2 Describe Product
needed for this book. You can also use the
calculator built into your Windows operating
3 List Features
system or your smartphone. I still use an old
Texas Instruments calculator I have had for
4 Draw Black Box
decades. Use whatever works best for you.
5 Learn Operation

A Standard Design Approach

6 Draw Block Diagram
The design approach introduced here is covered
in these basic stages: 7 Describe Packaging

• Definition
8 Write Specifications
• Detail design
• Simulation (optional)
• Prototype Get
Details
• Testing
• Packaging
• Use
Get
10 MFG
Definition Stage Input

Figure 1.1 shows a :flowchart of the key steps in

the definition stage of the design.
Record all of the
1. Name the product. Give it a name that tells 11 Above in Notebook
others what it is or does.
2. Describe the product by writing out a short
Search for
paragraph. State why it is needed, by whom, 12 Commercial Product
and what it is supposed to do. Be as detailed
as possible, but keep it short if you can. This
description is mainly for you, but it could
be used by your supervisor, a marketing
person, or a customer.
3. List the main features of the product. 13
What will it do? What are some important Proceed with Design 14

characteristics that allow it to solve a

problem or perform a function not available
mII qj KI A flowchart that summarizes the main
steps in designing an electronic circuit
elsewhere? What do the sales and marketing or product.
people want? If this is a product for sale,
4 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

what features should be included to make diagrams, how-it-works descriptions,

the product attractive to buyers? Who and the like. If competitive products are
are the competitors, if any? Identify their available, acquire them if the budget allows.
products and do a comparison. If necessary, If you want to design something but don't
negotiate the features with the sales and know where to start, it is probably because
marketing team. Then finalize the features you do not know how it functions. As an
list. example, at one time I wanted to design a
4. Treating the product as a "black box," metal detector. How hard could it be? But
identify the inputs and the outputs. See I was stumped. I did not even know what
Fig. 1.2. An electronic circuit or product circuits it contained or how they work
can be viewed as a box of signal processing together to locate metal objects. So go back
and manipulation that responds to one or and reread this step.
more inputs and then generates one or more 6. Draw a block diagram of the device.
outputs. Describe each signal in as much Knowing the theory of operation and
detail as possible. Also identify where the the inputs and outputs, you can probably
inputs come from and where the outputs go. generate a first attempt to see what circuits
Be sure to include the ac and/or de power and modules or other subassemblies you
requirements. Again, be as detailed as you may need. State the purpose of each stage.
can at this early stage. Do the best you can at this point, and
s. Learn how the device or circuit works. keep in mind it will change as you learn
This is the time for detailed research. more. For you real beginners, Table 1.1
You can't design something unless you summarizes all the most common circuits
know how it works. You must learn the engmeers use.
concepts, theory, and operational details 7. Describe the most desirable physical
of something before you can design it. packaging. What will the end product look
Use any available textbooks to identify like mechanically? Will it use a printed
circuits and configurations. At this point circuit board (PCB)? This book does not
you should also do an internet search to delve into the physical packaging of a
determine some details about your project. design, but you still need to determine it.
Search on the product name you assigned, B. Write out a set of specifications.
and use alternative descriptions to gather Knowing the inputs, outputs, and power
as much information as you can. Search on requirements, you should be able to
circuit names, component part numbers, list key specifications. Some of these
or whatever other detail you may have or are frequency range, input and output
need. Look for block diagrams, schematic voltage levels, specific signal shapes and
conditions, estimated power supply voltages,
Black data rate, interface requirements, and
Box - - Outputs current limits. You also need to add any
Product
special environmental conditions, such as
temperature range, humidity, vibration/
de Power shock, and electromagnetic interference
QI IIlj f l The "black box" concept that applies to (EMI) considerations. Add physical
most electronic circuits or products. specifications like desired size, weight, and
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Electronic Design 5

Id tj fjj 81 The most commonly used electronic circuit building blocks and what each does

Circuit Function Available IC or module? Other

Amplifier Takes a small input voltage or power and boosts it Yes, usually. All types available.
up by some gain factor to a larger output.
Analog-to-digital Samples an analog signal and produces a digital Yes, many.
converter (ADC) output.
Attenuator A circuit that reduces the amplitude of voltage or There may be. A resistive
power by some loss factor usually expressed in voltage divider or network is
decibels (dB). more common.
Buffer A circuit, usually an amplifier, that isolates one circuit Maybe. Could be analog or
from another to prevent or minimize loading that digital.
affects output voltage, power, or frequency.
Clock An oscillator that generates accurate rectangular Yes.
pulses used for timing and operating an MCU or
other digital circuits.
Comparator Takes two input signals, one usually a fixed reference Yes.
voltage and the other a varying amplitude signal,
and provides an output signal that indicates which
input is equal to, less than, or more than the other.
Counter A circuit that keeps track of the number of binary input Yes, multiple.
pulses that are applied to its input. The output
is in binary format.
Driver A circuit that operates some other device like a Yes, usually. Could be just a
motor, relay, LED, or servo. transistor or an IC.
Decoder A digital circuit that looks at multiple lines of binary Yes.
signals and detects one or more separate output
conditions, each recognizing a unique code.
Detector A circuit that indicates the presence of a signal. Maybe.
Another name for a demodulator.
Digital-to-analog A circuit that translates its binary input into the Yes, many.
converter (DAC) analog equivalent.
Divider A digital circuit that produces an output that is lower Some. An often-designed
in frequency than the input. Also, an analog circuit circuit to fit the application.
that splits an input into two or more equal outputs. A digital counter makes a
good frequency divider.
Filter A circuit that allows some frequencies to pass and Yes. Some filters can be
others to be stopped or at least greatly attenuated. designed with discrete
components to fit the
application.
Follower A high input impedance-low output impedance No. Usually a circuit designed
circuit that provides some isolation between amplifier for the application.
stages as well as some power gain. See Buffer.
Frequency A signal source like an oscillator that generates a Yes. Multiple kinds. Two major
synthesizer sine wave or rectangular wave. versions like phased-locked
loop (PLL) and direct digital
synthesis (DDS).
(Continued)
6 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

Id' a8' The most commonly used electronic circuit building blocks and what each does (Continued)

Circuit Function Available IC or module? Other

Function A signal source that usually generates sine, square, Yes.
generator and triangular waves for testing.
Gate Basically, just a switch that blocks a signal until Yes, both analog and digital
another enabling signal is applied. May also perform types.
some digital (boolean) logic function.
MCU Microcontroller unit. An embedded microcontroller Yes, many. Something for every
or single chip computer that is the basis of most application.
other products today.
Memory A storage circuit for binary words or data. Yes, Many kinds.
Mixer Two types, linear and RF. Linear mixers combine multiple A few.
analog inputs into a composite signal, as in an audio
mixer that adds multiple musical instruments and two or
more microphones. The RF mixer serves as an up converter
or down converter for translating signa Is to a higher or
lower frequency, as in radio transmitters or receivers.
Modulator A circuit that varies the amplitude, frequency, or Yes, not many.
phase of a higher frequency carrier signal for the
purpose of transmitting information by wireless.
Multiplexer A circuit with two or more inputs and a single output Yes, both digital and analog
and a means of selecting any one of these to appear at versions are available.
the output.
Oscillator A circuit that generates a signal, analog or digital, at a Yes, multiple types. RC, LC,
specific frequency or over some variable frequency range. crystal.
Rectifier A circuit that converts ac into pulsating de that is usually No. Usually made with discrete
smoothed into a continuous voltage by a capacitor. diodes.
Regulator A circuit that maintains a fixed output voltage despite Yes, many types for all
changes in other operational factors like input voltage occasions.
or output load.
Register A circuit made up of flip flops that can store a binary Yes, multiple types.
value or manipulate it.
Voltage-controlled A signal source whose output frequency can be varied A few.
oscillator (VCO) by applying a de control voltage.
Voltage divider A circuit made primarily with resistors that produces A circuit that must usually
an output that is lower than the input. be designed. Capacitor and
inductor dividers can be made
but are not common.

power consumption. Also consider ease of you may need to meet some required set
use, maintenance, and potential repair. The of standards mandated by law. Examples
end product should be simple to operate are ac-powered devices that may have to be
with minimal training or instruction. tested by the Underwriters Laboratories
9. Consider required testing and certification. (UL) or the Federal Communications
If you are designing a product for resale, Commission (FCC).
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Electronic Design 7

1o. Will the product be manufactured? If this is a capacitor values, any read numbers
one-off product, skip this step. If the product or part numbers on the ICs, and
will be made in volume, be sure to involve the transistors. Record all this on the
manufacturing people in evaluating the design schematic diagram.
and getting their input regarding steps to g. Redraw the schematic diagram and part
make the device from initial PCB construction numbers and values. NOTE: In many
through final testing and packaging. products, the labels on the I Cs will
11. Record all of this information in your be omitted to prevent someone from
notebook. identifying the part and copying the
circuit. If that is the case, maybe later
12. Next, you should look to see if what you
you can deduce what it is.
defined is already a product available for
sale. Maybe you won't have to design it if h. Given your copied design, consider
you can purchase a ready-made version. Do whether you could duplicate this item.
an extensive internet search. Use different If you can, you can adopt the design
product names or descriptions to be sure for your own version. If you do not
you will locate something similar. If you believe that you can duplicate it, just
find something similar, acquire as much reassemble the product and use it. Then
information as you can, and compare its move on to another project.
features and specs to your definition. Buy 14. If no commercial product turns up to buy,
the product if you can afford it. press on with the design.
13. Reverse engineer the product. Take it apart,
being careful not to damage anything. Do Detail Design Stage
the following:
This is where you fill in the boxes in your block
a. Take photos along the way. diagram with specific circuits, modules., or other
b. Identify all of the major subassemblies units. Think of the various circuits available and
and larger components, and document how you can use them as building blocks. From
any wiring between these sections. your searches you should have identified the circuits
c. Identify the power source like the ac or ICs you want to use. Identify specific circuits
line or batteries and the related power where you can. Search for specific ICs that do what
supply. you need. You should be able to determine that
you need an amplifier, a :filtei; a digital counter,
d. If PCBs are involved, remove them, but
LCD display, or whatever. You may do some rough
record any interconnections by way of
partitioning at this point as you identify different
connectors or wiring.
parts of the design. For example, you may have an
e. Develop the schematic diagram from analog signal or linear segment, a digital segment,
the PC board. Identify how the copper and a power supply segment. Then, for the first
traces on the PCB connect the various time, try to draw a schematic diagram of the design.
components. Your initial schematic Next you will choose components to match
diagram will be messy and crude, but you your circuit specifications. You will be selecting
can redraw it later in a more useful way. ICs, diodes, transistors, capacitors, resistors,
f. Identify the individual components. potentiometers, transformers, and a mix of
Read the resistor color codes, read other parts. You should have catalogs on
8 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

hand from the major distributors if you can Packaging Stage

get them. Otherwise, go online to the major
distributor sites to select your parts. You can At his point your product is finished and it works.
also do additional internet searches to find what And by now you should have thought about
you need and to get additional information how the product should be packaged. What is its
from data sheets, application notes, and other housing? How are the circuits wired? No doubt
sources. a PCB is required. Packaging is a mechanical
design process beyond the scope of this book. Yet
it is important, especially if you plan to market
Simulation Stage the device as a commercial product.
You can also call this the verification stage.
This is an optional process where you validate Use Stage
that your circuits will work. You can use circuit Manufacture, sell, or use the product.
simulation software to build the circuits and
One final thing. As indicated earlier, this
product on the computer before making an
product design process does not include
actual prototype. More details are given in
considerations for high-volume manufacturing.
Chap. 3. Simulation is a good learning
The design process for manufacturing is
experience, but it does take time to learn the
similar, but serious consideration is given to
software and the simulation process. You could
cost of manufacturing, ease and speed of
go directly to a hardware prototype for testing.
manufacturing, special testing or alignment
But I recommend you give simulation a try.
procedures, and parts availability.
Design examples using the process described
Prototype Stage here are given in the design chapters to come.
Now you start building your prototype. Build Here is a summary.
each circuit one at a time and make each • Chapter 5 Common Circuit Design
work alone. Guidelines for prototyping and Techniques. Basic circuits and concepts you
breadboarding are given in Chap. 3. Once you will use in most designs.
define each circuit's function, you can begin • Chapter 6 Power Supply Design. Battery and
connecting circuits together to form the final ac to de supplies.
product.
• Chapter 7 Amplifier Design. Mostly op
amps, but some discrete designs.
Testing Stage • Chapter 8 Signal Source Design. Oscillators,
Testing is the final stage. This is covered in clocks, synthesizers.
Chap. 4. You will test your device to see that it • Chapter 9 Filter Design. RC, LC, active, and
implements all of the desired features. You will modules.
also test to see that it meets the specifications • Chapter 10 Electromechanical Design.
you assigned earlier. You can expect to do some Switches, relays, motors, servos.
troubleshooting at this time to fix problems,
• Chapter 11 Digital Design. Discrete IC logic.
fine-tune the design to meet specifications,
or correct errors. Chapter 15 covers • Chapter 12 Programmable Logic Devices.
troubleshooting. Occasionally you will, as they • Chapter 13 Designing with Microcontrollers.
say, "have to go back to the drawing board." Interfacing and I/O and programming.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Electronic Design 9

Design Doctrine Dozen operations have already been developed

many times in a variety of forms.
The rules for design in this book are based on the
3. Old designs are just fine. Old circuits and
premise that you are trying to design something
components are not bad. If it works and
that will work reliably, have a reasonable cost,
solves the problem, use it.
and take less time to create. Your goal should be
to create a product that works, solves a problem, 4. Cheaper is usually better.
or fills a need. Here are the guidelines for design s. It does not have to be leading edge. You will
as recommended in this book. not be designing your own ICs. Use existing
1. Keep it simple, stupid (KISS). Simple chips when you can.
designs are always best. They are less 6. Use manufacturers' reference designs.
complex, less expensive, and take less time Many semiconductor manufacturers have
to create. And they are generally more already designed what you may need. A
reliable. reference design is a predesigned device
2. Do not reinvent the wheel. Use existing using the manufacturer's ICs. It is usually
circuits and designs. Borrow liberally from a prewired PCB with connectors and in
magazine articles, books, manufacturer's some cases software-everything you need
data sheets, application notes, and to get started without having to design
online sources. Why spend extra time it yourself. These evaluation boards are
experimenting with new approaches when recommended because they save time and
there is probably already a design you can money.
access and use? Seek out and maintain a 7. Use manufacturers' design tools. Design
library of standard circuits that work. I tools are software that semiconductor
keep a file folder for different types of useful manufacturers develop to help engineers
circuits (amplifiers, oscillators, logic circuits, design selected circuits. The software that
etc.) When I come across a magazine is typically available online simply walks
article, internet printout, or data sheet, you through the design process and leads to
I file it for future use. Put together these a design for you. Of course, the tools will
existing designs in different combinations typically lead you to the company's ICs or
as needed. Modify these circuits as needed other devices to implement it.
to create your design. There should be no 8. Use free or low-cost design software from
embarrassment in using the designs of the internet. Circuit simulation software is
others if you can. Most basic electronic available from multiple sources. Feel free
functions have been discovered and to use it to develop your design. However,
implemented. These are mostly in the public always build and test a real prototype to be
domain, and you are free to use them. sure it works.
Take advantage. It is OK to be creative and
9. Use existing well-known ICs, transistors,
design some things from scratch, but just
and other components. There are multiple
remember it takes more time, and you may
sources, and the cost is low. For commercial
need to redesign it multiple times to get
designs, some companies require that there
what you want. While not everything has
be one or more secondary sources for ICs,
been invented yet, it is difficult to devise a
transistors, and other parts. Then if one
design that is totally original. Most common
manufacturer discontinues the part, you will
1O Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

still be able to get it elsewhere. Chapter 14 product by using standard textbook theory
gives you some recommendations. and procedures. There are multiple textbooks
1o. A microcontroller design is not always the to help you do this. The procedures are well
best approach. Most products today are based known and generally proven. They are taught in
upon a central embedded controller. These college. This approach does not use cookbook
microcontroller units (MCUs), or micros as recipes but offers the theory with examples,
I refer to them here, are flexible and cheap, then tests you with end-of-chapter problems.
but they require software and programming The theory is given, but its interpretation
in addition to the electronic interface design. and its implementation are left to you. This
Sometimes a simple hardware design is the book generally uses this approach, but it is
fastest and cheapest solution. supplemented with a bit of experience that yields
some step-by-step procedures that save time.
11. Focus your budget on good test equipment
and prototyping equipment. You cannot
really design without testing and measuring Empirical Design
equipment. So, plan to set aside a budget
This approach is design by experimentation.
for a good multimeter, oscilloscope, and
You can also call it the cut-and-try method. You
breadboarding gear.
essentially start with something you know, then
12. Learn and have fun. Experiment. Screw up. observe the result. If it is not what your goal is,
Fail. Learn what works and what does not. you experiment. You change or add something,
Then eventually achieve success. observe the outcome, then change again if the
end result does not tum out as you want. You
WARNING! go back and learn some more. You keep on
In designing commercial products, some circuits learning, testing, experimenting until you get
and methods may really be new and patentable. what you want. It sounds crazy, but it works,
These circuits or methods become valuable especially for those with some experience in
intellectual property (IP) to your employer. Such
IP may give some company competitive benefits. the subject. After a while you get to know what
Or the company could license the design to works and what does not.
generate royalty income. This is especially true
of IC designs, but it could apply to some other
arrangement. Just be sure to document everything Intuitive Design
in your notebook in case it comes up.
This is an approach that is based upon years
of acquiring knowledge and experience that in
tum give you the intuition to create something
Types of Design new. Your design is based upon your intuition
When designing any electronic circuit or without supporting facts. You go with what you
product, you will discover that there are lots of know and believe to be true. Or as they say, you
ways to do it. My own view of this is that there go with your gut.
are three basic design approaches. Here is a After years of design experience, I have come
summary of each. to believe that a person inherits some of each
approach. You start with the textbook approach,
Textbook Design learn more as you experiment with the empirical
approach, then finally with sufficient knowledge
You could also call this the traditional approach. and experience you go with the intuitive
This is the process of designing a circuit or approach.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Electronic Design 11

Prerequisites for Design c. Lightweight.

d. Battery operated.
This book will give you a basic process for
designing. Along the way, it will also review e. Speaker and/or headphone output.
some of the related electronic fundamentals. f. Relatively easy to build as a first or
This book assumes that you already have a early hobby project.
general working knowledge of electronics. 4. The black box concept is relatively simple:
Ideally you will have had some formal
a. Input, search coil
training or education in electronics or relevant
experience. Self-taught is OK, too. At a bare b. Output, speaker or headphones
minimum, you should know Ohm's law, how 5. Searching on the topic of metal detectors
transistors work, some basic digital logic, and produces a ton of information. A detailed
which end of a soldering iron gets hot. search using the terms "How do metal
To help in this regard, you should acquire some detectors work" and "metal detector
books to use for reference if you need to learn circuits" produces a considerable amount of
some fundamentals or refresh your knowledge. detail. Summary:
Appendix A is a list of books I recommend. a. There are four basic types of metal
They cover the fundamentals and provide some detectors: very low frequency (VLF),
additional information on design. Build a library pulse, heterodyne, and variable tone.
of such books. Some are expensive, but remember b. The first two (VLF and pulse) require
you can always find used ones on Amazon or some sophisticated circuitry that may
other internet sources. You can never have too be difficult to understand without
much information. If you are designing, you must extensive research and experience.
seek out and acquire as much reference material These two types are also the most
from multiple sources as you can. expensive. The third type uses a
heterodyne method that mixes two
signals together to get a difference
A Design Example
frequency in the audio range. The
Here is how you might approach a project using simplest detector is the variable tone
the steps described earlier. This is the process type.
I went through on one project. c. One type uses an audio oscillator
whose tone changes if metal is near the
The Definition Stage search coil. The second type uses two
1. Metal detector. oscillators, one at a fixed frequency and
another whose frequency can be varied
2. The metal detector should detect buried
by the presence of nearby metal. The
metal items to a depth of 10 to 20 cm. It will
two oscillator frequencies are mixed
be used to see what treasures are buried in
together. The result is a frequency in
beaches, back yards, and other patches of
the audio range that represents the
ground that might provide potential targets.
difference between the two oscillator
3. Main features: frequencies. Tone changes signal the
a. Identify metal at a depth of 10 to presence of metal.
20cm. 6. I was able to draw a crude block diagram of
b. Portable. both methods. See Fig. 1.3.
12 Practical Electronic Design for Experimenters

Search Coil The Design Stage

I Speaker
Oscillator or The design stage started with expanding and
Headphones improving upon the block diagram produced
{a)
earlier. The heterodyne type of detector was
chosen. Two oscillators are used, so a search for
oscillators started. Search data obtained earlier
showed several oscillator possibilities. The difficult
part was deciding on a frequency of operation.
Amp Headphones
Apparently a wide range is used. I decided upon
....._--:--1.____ __J F2
Search something in the 50 to 200 kHz range.
Coil
{b)
One of the oscillators uses a large coil of wire

Q ji Ilj f I First black box diagrams for the project.

as the search head but also as the inductance
in a tuned circuit for one of the oscillators.
The upper drawing shows the single
oscillator approach (a) and the lower I searched for as much detail as possible here
drawing showing the two oscillator and more or less summarized the current form
design (b).
and size of circuits I discovered. A popular
inductance value as a target is 10 mH. I suspect
7. Physical packaging is not critical since you
some experimentation will be needed here.
are making the product for your own use. It
should have an enclosure to hold a battery Next I needed a mixer that would produce the
and the circuitry, a search coil that can difference frequency between the two oscillators.
reach the ground, and a place to plug in The designers of this circuit use an XOR gate. I'm
some headphones. not sure how that works, but it apparently does.

8. No specifications other than those features I also needed an audio amplifier to operate
described in step 3 were written since the headphones.
they are not applicable to noncommercial A second method of detection that I call
devices. variable tone uses an oscillator whose frequency
9. No testing or certification is required for is changed by being close to a metal object. It is a
personal products. simple circuit, and it seems cheap and easy to try. I
suspect that the heterodyne method is much better.
1 O. The product will not be manufactured in
quantity. Figure 1.4 shows the simple circuit. A
555 timer IC is used as an oscillator with a
1 1. I did write down all the details in my
tuned RLC circuit setting the frequency. This
notebook.
frequency is in the audio range so you can hear
12. A search for a commercial product did it. With the values shown in the figure, the
occur. There are many. From low-cost frequency computes to 1073 Hz.
hobby models for less than $100 to military-
The big design obstacle is the inductance that
grade units for finding mines costing
not only sets the frequency but also serves as the
thousands of dollars. No commercial
search coil. The desired inductance is 10 mH.
product was purchased.
The search coil is many turns of copper wire
13. No reverse engineering took place. whose diameter is in the 4- to 10-inch-diameter
14. The design process will go on. range. Approximately 140 to 150 turns of wire
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Other documents randomly have
different content
"Didn't I read not long ago about the drowning of many fishers on the coast
of West Australia?" said one of the youths.

AUSTRALIAN PEARLS (FULL SIZE).

"Quite probably," was the reply, "and you are liable to hear of such a calamity
at any time. The West Australian fisheries are subject to terrific hurricanes.
The signs of these hurricanes are well known, and every fishing-boat has
ample time to reach a place of safety; but the fishers are too reckless to take
any precautions, and every few months a lot of their boats are sent to the
bottom or driven high and dry on the shore. The few that escape death on
such occasions immediately get new boats, and start off on another
expedition as if such a thing as a hurricane had never been heard of.
"Alligators abound in all the rivers of the northern part of Australia; they grow
to a great size and are dangerous, and not a year passes that we do not hear
of somebody being killed by them while taking a swim or attempting to cross
a swollen stream. They are great nuisances at cattle and sheep stations
located on the rivers where they abound, as they make a clean sweep of
calves, dogs, sheep, and other small animals while drinking, and have been
known to attack full-grown bullocks."
"Did you ever know an adult alligator to be treated as a pet?" said the man
who had told the horse-collar story, addressing his query to Mr. Watson.
Mr. Watson shook his head, whereupon the story-teller said he had known
such a case. The saurian was not only an individual but a public pet.
Frank and Fred were curious to learn about it. Their curiosity was gratified as
follows:
"Years ago," said the man, "I was at the town of Cardwell, in North
Queensland. It is on a pretty bay, which is full of fish and oysters, and was
then the home of a monster alligator which was known as the 'Cardwell Pet.'
Every morning something resembling a huge log was seen floating under the
trees near the shore; it was not a log, but the back of the pet, and he was on
the lookout for a stray dog coming down to the water.
"He ate up most of the dogs in town soon after he appeared, and whenever a
new dog happened along with a stranger he usually became a bonne bouche
for the pet. But there were two dogs in Cardwell that knew his ways; when
ordered to do so, they would go down on the beach, where they barked and
played with each other, apparently heedless of the alligator, but all the time
keeping out of range of his jaws. In this way he was often enticed out upon
the sand, the dogs seeming to enjoy the fun. He became the lion of the place,
and was always the first sight shown to strangers. When the town was first
established, shots were fired at him; but as soon as his importance as a
curiosity became known, he enjoyed immunity, and at the time I was there
any one who ventured to harm him would have been roughly handled by the
inhabitants, as he was literally the pet of the town."
Frank asked the narrator if he knew how large the Cardwell Pet was.

BIG BEN AND HIS FRIENDS.

"I do not," was the reply, "and circumstances did not permit accurate
measurement. I have seen many alligators in Queensland that exceeded
nineteen feet in length, several that were more than twenty, and there was
one taken on the Fitzroy and called Big Ben that measured twenty-three feet
six inches. When I last heard of him he was owned by Jamrach, in London. I
think the Cardwell Pet was quite equal to Big Ben, and possibly larger; you
know it is always the largest fish that is not weighed or measured. Anyway,
the pet was said to have made a meal of a sundowner, though I don't believe
he really did, as that class of game is too cautious."
Fred asked what a sundowner was. He had heard the term several times, but
thus far it had not been explained to him.
 WAITING FOR SUNSET.
"He is the equivalent of the American 'tramp,'" said Mr. Watson, "and abounds
freely in Australia. He is fed and lodged at the stations, where he is careful to
arrive at sundown or a little later, and hence his name. If he gets there before
sunset he is requested to move on to the next stopping-place, or else he is
asked to make himself useful at some kind of work during the remaining
hours or minutes of the day. He abhors work, and therefore times his arrival
to avoid it. Sometimes a group of these fellows will rest by the way-side a
mile or so from a station, waiting for the sun to disappear.
"Many a vagabond makes an easy living by wandering from one station to
another, pretending that he wants employment but carefully avoiding it. The
sundowner is as insolent as the American tramp; by Australian custom he is
welcome to supper, lodging, and breakfast, the food consisting of tea, sugar,
bread, and beef or mutton, and the lodging being in his own blankets on the
floor of the men's hut or the wool-shed. I have had a dozen or more of these
'travellers' on a single night, and my monthly average is not less than one
hundred and twenty. Sometimes a party of them has been so unruly and so
threatening in their demands that I have been compelled to send for the local
police to carry them away.
"On one occasion," the gentleman continued, "a ruffianly traveller drew a
knife and threatened to stab my cook, because the latter refused to give him
a mutton-pie that had been prepared for the men, the travellers' table being
filled with cold beef as the only viand. I had him handcuffed and taken to the
police-station, where he was recognized as a man who was 'wanted' for a
robbery somewhere up country.

EVENING SCENE AT AN UP-COUNTRY STATION.

"As a general thing, the squatters hesitate to quarrel with the sundowners,
preferring to suffer their impositions rather than run the risk of having their
buildings and fences burned, and other depredations committed. Of late years
the number of vagrants seems to have diminished, but the supply is yet far in
excess of the country's needs."

Note.—Since this book was put in type the laboring classes in Australia
have united in a popular agitation against the Mongolians, and have
compelled the leading governments to adopt stringent measures. The
poll-tax on these immigrants has been increased in New South Wales
from fifty dollars to five hundred dollars; their naturalization has been
prohibited altogether; rigid restrictions are imposed as to residence and
trading; and vessels are allowed to land only one Chinaman for every
three hundred tons. Chinese merchants are allowed to trade in certain
districts of the provinces, but the number for each district is limited to
five. These restrictions were authorized by a government bill which was
passed by the Colonial Assembly without a dissenting voice. The resident
Chinese have been attacked by mobs at Brisbane, and immigrants and
cargoes have not been permitted to land at Sydney and Melbourne. The
Colonial authorities of Queensland and Victoria favor a policy of complete
exclusion, and in New Zealand the Premier has publicly announced his
conversion to the same views.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
THE PLAGUE OF FLIES IN AUSTRALIA.—OTHER CREEPING AND FLYING
THINGS.—LAUGHING-JACKASSES, BOWER-BIRDS, LYRE-BIRDS, PARROTS,
ETC.—TRICKS OF THE LYRE-BIRD.—ORIGIN OF THE BOWER-BIRD'S NAME.—
BLACK SWANS AND WILD-DUCKS.—SNIPE, QUAIL, AND OTHER BIRDS.—
AUSTRALIAN RIVERS AND THEIR PECULIARITIES.—RETURN TO THE COAST.
—GYMPIE AND THE GOLD-MINES OF QUEENSLAND.—AN AUSTRALIAN GOLD
RUSH.—DOWN THE COAST TO SYDNEY.—THE GREAT BARRIER REEF: ITS
EXTENT AND PECULIARITIES.—SPORT IN NORTHERN QUEENSLAND.—GOING
UP-COUNTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES.—A KANGAROO HUNT.—DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN A HUNT AND A DRIVE.—AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS.—SHOOTING
WILD HORSES.—KILLING AN "OLD MAN" KANGAROO.—DINGOES.—STORIES
OF KANGAROO HUNTS.
Several days were passed agreeably in the pastoral and agricultural region of
the Darling Downs, and our friends were overwhelmed with invitations from
the hospitable squatters who inhabit that region. Fred said the invitations
would have enabled them to spend a year there, and even then he was
confident their welcome would not be worn out. Wherever they went they
were comfortably lodged and well cared for, and they were unanimous in
declaring that the world contained many worse places than the Darling
Downs, even among those that were classed as highly attractive.

AN AUSTRALIAN PEST.
Frank considered the flies and other creeping and winged things a great
drawback to existence in that region. "They have mosquitoes and sand flies in
certain localities," said he, "while others are entirely free from them; but as
for the common fly, he is everywhere and is a first class nuisance. On the
coast the flies are said to be troublesome only for a few months in the year,
but in the interior they are perennial, and sometimes almost make life a
burden. They are worse at some periods than at others, but bad enough at all
times. In the worst 'fly-time' nobody ventures to ride about without wearing a
veil; and men have taxed their ingenuity to keep the pests out of their
houses, but practically without success.

THE SAND-FLEA (NATURAL SIZE AND

MAGNIFIED).
"Fleas are also abundant, though not as much so as flies; neither are they
seen as much in public. They abound most in sandy places, and the
sundowners transport them from one station to another free of charge. A
more welcome insect is the common honey-bee; it has long been acclimatized
in Australia, and owing to the great number of honey-bearing flowers, it has
become very abundant. Bee-farming is an important industry in New South
Wales, and is carried on to quite an extent in the other colonies.
"They tell us that in the north of Queensland white ants are very destructive,
as they eat nearly every textile fabric, and have a voracious appetite for all
kinds of wood. They have even been charged with devouring window-glass,
iron bars, and similar substances usually considered inedible. I heard a man
say with the utmost gravity that they had eaten up two cross-cut saws and a
boxful of American axes, handles and all; but I don't believe it, and I doubt
his veracity in several other statements he made, and therefore won't repeat
them."
One day while the youths were strolling in the bush not far from the station,
they were startled by the sound of immoderate laughter that seemed to come
from among the limbs of a low tree. The sound was repeated after a short
interval, and, curious to know the cause, they went in its direction. As they
neared the tree, two or three birds flew from it and settled in another tree a
short distance away. They did not seem at all alarmed at the presence of
Frank and Fred, and the latter remarked that the creatures were evidently
allowed to go about unharmed. On their return to the station they told what
they had seen and heard, and asked what were the birds that had so
surprised them.
"Those were laughing-jackasses," was the reply; "or if you want another
name for them, you may choose between 'giant kingfisher,' 'piping crow,'
'musical magpie,' or 'settler's clock.' The bird under consideration belongs to
the kingfisher family, and is called by all these names, the last being given on
account of the uproar he makes at noon, and thus tells the settler who does
not carry a watch when the middle of the day is reached. Many people believe
he destroys snakes; some of us are skeptical on this point, which has never
been satisfactorily decided; but at any rate he is useful, as he often indicates
the locality of fresh water, and so has saved many persons from suffering, or
perhaps perishing of thirst. He is never shot, and consequently is not fearful
of the presence of man.
"I wonder you have not heard the bird before this," he continued, "as he
abounds near the cities and towns as well as in the bush." Then the boys
remembered that they had heard the same sound on several occasions, but
always supposed it was somebody laughing, and did not consider it any
business of theirs to investigate.
 THE AUSTRALIAN BOWER-BIRD.
"There's another curious bird in Australia," said their informant, "which we call
the satin, or bower, bird. He builds a bower, or walk, and decorates it with any
gaudy feathers or other things he can find, and also with shells, bleached
bones, and similar small objects. So well is his propensity known that when
we drop a pipe-bowl or a penknife in the bush, we search for it in the bowers
or runs of these birds, and very often find it there. As the bower-bird feeds
entirely on seeds and fruits, it is evident that he secures these small things for
the sake of ornament."
Fred suggested that perhaps the bower-bird had been infected with the bric-
à-brac craze which pervades society in other countries. The ambition to
gather a cabinet of curiosities was a fashionable one, and why shouldn't a bird
have it as well as any one else.
Frank asked if it was possible to see a lyre-bird in that region, and was
disappointed when told that it was rarely seen outside of the fern country of
South-eastern Australia. Their authority on birds told them that this winged
emblem of Australia was about the size of a pheasant, and had a tail three
feet long; the outer feathers of the tail are beautifully marked, and form the
lyre from which the bird takes its name. The male bird forms a mound of
earth on which he promenades, displaying his beautiful tail to its utmost
advantage, in the same way that the peacock exhibits his feathered
ornaments. The female is as plain as an ordinary hen, and presents a very
mean appearance by the side of her lord.
The youths were further informed that the lyre-bird is an excellent mocking-
bird, and could imitate with exactness the notes of all the other feathered
denizens of the forest. "He can also," said their authority, "reproduce nearly
every sound made by man. Settlers in the region inhabited by these birds are
often deceived by them, and many amusing stories are told. Sometimes a
man working on his clearing hears somebody chopping wood a short distance
away, and a dog barking at his heels. He goes in search of the intruder, and
finds after a long walk that the 'pheasant' has been making game of him. A
man using a cross-cut saw hears somebody doing the same thing, and after
searching unsuccessfully for him, discovers that it is the pheasant's
performance."
 WALLACE'S STANDARD-WING
BIRDS-OF-PARADISE, MALE
AND FEMALE.
Frank summed up the rest of the ornithology of Australia as follows:
"The great southern continent has many varieties of the parrot family; it
possesses the king parrot, the bird-of-paradise, the blue mountain-parrot, the
cockatoo—blue, white, and crested—lories, paroquets, and love-birds. It has
the wild turkey, which we have already mentioned, and a bird closely allied to
it, called by the singular name of 'native companion.' Wild-ducks are found all
over the country, the 'mountain duck' being the finest; then in their order
come the black duck, wood-duck, and the Australian teal, followed by five or
six other varieties less known and less liked by sportsmen."
"Don't forget the black swan among the water-birds," said Fred, as Frank
paused after reading the foregoing paragraph.
"I was not forgetting him," replied Frank; "what would be our picture of
Australia without the black swan? He is found in all the lakes and swamps of
the southern coast; in the Gippsland lakes thousands of black swans may
sometimes be seen in a single flock, and the sound of their feet and wings
striking the water as they rise for a flight may be heard for miles when the air
is still. The black swan is not strictly a game-bird; his flesh is rather rank, but
this taste can be removed in cooking, and then he isn't at all bad to eat.
"Going from large birds to small," continued the youth, "I learn that snipe are
abundant in many localities, but they do not seem to be appreciated as in
England and America. The Argus snipe is the prettiest of the family, and also
the most difficult to find; he is beautifully marked on the back and wings, and
is a valuable addition to an ornithological collection.

HEAD OF THE VALLEY

QUAIL.
"There are at least a dozen varieties of quail in Australia, and as articles of
food they are abundant and cheap. With very little effort a settler in most
parts of the country could have quail on toast every day in the year; at least
the quail would be easily forthcoming though the toast might not. Cold roast
quail and damper are not to be despised for lunch after a long ride in the
bush."
 A QUAIL FAMILY.
While Frank was busy with the study of the birds of Australia, Fred
contemplated with great care the map of the country. He observed that all the
mountain ranges were near the coast, so that the course of the larger rivers
was towards the interior. "There is not," said he in his note-book, "a single
large river flowing into the ocean from all this great continent, with the
exception of the Murray. Every other stream is short and insignificant; and
even the Murray and its tributaries do not form a first-class river.
"Here we are," said Fred, "on the head streams of the Darling, one of the
rivers that unite with the Murray to pour into the sea through Lake Alexandria,
between Melbourne and Adelaide. On looking at the map I thought we should
be able to descend in a boat to the ocean, but Mr. Watson tells us we can do
nothing of the sort. Some of the rivers on the maps are at this season simply
dry beds, though at times they have water enough to float a first-class boat
from the Mississippi.
"Steamboats have ascended the Darling to Walgett, 2345 miles from the sea,
but they can only do so at certain, or rather uncertain, times, and therefore
no dependence can be placed on the navigation of the Murray and its
tributaries. The Darling depends on flood-waters; sometimes they will fill the
stream to its junction with the Murray, and thence to the sea, and again they
fail before going half way. The river can never be navigated throughout the
year, and in some years boats are not able to run at all.
"So my scheme of going down by water to the ocean is not practicable, and
we return to the coast the way we came."
 OUT PROSPECTING.
And return they did, taking the railway to Brisbane, and thence going by
coach and rail to Gympie, the centre of the Queensland gold-mining region, or
rather one of its centres, as the colony possesses several auriferous fields.
There is a standing offer of a reward of £1000, or $5000, to any one who
discovers paying gold-deposits in a new locality upon which there shall be
upwards of two hundred men at work six months after the fields are opened.
Consequently a great many prospectors are constantly at work, through the
double hope of the reward and of making a fortune out of the discovery.
The gold-fields of Gympie were discovered in 1868 by Mr. James Nash, and
the settlement which rose there was at first called Nashville. The existence of
the precious metal in the colony was known for at least a decade before that
date, but none of the mines had proved remunerative. At present there are
upwards of twenty gold-fields in Queensland, and the aggregate annual yield
exceeds $5,000,000. From 1867 to 1885 inclusive the mines of Queensland
yielded 4,840,221 ounces of gold, valued at not far from $80,000,000.
But we are forgetting Frank and Fred in our contemplation of these dry
statistics. Here is what Frank wrote concerning their visit to Gympie:
"We came here partly by rail and partly by coach, the railway from Brisbane to
Gympie not being completed, though perhaps it will be by the time this is in
print, if it should ever have such good-fortune. It is one hundred and sixteen
miles from Brisbane to Gympie, and sixty-one from here to Maryborough. The
town is prettily situated on the side of a range of hills on the river Mary; it has
handsome public buildings, and bears every evidence of prosperity. It has a
School of Arts, a public library, and other institutions not always to be found in
mining towns, and altogether deserves the good name that it bears. It has a
population of nearly eight thousand in the municipality alone, and there are
four thousand more in the immediate neighborhood.

QUARTZ-MILL IN THE GOLD-MINES.

"There are the usual paraphernalia of the mining industry, which we have
already described in other places. In every direction there are mining-shafts
and reduction-works, and for miles and miles around the country is full of
prospecting holes, where gold has been sought but not found, at least in
paying quantities. The first rush here was for the alluvial diggings, and large
amounts of gold were taken out by the early comers.
"We were much interested in hearing about the adventures of Mr. Nash, the
discoverer of the gold-diggings here. He had been an unsuccessful prospector
for twenty years, had gone through all kinds of privations, narrowly escaped
death at the hands of the blacks on many occasions, and was almost killed by
the earth caving in on him while working a prospect hole. He always went by
himself, and worked alone. When he found gold here he managed to work
away for three months without interruption; then he was discovered by a
stockman, who took a claim next to his and spread the news abroad. Nash
became a rich man at last, but his health was ruined, and he had little real
enjoyment of his wealth.
 AUSTRALIAN GOLD-HUNTERS.
"The alluvial diggings at Gympie were soon worked out, and reef, or quartz,
mining followed. In fact, the reef mining began while placer mining was at its
height and the alluvial diggers were in the full tide of success. The placers
were, and the reefs are, very rich, and many of the workings have paid
enormously to their owners. Of course where there have been so many prizes
there has been a proportionate number of blanks, and there is no telling how
many thousands of men have left Gympie poorer than when they came here.
"The town consists practically of a single street which straggles up and down
for more than a mile, with here and there an attempt to run a lateral street in
the direction of a mine or a crushing-mill. Most of the houses are of wood,
and scattered over the hills are the huts of the miners, in order that they may
be near the places where they are employed. This does not prevent their
coming into the town in the evening, and occasionally making it a very lively
place. In the early days there were the usual disorderly scenes of the centre
of a 'gold rush;' and one of the old inhabitants told us that a few months after
the discovery became known, it seemed as though half the bad characters in
Australia had congregated there.
 A GOLD-MINER'S HOME.
"When the alluvial diggings had been exhausted, the wandering miners
disappeared and wended their way to newly reported fields. The place
became more orderly, and then the abandoned claims were occupied by the
Chinese, the most patient workers the world ever saw. They are contented to
take up what white men consider unprofitable, and, considering all their
disadvantages, they have done wonderfully well. They are not allowed to
enter any gold-field until it has been open for two years; and there is a poll-
tax of £10 a head upon every Chinese who enters the colony. They are
generally peaceable, but occasionally they quarrel among themselves over the
right to work a certain spot, and then the noise they make is something
tremendous."
 A CHINESE DISCUSSION.
From Gympie our friends went by rail to Maryborough, a seaport town on the
Mary River, twenty-five miles above its mouth, and one hundred and eighty
from Brisbane. The railway carried them past many sugar plantations, and
they learned that Maryborough is the outlet of a considerable district devoted
to sugar cultivation, the annual product being not far from five thousand tons.
Large quantities of lumber are exported from Maryborough, and there is also
a considerable business in wool and hides from the cattle and sheep stations
in the country towards the interior.
Here they took steamer for Sydney, touching at Brisbane, Newcastle, and
several other ports of lesser consequence. During their voyage they became
acquainted with a resident of one of the northern ports, who had much to say
about the advantages of his part of the colony, and greatly regretted that they
had not been able to visit it.
"It's a pity," said he, "that you missed the Great Barrier Reef, which is one of
the most remarkable geographical and geological phenomena to be found
anywhere on the globe. It stretches along the whole eastern coast from
opposite Port Bowen, in latitude 23°, to Torres Strait, at the extreme north of
Queensland, and is one thousand two hundred miles long. Its greatest width,
which is near its southern end, is about seventy miles, and it is from five to
one hundred miles from the shore of the continent. All along its whole length
there are sunken reefs, which make navigation in its vicinity very dangerous.
Many a ship has been lost on this reef, and scores or hundreds of persons
have found a watery grave by its side."
Fred asked if a ship inside the reef was obliged to go its entire length before
finding an opening to the ocean.
"Not at all," was the reply. "There are many openings to the ocean through
the reef, some of them very narrow and others several miles in width; and the
reef contains specimens of all kinds of coral formation—atolls, fringing reefs,
and others. The portion of the reef above water, and the numerous coral
islands near it, are thought to have an aggregate surface of thirty thousand
miles."
"What is supposed to have caused the formation of this reef?" Frank inquired.

WRECKED ON THE REEF.

"The outer margin of the Great Barrier Reef probably indicates the former
coast-line of this part of Australia," was the reply. "This was fringed with coral
reefs; but as the land sank, the coral animals continued to build upward to the
level of the sea, and thus a great ridge was formed which was broken and
heaped up by the waves of the Pacific. Fresh water prevents the formation of
coral, and the openings in the Great Barrier Reef are thus formed by the
fresh-water streams. The largest is opposite the mouth of the Burdekin River,
which drains a considerable area of country.
"The reef is a good place for sport, just as are the reefs of the Feejee,
Samoan, and Society Islands, which you tell me you have visited. Vessels go
there in search of beche-de-mer, for which they have a good market in China.
The fishery for this curious article of food is practically just the same as in the
island groups of the Pacific, and therefore I need not describe it to you.

THE MANATEE, OR DUGONG.

"Very good sport can be had in Northern Queensland in hunting the dugong,
or sea-cow. This animal abounds along the coast of that region; its flesh is not
bad eating, and its oil was formerly in demand as a substitute for cod-liver oil,
but some of the fishermen got to mixing it with shark-oil and other
abominations, so that its good name was ruined. If you have a taste for
turtle-catching, it can be accommodated. We supply the Sydney and
Melbourne markets with green turtle, and also put the soup and meat into tin
cans and send it to England. There are numerous fishes, some good to eat,
and others worthless as articles of food but with all the colors of the rainbow.
We have sharks of the largest size, and the stranger should be careful about
venturing into the water for a bath."
Their new acquaintance had a great deal to say about the northern part of
Queensland, whose praises he was never weary of sounding. He declared that
within a very few years Queensland would consist of two colonies instead of
one, as the north was inclined to cut loose from the south and set up a
government of its own. He thought it did not receive its fair share of the
public money, and having paid its proportion of the taxes, it had a right to
grumble when the south received all the appropriations for railways and other
costly improvements.
On his arrival in Sydney Doctor Bronson called at once on the gentleman who
had invited the party to see the interior of New South Wales. Arrangements
were made for immediate departure, and at nine o'clock on the following
morning they were off for the upper country.
So far as their experiences of cattle and sheep stations were concerned, they
were practically a repetition of what they had gone through in Queensland. A
new feature of the trip was a kangaroo hunt to which they were invited, and
of which Fred gives the following account:
"You must know that this is the land of marsupials, or animals which carry
their young in a pouch until they are able to take care of themselves. Nearly
all the animals of this country belong to this family; and geological researches
show that there were once some marsupials here that equalled if they did not
exceed in size the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. But these big fellows are all
extinct; there are one hundred and ten species now, and the largest of them
does not exceed two hundred pounds in weight.
"The largest of the marsupials is the kangaroo, and the next in size is the
wallaby. There are eight species of large kangaroo, inhabiting different parts
of the country, the prince of them all being the red kangaroo of South
Australia. Then come seventeen species of small kangaroos (Halmaturus)
weighing from ten to fifteen pounds; and then three species of silky-haired
kangaroos (Onychogalea), inhabiting the interior of the continent. They weigh
eight or ten pounds, and are about the size of a common rabbit; then come
five species of hare-kangaroos, five of jerboa-kangaroos, and then the rat-
kangaroos, the bandicoots, opossums, 'rabbit-rats,' and numerous other small
animals. We'll go back to the large kangaroos, where we began.
 EVENING AT HOME ON THE NORTH COAST.
"In former times, when the only human inhabitants of Australia were the
savage blacks, the kangaroo was kept from increasing too rapidly, through the
combined efforts of the dingoes and the natives. The dingo is the Australian
wild dog, and closely allied to the wolf and jackal, of which he is certainly the
first-cousin. He is carnivorous, and fond of sheep, and was therefore poisoned
and otherwise killed off by the settlers, to prevent his depredations upon the
flocks. A bounty was placed on his scalp, and he has been greatly reduced in
numbers. The natives have likewise died off since the settlement of the
country; and with their natural enemies removed, the kangaroos, which live
wholly on grass, have increased till they have become a nuisance. A kangaroo
eats as much as a sheep, and when a drove is undisturbed its numbers
multiply with a rapidity that dismays the squatter on whose land it has made
its home.
 DINGOES, OR AUSTRALIAN WILD DOGS.
"Our host gave us the foregoing information while we were riding to the place
where we were to enjoy the sensation of hunting the kangaroo. He
furthermore told us that it was no uncommon thing for them to kill several
hundred kangaroos in a single drive, but it could not be called sport. He said a
drive wasn't a hunt, and I asked him to explain the difference, which he did.
"The necessity of killing off the kangaroos to prevent their utter destruction of
all the grass in the country was forced upon the settlers by the rapid increase
of the animals. The Government passed a law giving a bounty for the scalps
of kangaroos; and none too soon, as in some parts of the country the droves
fairly blackened the plains for many miles, and literally starved the sheep out
of the country. The bounty on the scalps, added to the value of the meat and
skins, partly paid for the trouble, which required a muster of all the squatters
and their employés for a considerable distance around.
"A drive, or battue, is managed in this way: A yard with a high fence is built in
one of the scrubs on the plains, and from this yard two fences run out on the
plain for a long distance, widening like the sides of the letter V. All the men,
boys, and blacks in the neighborhood are mounted on horseback, and scour
the country for many miles around; they move in the direction of the jaws of
the V, and when the herd is once inside it, the animals are doomed. They go
straight towards the scrub which conceals the yard, and do not discover
where they are till they are inside the enclosure. Then the rails are put up, the
blacks enter with clubs, and the slaughtering begins. A kangaroo can jump
clean over a horse, and therefore the fence must be not less than seven feet
high to prevent his escape when frightened.
 AUSTRALIAN WILD HORSES.
"We were not bent on any such performance, which is nothing but slaughter,
though made necessary by the conditions of the country. I may add here that
in some parts of the colony it is often necessary to make a drive of wild
horses exactly as they drive the kangaroo. It is no uncommon matter for a
squatter to make a drive of four or five hundred wild horses, which are killed
for their hides, but more especially to prevent their eating the grass,
destroying the fences, and enticing tame horses out of the paddocks. We
have seen several droves of wild horses, and they look very pretty as they
gallop over the plain. We wished we had some of them under the saddle, but
were told that the value of the animal rarely pays for the trouble and cost of
breaking him. Occasionally horses with brands on them are found in the wild
herds; they are impounded and advertised; at least such is the theory, but
quite as often they are killed with the rest to save trouble.
"A black boy mounted on a swift horse came riding back to us, and said the
kangaroos were in a part of the plain that was concealed from us by a patch
of scrub. We moved in their direction, keeping the scrub between us and
them, so as to get as close as possible before they discovered us.
"Our manœuvre worked very well. There were ten or twelve of the animals
feeding quietly, and we were within a few hundred yards of them before they
were aware of it. At the first alarm they rose on their hind-legs and took a
look all around, and a second later they were away. How they did jump! They
seemed to go thirty or forty feet at a time, but our host says it was little if any
more than fifteen feet. Even that is a tremendous jump; if you don't think so,
just try it.
 A KANGAROO BATTUE, OR DRIVE.
"We let loose the dogs, which up to this time had been kept behind us, and
they went away without any urging. The dogs are kept for this purpose, just
as fox-hounds are kept in England and France, or deer-hounds in Scotland.
The dogs soon overtook and pulled down a young kangaroo; this caused
some delay, but not much, and they were speedily put on the track of an 'old
man' kangaroo, as a full-grown male is called.
"The 'old man' led the dogs a lively chase. He made directly for water, several
miles away, which is always the custom of the kangaroo; if he cannot reach
water he takes his stand with his back against a tree, and in that position he
is a dangerous creature to approach. We followed the dogs as closely as we
could, but did not come up to them until the kangaroo was at bay in a pool
where the water just left his fore-legs clear as he stood upright.
 RED KANGAROO.
"The dogs were all experienced in kangaroo-hunting, and knew enough to
keep out of reach of his legs. Had they come within grasping distance he
would have held them under water till they were drowned, or else have ripped
them open with a blow from his powerful hind-leg, which has a claw in the
middle capable of inflicting a fatal wound upon man or dog.
"The dogs swam around him, or stood on the shore of the pool, when we
came up. The pool was a small one, and the creature realized that it was his
safest retreat, and he was evidently determined to die game. A shot from a
rifle in the hands of one of the men finished him, and he was quickly dragged
to the shore. Fortunately, not a dog was killed or injured; rarely does a hunt
terminate without some one or more of the dogs receiving a scratch, and
nearly every kangaroo-dog in the country has a scar or two to show as
evidence of his experience and prowess.
 SHORT EARED KANGAROO.
"After this exploit we dismounted, and took our lunch. Then we made a
circuitous journey homeward, and roused up another 'old man,' which we
despatched as he stood fighting with his back to a tree, but not till he had
wounded one of the dogs. Another full-grown kangaroo was killed by one of
the stockmen the same day, in another part of the run, and the three skins
will be properly cured and sent to Doctor Bronson and ourselves as souvenirs
of the day's experience.
"We supped on steaks from a young kangaroo; the meat of the old and full-
grown animals is too rank to be enjoyable, and is usually fed to the dogs. We
had soup made from kangaroo tail, and it was delicious; kangaroo soup has
become an article of export, and some epicures are said to prefer it to ox-tail,
or even to turtle soup, though I very much doubt the latter statement.
"Our host says the natives in former times were very skilful in killing the
kangaroo with the boomerang; when a native armed with this weapon was
within reach of a kangaroo, the aim rarely missed. Another way of killing the
creature was by stalking. The blackfellow dressed himself with twigs and
brush to look like a small tree. In this disguise, and carrying his spear
between two toes of his foot, he advanced slowly, taking care to keep to
leeward, so that the animal could not get the scent. Slowly he closed up,
remaining motionless when the kangaroo looked up, and moving again when
it began to graze. Once within spearing distance, he speedily settled the
question of dinner or no dinner from the flesh of that identical beast."
Frank asked what became of the skins of the kangaroos when they were
slaughtered by wholesale, as already described.
"They are pegged out on the ground and dried," said their host, "and then are
shipped to market. Many of them go to America, where they are made into
leather for boots and shoes and other purposes. The leather is very tenacious,
and almost impervious to water, and the demand for it is said to be
increasing. Previous to 1869 very few of the skins were tanned, as the merits
of the leather had not become known. The first that were sent to America
were sold at a loss, and then in a few years, when their qualities were known,
the American tanners could not get enough of them. One firm in Newark, New
Jersey, is said to receive six thousand skins every week, and even with that
number cannot meet the demand for kangaroo leather."
During the evening, stories of kangaroo hunts were naturally in order, and a
goodly number were told; but as all were of the same general character it is
hardly necessary to give them. Frank made note of the fact that there is one
kind of kangaroo which climbs trees and jumps, like a squirrel, from limb to
limb. He is called the tree-kangaroo, and has curved claws on his fore-paws to
enable him to cling to the branches. He is not a bad pet to have about a park,
but his numbers should be judiciously kept down, or he may become a
nuisance, like the larger kangaroos that live on the ground.

KANGAROOS IN CAPTIVITY.
 CHAPTER XIX.
A NATIVE ENCAMPMENT AND A CORROBOREE.—RIDING ACROSS-COUNTRY.
—AMONG THE BLACKS.—NATIVE DANCES.—A WEIRD SCENE.—ABORIGINAL
MUSIC.—STORIES ABOUT CORROBOREES.—CURIOUS CUSTOMS.—HOW THE
BLACK MEN OBTAIN THEIR WIVES.—TESTING THE STOICISM OE YOUTHS.—
AN ALARM AT NIGHT.—RETURN TO SYDNEY.—A BRICKFIELDER.—HOT
WINDS FROM THE DESERT.—HOW A PICNIC WAS BROKEN UP.—OVER THE
BLUE MOUNTAINS.—RAILWAYS IN NEW SOUTH WALES.—SALUBRITY OF THE
MOUNTAIN CLIMATE.—GOULBURN.—THEATRICAL GOSSIP.—FIRST THEATRE
IN AUSTRALIA.—A CONVICT'S PROLOGUE.—THE DRAMA UNDER
DISADVANTAGES.—THE RIVERINA.—ALBURY AND THE VICTORIAN
FRONTIER.—PROTECTION AND FREE-TRADE.—FISHING IN THE MURRAY
RIVER.—AUSTRALIAN FISHES.—FROM ALBURY TO MELBOURNE.
Before returning to the coast our friends had an opportunity to visit a native
encampment and see a corroboree. The reader naturally asks what a
corroboree is; we will see presently.
Arrangements were made by their host, and early one morning the party was
off for the native encampment, which was nearly thirty miles away. A tent and
provisions had been sent along the previous evening, so that the travellers
had nothing to carry on their horses beyond a lunch, which they ate in a
shepherd's hut at one of the out stations. Early in the afternoon they reached
their tent, which had been pitched on the bank of a brook about half a mile
from the village they intended to visit.
Taking an early dinner, they set out on foot for the encampment, being guided
by a native who had come to escort them. We will let Frank tell the story of
the entertainment.
"The village was merely a collection of huts of bark, open at one side, and
forming a shelter against the wind, though it would have been hardly equal to
keeping out a severe storm. To construct these huts the bark had been
stripped from several trees in the vicinity. Fires were burning in front of most
of the huts, and care was taken that they did not extend to the trees, and
thus get a start through the forest.
"There was an odor of singed wool and burning meat, but no food was in
sight. The blacks are supposed to live upon kangaroo meat as their principal
viand, but a good many cattle and sheep disappear whenever a tribe of them
is in the neighborhood of the herds and flocks. In addition to kangaroo, they
eat the meat of the wallaby, opossum, wombat, native bear, and other
animals, and are fond of eels and any kind of fish that come to their hands, or
rather to their nets and spears. Emus, ducks, turkeys—in fact, pretty nearly
everything that lives and moves, including ants and their eggs, grubs, earth-
worms, moths, beetles, and other insects—are welcome additions to the
aboriginal larder. All the fruits of trees and bushes, together with many roots
and edible grasses and other plants, are included in their bill of fare.
"There were twenty or more dirty and repulsive men and women in the
village, some squatted or seated around the fires, and others walking or
standing carelessly in the immediate vicinity. A dozen thin and vicious-looking
dogs growled at us as we approached, but were speedily silenced by their
owners. These dogs were simply the native dingoes, either born in captivity or
caught when very young and domesticated. They are poorly fed, and the
squatters say they can generally distinguish a wild dog from one belonging to
the blacks, by the latter being thin and the former in good condition.
"More women than men were visible, and it was explained that the men who
were to take part in the corroboree were away making their preparations. The
corroboree is a dance which was formerly quite common among the tribes,
but has latterly gone a good deal out of fashion. At present it is not often
given, except when, as in the present instance, strangers are willing to pay
something in order to see it. Our host had arranged it for us, and the camping
party that preceded us with the pack-horses had brought the stipulated
amount of cloth, sugar, and other things that were to constitute the payment
for the entertainment.
"We tried to make friends with some of the children, but they were decidedly
shy, and we soon gave it up. In a little while the men who were to dance
came out from the forest, and as they did so the women formed in a
semicircle at one side of the cleared space in the middle of the encampment;
and some of the men brought fresh supplies of wood, and heaped it on the
central fire. The women sat on the ground, and each had an opossum rug
stretched tightly across her knees and forming a sort of drum.
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