ISBN 939138363-7

9 789391 383633
 Basic and Advance
Phython Programming Language

NIPA GENX ELECTRONIC RESOURCES & SOLUTIONS P. LTD.

New Delhi-110 034
About the Authors

Dr Agya Ram Verma was born Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India. He received the B. Tech
degree in Electronic and Instrumentation Engineering from IET MJPRU Bareilly, UP,
India, in 2010. He completed the M.Tech. degree in Electronic and Communication
Engineering from the Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), Design
and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, India. He received the PhD degree from Uttarakhand
Technical University, Dehradun, in 2019. He joined the Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering, G. B. Pant Engineering College, Pauri Garhwal, India,
in 2013, as Assistant Professor. His research interest includes machine learning, signal
processing. He has published more than 35 research papers in refereed international
journals and conferences. He has published one Patent in 2021. He has published
one book on fundamental of machine learning form Sara book publication in 2021.
He also obtains one R&D Project and one Constancy Project. He is also reviewer of
many reputed international journals like Computer Methods in Biomechanics and
Biomedical Engineering: Imaging & Visualization (Taylor & Francis), IET Generation,
Transmission & Distribution, International Journal of Signal and Imaging Systems
Engineering (IJSISE), Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, GUCON 2019 IEEE
Conference, India, Signal processing journal, Electronics Letters, IET.
Dr.Yatendra Kumar is former Head and Associate Professor, Department of
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, UP (India). He has completed
his B.Tech (Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering) in 1999 and M.Tech
(Instrumentation Engineering) from National Institute of Technology (Formerly known
as Regional Engineering College), Kurukshetra, Haryana in 2001. He has completed
his Ph.D. degree from Indian School of Mines (ISM), Dhanbad. He has more than
20 years of teaching experience. Besides, he has authored and co-authored several
research papers published in national and international journals. He is also reviewer
of many reputed international journals like IEEE Access, International Journal of
Electronics, Microwave and Optical Technologies Letter, International Journal of
Electronics and Communications(AEU) International Journal of RF and Computer
Aided Design (RFCAD) and International Journal of microwave and Technologies.
Dr. Sag Ram Verma received his B.Sc. in 2003 from Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University,
Ayodhya, India and M.Sc. in 2005 with Mathematics from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India. He received his Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics from Indian Institute
of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India in year 2009. He is currently working as an
Assistant Professor in Mathematics, Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University),
Haridwar (UK) India since 2011. His research interest includes Mathematical
programming, Wavelet analysis and its applications. He has published more than 25
research papers in refereed international journals and conferences. He has guided 4
PhD student.
 Basic and Advance
Phython Programming Language

Agya Ram Verma

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
G. B. Pant Institute of Engineering and Technology
Pauri-Gargwal, Uttarakhand, India

Yatendra Kumar
Former Head and Associate Professor
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University
Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India

Sag Ram Verma

Assistant Professor
Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University)
Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India

NIPA GENX ELECTRONIC RESOURCES & SOLUTIONS P. LTD.

New Delhi-110 034
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Acknowledgements

Our debts in the writing of this book are many, and we spell them out now.
Bear with us. We acknowledge many in the ‘References’ section towards
the end of the book. We have tried our best but almost certainly failed to
recognize some of the others by not making proper notes. To any such creators
that we may have overlooked, our apologies. We have learned a great deal
from the writings of experts in the investor/trader community and the Python
community on online forums like stackoverflow.com, quora.com, and others
and are indebted to them.
Finally, we would like to thank all the students we have taught in the past
several years. A special thanks to those of you who endured our first few
iterations of the lectures before we learned how best to teach it. Dear students,
we exist because you exist. You have inspired us, challenged us, and pushed
us never to stop learning just to keep up with you. We hope you enjoy reading
this as much as we enjoyed writing it for you.

A.R. Verma
Y. Kumar
S.R. Verma
Preface

This book will introduce you to the python programming language. It’s aimed
at beginning programmers, but even if you have written programs before and
just want to add python to your list of languages.
The first eight chapters explain python’s basic and you should read them in
order. The later chapters show how Python is used in specific application
areas such as the web, database, networks, and so on, read them in any order
you like. Chapter 1 this chapter explain different basic topic related python
programming. Chapter 2 in this chapter define python operator. Chapter 3
in this chapter define looping statement. Chapter 4 in this chapter define
python function. Chapter 5 in this chapter explain string statement. Chapter
6 in this chapter define list in python programming. Chapter 7 in this chapter
explain tuple in python programming. Chapter 8 in this chapter explain
dictionary in python programming. Chapter 9 in this chapter explain numpy
in python programming. Chapter 10 in this chapter exaplain lambda function
in python programming. Chapter 11 in this chapter explain pandas in python
programming. Chapter 12 in this chapter explain python pandas functionality.
Chapter 12 in this chapter explain data frame basic functionality. Chapter 13
in this chapter explain python pandas statical functions. Chapter 14 in this
chapter explain python panda visualization. Chapter 15 in this chapter exaplain
data visualization in python programming. Chapter 16 in this chapter explain
object oriented programming. Chapter 17 in this chapter explain module
in python programming. Chapter 18 in this chapter explain python library.
Chapter 19 in this chapter explain turtle grapics in python programming.
Chapter 20 in this chapter explain brief tour of the standard libray.
A.R. Verma
Y. Kumar
S.R. Verma
Contents

Acknowledgements..................................................................................................v
Preface��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� vii

1. Basic Concept of Python Programming........................................ 1

1.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Beginning with Python Programming............................................. 1
1.2.1 Finding an Interpreter.......................................................... 1
1.3 Compiler Vs. Interpreter: Explore What is the Difference
Between Compiler and Interpreter?................................................. 1
1.3.1 What is a Compiler?............................................................. 2
1.3.2 What Is an Interpreter?..........................................................
1.3.3 Difference Between Compiler and Interpreter.................... 2
1.4 Why to learn Python?....................................................................... 3
1.5 What is Python IDLE?...................................................................... 3
1.6 Writing Program in Python.............................................................. 3
1.7 Variable in Python .......................................................................... 5
1.7.1 Variable Rules...................................................................... 5
1.8 Python Language: Advantages and Applications............................. 6
1.8.1 Advantages ...............................................................................6
1.8.2 Applications.......................................................................... 7
1.8.3 Organizations using Python................................................. 7
2. Python Operators............................................................................ 9
2.1 Operators.......................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Arithmetic Operators .......................................................... 9
2.1.2 Relational/Comparison Operator........................................10
2.1.3 Assignment Operator..........................................................10
2.1.4 Logical Operators................................................................11
2.1.5 Identity Operators...............................................................11
2.1.6 Membership Operator.........................................................12
x Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

2.1.7 Bitwise Operators................................................................12

2.2 Python Basic Program.....................................................................13
3. Looping Statement........................................................................ 15
3.1 Control Statement in Python...........................................................15
3.1.1 Selection Statement.............................................................15
3.1.2 Looping Statement..............................................................15
3.1.3 If Statement.........................................................................15
3.1.4 Looping Statement .............................................................19
3.1.5 While Loop.........................................................................19
3.2 Nested Loop ................................................................................... 25
3.2.1 For Loops in Python .......................................................... 28
4. Function in Python Programming............................................... 29
4.1 Introduction to Function in Python.................................................29
4.1.1 Function Without Argument Program............................... 30
4.1.2 Function Parameters/Arguments in Python....................... 30
4.2 Function Used .................................................................................31
4.2.1 No Argument No Return.....................................................31
4.2.2 With Argument No Return.................................................31
4.2.3 No Argument With Return.................................................31
4.2.4 With Argument With Return..............................................31
4.3 Default Argument................................................................................. 32
4.3.1 Fruit Function(Function Return Value)..............................32
4.3.2 Scope of The Variable(Global and Local Variable)............33
4.4 Break and Continue in Python.........................................................33
4.4.1 Break Statement..................................................................33
4.4.2 Continue Statement:............................................................35
5. String in Python Programming.................................................... 37
5.1 String Statement..............................................................................37
5.2 String Operators..............................................................................38
5.3 String Function................................................................................39
6. List in Python Programming........................................................ 43
6.1 List Introduction..............................................................................43
6.2 Python List Slicing..........................................................................43
6.2.1 Updating List in Python..................................................... 44
 Contents xi

6.2.2 Deleting List in Python...................................................... 44

6.2.3 Accessing List Elements to Perform Various
Operations.......................................................................... 44
6.3 Basic Program List............................................................................... 50
7. Tuple in Python Programming..................................................... 55
7.1 Tuple Introduction ...........................................................................55
7.2 Program Implementation.................................................................56
7.2.1 Insert Update & Deleting Tuple Elements..........................56
7.3 Different Types of Tuple..................................................................57
7.4 Indexing & Slicing of Tuple in Python............................................57
7.4.1 Traversing Tuple..................................................................57
7.4.2 Joining Tuple.......................................................................57
7.4.3 Repeating or Replicating Tuples.........................................57
7.4.4 Slicing The Tuples...............................................................58
7.5 Tuple Function.................................................................................58
7.5.1 Creating, Updating, Deleting & Accessing Elements of
Tuple in Python...................................................................59
8. Dictionary in Python Programming............................................ 61
8.1 Introduction to Dictionary in Python..............................................61
8.1.1 Create and Print a Dictionary.............................................61
8.1.2 Loop Through a Dictionary................................................61
8.1.3 Change Values in Dictionary..............................................62
8.1.4 Add Update Delete Elements in Python.............................62
8.1.5 Adding New Element in the Dictionary................................62
8.1.6 Dictionary & its Function Explained..................................62
8.1.7 Del Keyword ......................................................................63
8.1.8 Clear Keyword (Deletes all the Elements of Dictionary)...63
8.2 Dictionary Function in Dictionary................................................. 64
9. Numpy in Python Programming.................................................. 67
9.1 Introduction Numpy.........................................................................67
9.2 Installing Numpy.............................................................................67
9.2.1 Creating Numpy Array (one dimensional)......................... 68
9.2.2 Creating two dimensional array using Numpy.................. 68
9.3 Numpy Function .............................................................................69
xii Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

9.3.1 Two Dimensional(2D) ........................................................71

9.3.2 Indexing in 1 Dimensional Array.......................................71
9.3.3 Reshaping of Array in Numpy in Python...........................72
9.3.4 Seed Function in Python Programming..............................72
9.3.5 Creating Two Dimensional Array in
Python Programming..........................................................72
9.3.6 Indexing of 2 Dimensional Array ......................................73
9.4 View Vs copy...................................................................................73
9.5 Conditional Selection in Python Programming..............................74
9.5.1 Conditional Selection..........................................................74
9.6 Operation on Numpy Array in Python Programming....................74
9.6.1 Numpy Some More Function..............................................75
9.7 Creating 2D Array with Fixed Data Type....................................... 75
9.7.1 Stacking 2D Array with Fixed Data Type..........................76
9.8 Question List....................................................................................77
9.9 Numpy vs List Difference............................................................... 80
9.10 Pycharm Installation in Python IDE.............................................. 80
9.11 Python Data Types.......................................................................... 80
9.11.1 Type Casting........................................................................81
9.11.2 Numpy Searching Arrays....................................................81
10. Lambda Function in Python Programming............................... 83
10.1 Lambda Function.............................................................................83
10.1.1 Filter Function with Lambda Function ..............................83
10.1.2 Map Filter Lambda Function in Python Programming..... 84
10.1.3 Map Function......................................................................85
10.2 Reduce() Function...........................................................................85
11. Pandas in Python Programming.................................................. 87
11.1 Introduction:................................................................................... 87
11.1.1 Key Features of Pandas...................................................... 87
11.2 NumPy vs Pandas........................................................................... 88
11.3 Introduction to Data Structures...................................................... 88
11.3.1 Series...................................................................................89
11.3.2 DataFrame...........................................................................89
11.3.3 Data Type of Columns........................................................89
 Contents xiii

11.3.4 Panel................................................................................... 90
11.4 Python Pandas Series...................................................................... 90
11.4.1 Create an Empty Series...................................................... 90
11.4.2 Create a Series From Ndarray.............................................91
11.5 Create a Series from Dictonary...................................................... 92
11.6 Create a Series from Scalar............................................................ 93
11.7 Accessing Data from Series with Position..................................... 93
11.8 Retrieve Data Using Label (Index)................................................. 94
11.9 Python Pandas - DataFrame........................................................... 95
11.9.1 Create DataFrame............................................................... 96
11.9.2 Create a DataFrame from Lists.......................................... 97
11.9.3 Create a DataFrame from Dict of ndarrays / Lists............. 98
10.9.4 Create a DataFrame from List of Dicts.............................. 99
11.9.5 Create a DataFrame from Dict of Series...........................100
11.9.6 Column Selection..............................................................101
11.9.7 Column Addition...............................................................101
11.9.8 Column Deletion...............................................................102
11.9.9 Row Selection, Addition, and Deletion.............................103
11.9.10 Selection by Label.............................................................103
11.9.11 Selection by Integer Location...........................................104
11.9.12 Slice Rows.........................................................................104
11.9.13 Addition of Rows...............................................................105
11.9.14 Deletion of Rows...............................................................105
11.10 Python Pandas - Panel...................................................................106
11.10.1 Create Panel.......................................................................106
11.11.2 Create an Empty Panel......................................................107
11.11.3 Selecting the Data from Panel...........................................108
12. Python Pandas: Basic Functionality...........................................111
12.1 Introduction Basic Functionality................................................... 111
12.2 Series Basic Functionality............................................................. 111
12.2.1 Axes...................................................................................112
12.2.2 Empty................................................................................112
12.2.3 Ndim..................................................................................113
12.2.4 Size....................................................................................113
xiv Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

12.2.5 Values................................................................................ 114

12.2.6 Head & Tail....................................................................... 114
12.3 DataFrame Basic Functionality..................................................... 116
12.3.1 Example............................................................................. 116
12.3.2 T (Transpose)..................................................................... 117
12.3.3 Axes................................................................................... 117
12.3.4 Dtypes............................................................................... 118
12.3.5 Empty................................................................................ 118
12.3.6 Ndim..................................................................................119
12.3.7 Shape.................................................................................120
12.3.8 Size....................................................................................121
12.3.9 Values................................................................................121
12.3.10 Head & Tail.......................................................................122
13. Python Pandas: Statistical Functions........................................ 125
13.1 Statistical Functions.......................................................................125
13.1.1 Covariance.........................................................................126
13.1.2 Correlation.........................................................................127
13.1.3 Data Ranking....................................................................127
14. Python Pandas: Visualization..................................................... 129
14.1 Basic Plotting: plot.........................................................................129
14.1.1 Bar Plot..............................................................................130
14.1.2 Histograms........................................................................132
14.1.3 Box Plots...........................................................................133
14.1.4 Area Plot............................................................................134
14.1.5 Scatter Plot........................................................................135
14.1.6 Pie Chart............................................................................135
15. Data Visualization....................................................................... 137
15.1 Data Visualization......................................................................... 137
15.2 How to Install Matplotlib...............................................................137
15.3 Pyplot ...........................................................................................137
15.4 Line chart.......................................................................................138
15.4.1 Customization of Plots........................................................138
15.5 Multiple plots on the same axis.....................................................140
15.6 Fill the area between two plots......................................................142
 Contents xv

15.7 Bar Chart........................................................................................143

15.8 Pie chart.........................................................................................144
15.9 Histogram......................................................................................146
15.10 Scatter Plot.....................................................................................147
15.11 Plotting Curves of Given Equation................................................148
15.12 Subplot ..........................................................................................149
15.13 3D Plotting.....................................................................................152
15.14 Matplotlib Graph Plotting Using Object Oriented API.................156
16. Object Oriented Programming in Python................................ 159
16.1 OOP in Python...............................................................................159
16.1.1 What is encapsulation.......................................................159
16.1.2 Abstraction........................................................................159
16.1.3 Why Do We Need Abstraction?........................................159
16.1.4 Inheritance in Python........................................................159
16.1.5 Polymorphism in python...................................................160
16.2 Class in OOP..................................................................................160
16.2.1 How to create to class........................................................160
16.2.2 Accessing Class Member Using Object............................162
16.2.3 Constructor in python.......................................................163
16.2.4 Accessing Instance Variable.............................................164
16.2.5 Class variable/static variable.............................................165
16.2.6 Accessing class/ Static variable........................................165
16.3 Namespace in Python Programming.............................................168
16.4 Type of Methods............................................................................169
16.4.1 Instance Methods .............................................................169
16.4.2 Accessor Method...............................................................170
16.4.3 Mutator Methods...............................................................171
16.4.4 Class method.....................................................................171
16.4.5 Static methods...................................................................172
16.4.6 Passing Member of one Class to Another Class............... 174
16.4.7 Inner Class ........................................................................ 175
16.5. Multiple Level Inheritance........................................................ 176
16.6 Constructor in Inheritance ............................................................176
16.6.1 Constructor Overriding ....................................................177
xvi Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

16.6.2 Constructor with super() method......................................178

16.6.3 Method Resolution Order..................................................178
16.7 Hierarchical Inheritance................................................................179
16.8 Polymorphism................................................................................180
16.8.1 Duck Typing......................................................................181
16.8.2 Strong Typing....................................................................182
16.8.3 Overriding Method in OOP..............................................183
16.8.4 Overloading in Python Programming...............................183
17. Modules in Python Programming.............................................. 185
17.1 Modules .........................................................................................185
17.1.1 When and why use module...............................................185
17.1.2 Structure of python module..............................................185
17.1.3 Create a Module ...............................................................186
17.1.4 How to Access Methods, Functions, Variable
and Classes........................................................................186
17.2 Package in Python Programming..................................................187
17.2.1 Creating package...............................................................187
17.3 Abstract class.................................................................................189
17.3.1 Abstract method................................................................189
17.3.2 Concrete Method...............................................................190
17.4 Interface.........................................................................................191
17.5 Data Hiding in Python...................................................................192
17.6 Error in Python..............................................................................192
17.7 Exception in Python.......................................................................192
17.7.1 Type of Exception..............................................................193
17.7.2 Need of Exception Handling.............................................193
17.7.3 Exception Handling...........................................................193
17.7.4 User Defined Exception ...................................................195
17.7.5 Creating Exception............................................................195
17.7.6 Raising Exception ............................................................196
18. Python Library............................................................................ 197
18.1 Library Introduction......................................................................197
18.1.1 Brief Tour of the Standard Library...................................197
18.1.2 Python Tkinter Module.....................................................198
 Contents xvii

18.2 Tkinter Widgets.............................................................................199

18.3 Python Tkinter Geometry............................................................. 200
18.3.1 Python Tkinter Pack() Method........................................ 200
18.3.2 Python Tkinter Grid() Method..........................................201
18.3.3 Python Tkinter Place() Method....................................... 202
19. Turtle Graphics........................................................................... 205
19.1 Python Turtle Graphics..................................................................205
19.2 Turtle Method...........................................................................205
20. Brief Tour of the Standard Library .......................................... 207
20.1 Unit Testing in Python Programming.......................................... 207
20.1.1 Step Involved in Unit Testing........................................... 207
20.1.2 Writing Test Cases & Running Tests............................... 207
20.2 Thread in Python Programming................................................... 208
20.2.1 Multithreading.................................................................. 208
20.3 Error vs Exception........................................................................ 208
20.4 Operating System Interface in Python......................................... 209
20.4.1 String Pattern Matching.................................................... 211
20.5 Datetime Module.......................................................................... 212
20.5.1 Creating Object of Datetime Class....................................213
20.5.2 Date Class.......................................................................... 214
20.5.3 Time Class.........................................................................214
20.5.4 Timedelta Class in Python................................................215
20.6 Math Module in Python................................................................. 216
20.7 Numbers and Numeric Representation.......................................... 216
20.8 Power and Logarithmic Functions................................................. 217
20.9 Trigonometric & Angular Conversion Functions..........................218
1
Basic Concept
of Python Programming

1.1 Introduction
Python is an interpreter, high level, general purpose programming language
developed by Guido Van Rossum and its first version was released in 1991.
There are two major Python versions: Python 2 and Python 3. Both are quite
different.

1.2 Beginning with Python Programming

1.2.1 Finding an Interpreter

Before we start Python programming, we need to have an interpreter to
interpret and run our programs.
Windows: There are many interpreters available freely to run Python scripts
like IDLE (Integrated Development Environment) that comes bundled with
the Python software downloaded from http://python.org/.
Linux: Python comes preinstalled with popular Linux distros such as Ubuntu
and Fedora. To check which version of Python you’re running, type “python”
in the terminal emulator. The interpreter should start and print the version
number.
macOS: Generally, Python 2.7 comes bundled with macOS. You’ll have to
manually install Python 3 from http://python.org/.

1.3 Compiler Vs. Interpreter: Explore What is the Difference Between

Compiler and Interpreter?
Both interpreters and compilers are programs that convert the Source Code
(high-level language) into machine codes (so that the computers can understand
them). In this chapter, we will discuss the difference between Compiler and
Interpreter.
2 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

A typical computer program usually exists in high-level languages that a

human can understand. Thus, they contain various phrases and words from the
English language (or any other in common use). Computers, on the other hand,
cannot understand these languages as we do- but can comprehend a program
in binary codes. As a result, we first write a program in a high-level language
(source code), convert them into machine language, and make them readable
for the computers. It is exactly when we need interpreters and compilers.

1.3.1 What is a Compiler?

A compiler is a translator that produces an output of low-level language (like
an assembly or machine language) by taking an input of high-level language.
It is basically a computer program used to transform codes written in a
programming language into machine code (human-readable code to a binary
0 and 1 bits language for a computer processor to understand). The computer
then processes the machine code for performing the corresponding tasks.
• Compilers check all types of errors, limits, and ranges. Thus, it’s more
intelligent.
• The run time of its program is longer, and it occupies more memory.

1.3.2 What Is an Interpreter?

It is a program that functions for the translation of a programming language
into a comprehensible one. It is a computer program used for converting high-
level program statements into machine codes. It includes pre-compiled code,
source code, and scripts.
• An interpreter translates only one statement at a time of the program.
• They create an exe of the programming language before the program
runs.

1.3.3 Difference Between Compiler and Interpreter

S.No. Compiler Interpreter
1 It scans the entire programs first and It sacns the program line by line and trans-
translate it into machine code late it into mechine code
2 Compiler show all errors and warning Interpreter show one error at a time
at same time.
3 Error occurs after scaning the whole Error occurs after scaning each line
program
4 Debugging is slow Debugging is faster
5 Execution time is less Execution time is more
6 Compiler used by language such as C, An Interpreter is used by language such as
C++ etec. python, Java etec.
 Basic Concept of Python Programming 3

1.4 Why to Learn Python?

It’s growth is quite high. It is widely being used many fields like:
• Data analysis
• Machine learning
• Deep learning
• Artificial intelligence
• Desktop application development
• Web development etc.

1.5 What is Python IDLE?

After installing python just go to start menu and find will find “IDLE (python
3.7)”. IDLE stands for integrated development learing environment. This
is a by default development environment for python. There are many more
development environments like pycharm, Eclipse, Eric etc.

1.6 Writing Program in Python

Python provides us the facility to write python program in one file that will
be executed line by line sequentially. Steps for writing python program:
1. Open python IDLE.
2. Click on “File Menu” and then choose “New File”.
3. A new screen/window will appear.
4. Here type the python program and save the program with “.py” estension.
5. To run the program click on “Run” menu and click on “Run Module”
6. The python code will start running
Example
Print()
This function is used to print message/ values.
Syntax:
Print(“Hello”)
Output: Hello
a=5
b=6
c=a+b
4 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

print(c)
output:11
Note: If any value print as it is the write inverted comma otherwise without
inverted comma.
Till the previous examples, We have just printed the values stored in variables
or directly printed the message. Now what if we want to print message along
with values? Have a look on the code below:
Example
a=5
b=10
c=a+b
print(“addition=”,c)
If extending the previous program to know more about print method we may
extend it as:
Example
a=5
b=10
c=a+b
print(“addition of”,a,”and”,b,”=”,c)
Input()
Python provides us the facility to take input from user using Input() function.
This function prompts the user to input a value.
Example:
Name=input(“Enter your Name”)
Print(Name)
Example:2
Name=input(“Enter your Name”)
Print(“Welcome Mr.”,Name)
Output: Welcome Mr.Anup Kumar
Note:Please note that the Input() accepts the input only in string format. So, if
any mathematcical calculation is to integer format. For converting the input to
integer format python provide us a function called: int()
 Basic Concept of Python Programming 5

Example
a=int(input(“Enter 1st value:”))
b=int(input(“Enter 2nd value:”))
c=a+b
print(“addition=”,c)

1.7 Variable in Python

Variables are used to store values. But the best thing in python is that, unlike
other programming languages, python has no command for declaring a
variable. A variable is created as son as we assign a value to it.
For example:
X=5 # Here x is the type of int
Y=”Ram Kumar” # Here x is the type of string
Print(x)
Print(y)

1.7.1 Variable Rules

A variable name cannot be anything as we want. There are some rules which
has to be taken care while declaring a variable
• A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character.
• A variable name cannot start with a number.
• A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A_z, 0_9, and_)
• variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age are different variables)
• There cannot be a space among variable name.
Example: Legal variable names
Myvar=”hima”
My_var=”him”
myVar=”him”
MYVAR=”him”
Myvar2=”him”
Example:Illegal variable names
2myvar=”him”
My-var=”him”
My var =”him”
6 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

1.8 Python Language : Advantages and Applications

Python is a high-level, interpreted, and general-purpose dynamic programming
language that focuses on code readability. It has fewer steps when compared to
Java and C. It was founded in 1991 by developer Guido Van Rossum. Python
ranks among the most popular and fastest-growing languages in the world.
Python is a powerful, flexible, and easy-to-use language. In addition, the
community is very active there. It is used in many organizations as it supports
multiple programming paradigms. It also performs automatic memory
management.

1.8.1 Advantages
1. Presence of third-party modules
2. Extensive support libraries(NumPy for numerical calculations, Pandas
for data analytics etc)
3. Open source and community development
4. Versatile, Easy to read, learn and write
5. User-friendly data structures
6. High-level language
7. Dynamically typed language(No need to mention data type based on the
value assigned, it takes data type)
8. Object-oriented language
9. Portable and Interactive
10. Ideal for prototypes – provide more functionality with less coding
11. Highly Efficient(Python’s clean object-oriented design provides
enhanced process control, and the language is equipped with excellent
text processing and integration capabilities, as well as its own unit
testing framework, which makes it more efficient.)
12. (IoT)Internet of Things Opportunities
13. Interpreted Language
14. Portable across Operating systems
 Basic Concept of Python Programming 7

1.8.2 Applications
1. GUI based desktop applications
2. Graphic design, image processing applications, Games, and Scientific/
computational Applications
3. Web frameworks and applications
4. Enterprise and Business applications
5. Operating Systems
6. Education
7. Database Access
8. Language Development
9. Prototyping
10. Software Development

1.8.3 Organizations using Python

1. Google(Components of Google spider and Search Engine)
2. Yahoo(Maps)
3. YouTube
4. Mozilla
5. Dropbox
6. Microsoft
7. Cisco
8. Spotify
9. Quora
2
Python Operators

2.1 Operators
Operators are those who perform some specific operation. Python has a wide
variety of operators. The various python operators are categorized into:
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Comparison/relational operators
3. Assignment operators
4. Logical operators
5. Identity operators
6. Membership operators
7. Bitwise operator

2.1.1 Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are those that perform mathematical calculation.
Arithmetic operators are
If a=4, b=2 then
Operators Description Example
+ (Addition) Adds two or more numbers a+b=6
-(Subtraction) Subtracts two or more numbers a-b
*(multiply) Multiplies two or more numbers a*b=8
/(division) Divides two number a/b=2
%(modulus) Gives the remainder after dividing first number with second a%b=0
**(exponent) Return exponential (power) a**b=16
//(floor division) Divides two numbers but gives the quotient but removes the a//b=2
decimal place.
But in case of Negative value it floors the number to far
from zero.
10 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

2.1.2 Relational/Comparison Operator

Relational/comparison operators are those that perform comparison among
operands. It gives either true or false based on the condition. Relational
operators are:
a=4, b=2
Operator Description Example
>(Greater than) Checks whether first number is greater than a>b return true
second
>=(Greater than equal to) Checks whether first number is greater than a>=b return true
equal to second number or not
<(less than) Checks whether first number is smaller than a<b return false
second
<=(less than equal to) Checks whether first number is smaller than a<=b return false
equal to second number
==(Equal to) Checks whether first number is equal to sec- a==b return false
ond number
!= (not equal to) Checks whether first number is not equal to a!=b return true
second number

2.1.3 Assignment Operator

Assignment operator is used to assign a value to a variable
a=4,b=2,c=6

Operator Description Example

= Assign values from right to left c=a+b assigns value of
a+b into c.
+= add & assign It adds the right operand to left operand c+=a is equal to c=c+a
and assign the value to left operand
-= subtract & assign It subtracts the right operand from left c-=a is equal to c=c-a
operand and assigns the value to left
operand
*= multiply & assign It multiplies the right operand with left c*=a is equal to c=c*a
operand and assign the value to left
operand
/= divide & assign It divides left operand with the right c/=a is equal to c=c/a
operand and assign the value to left
operand
%=Modulus & assign It divides left operand with the right c%=a is equal to c=c%a
operand and assign the remainder value
to left operand
 Python Operators 11

2.1.4 Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:
Operator: and, or, not
Example
a=5
b=6
c=7
((a>b)and(a>c))

2.1.5 Identity Operators

Identity operator in python is used to determine whether a value is of a certain
class or type. For example, we can use the identity operators with built-in
type() function to ensure that we are working with the specific variable type.
Operator Description Example
is Returns true if both variables are the same object x is y
is not Returns true if both variable are not the same object x is not y

Example
x=5
If(type(x) is int):
print(“correct”)
else:
print(“incorrect”)
Example
x=5.2
If(type(x) is not int):
print(“correct”)
else:
print(“incorrect”)
12 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

2.1.6 Membership Operator

Python provides two membership operators:
operator Description
in This returns true if the element is found otherwise false
not in This return true if the element is not found otherwise true

Example
a=10
list=[1,2,3,4,5]
if(a in list)
print(“Yes a is present in the list.”)
else:
print(“no a is not present in the list”)
Example
a=1
list=[1,2,3,4,5]
if(a in list)
print(“Yes a is present in the list.”)
else:
print(“no a is not present in the list”)

2.1.7 Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:
Operator Name Description
& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1
| OR Sets each bits to 1 if one of two bits is 1
^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1
~ NOT Inverts all the bits
<< zero fill left shift
Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and left the left-
most bits fall off
>> Signed right shift Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from the
left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

Example
Let x=0000 0110
y = 0000 1000
now x&y (bitwise &) =0000 0000
x|y (bitwise |) = 0000 1110
x^y (bitwise XOR) = 0000 1110
 Python Operators 13

~x (x complement) = 1111 1001

x<<1 (1 step left shift) = 0000 1100
x>>1 (1 step right shift) = 0000 0011

2.2 Python Basic Program

1. Write a program to add two numbers.
2. Write a program to subtract two numbers.
3. Write a program to multiply two numbers.
4. Write a program to divide two numbers.
5. Write a program to perform addition/subtraction/multiplication/division
in the same program.
6. Write a program to calculate:
(a) Are of rectangle
(b) Perimeter of rectangle
(c) Area of square
(d) Perimeter of square
(e) Area of circle
(f) Circumference of circle
7. Write a program to accept electricity unit consumption and calculate
total price at the rate of 5 rs unit. Give a discount of 10% on all over bill.
8. Write a program to accept marks of 5 subjects and find total marks and
percentage assuming full marks as 100 in each subject.
9. Write a program to swap values of two numbers.
10. Write a program to accept total sales amount and find the profit amount
@5%.
Example 1: Write a program to perform addition/subtraction/
multiplication/division in the same program.
a=int(input(“enter 1st num:”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd num:”))
add=a+b
sub=a-b
mul=a*b
14 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

div=a/b
print(“addition=”,add)
print(“subtraction=”,sub)
print(“multiplication=”,mul)
print(“division=”,div)
Example 2: Write a program to calculate
(a) Are of rectangle
(b) Perimeter of rectangle
(c) Area of square
(d) Perimeter of square
(e) Area of circle
(f) Circumference of circle
# Python Program to find Area of a Rectangle
width = float(input(‘Please Enter the Width of a Rectangle: ‘))
height = float(input(‘Please Enter the Height of a Rectangle: ‘))
# calculate the area
Area = width * height
# calculate the Perimeter
Perimeter = 2 * (width + height)
print(Area)
print(Perimeter)
# Python Program to find Area Of Circle using Radius
PI = 3.14
radius = float(input(‘ Please Enter the radius of a circle: ‘))
area = PI * radius * radius
circumference = 2 * PI * radius
print(area)
print(circumference)
Example 3: Write a program to swap values of two numbers.
a=int(input(“enter 1st num:”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd num:”))
c=a
a=b
b=c
print(“value of a=”,a)
print(“value of b=”,b)
3
Looping Statement

3.1 Control statement in python

Python statements are executed one by one in the same order as they appear
in the program. But there may be some requirement when we want to execute
the statements based upon a condition. Even there may be some situation
where we want to execute a single statement or multiple statement (block of
statement) “n” times till the condition is true. So in order to control the flow of
execution of the program python provides us control statements.
There are two types of control statements:
(a) Selection statement
(i) if
(b) Looping condition
(i) While (ii) for

3.1.1 Selection Statement

Selection statements are used to select the statements based on a condition.
In order words we can say that if there is some condition based upon which it
is decided that whether a statement will be executed or not, then this is called
selection statement. Python provides us “if” selection statement.

3.1.2 Looping Statement

Looping statements are used to execute a single statement or a block of
statement (multiple statements) “N” times till the condition is true. Looping
statement keeps on executing the statement till the given condition is true. Its
stops working at the moment when the condition becomes false.

3.1.3 If Statement
If is a bi-directional conditional control statement that checks the condition
and work according to that condition. A condition may have only two results:
16 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

either the condition is true the condition is false.

a. If condition :
Statement 1
Statement 2
------------
Statement n
b. If condition :
Statement 1
-------------
else:
statement 1
-----------------
c. If condition :
Statement 1
-------------
elif condition :
statement 1
-----------------
else:
statement 1
-----------------
There may be some condition when we want to test for multiple conditions.
Syntax:
d. If condition :
Statement 1
-------------
elif condition :
statement 1
 Looping Statement 17

-----------------
elif condition :
statement 1
-----------------
else:
statement 1
-----------------

Level 1 program
Example 1: write a program to check whether a number is odd/even.
Solution
a=int(input(“enter the number to check:”)
if (a%2==0):
print(“the number is even.”)
else:
print(“the number is odd.”)
Example 2: Write a program to check whether an age is able to voting or
not
Solution
a=int(input(“enter your age:”)
if (a>18):
print(“Eligible vote.”)
else:
print(“Eligible not vote.”)
Example 3: Write a program to find max between two numbers
Solution
a=int(input(“enter 1st num:”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd num:”))
if (a>b):
print(“max no.”, a)
else:
print(“max no.”, b)
18 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example 4: Write a program to find max between three numbers

Solution
a=int(input(“enter 1st num:”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd num:”))
c=int(input(“enter 2nd num:”))
if (a>b and a>c):
print(“max no.”, a)
elif (b>a and b>c):
print(“max no.”, b)
else:
print(“max no.”, c)
Example 5: Write a program to check whether a given number is
positive, negative or zero.
Solution
a=int(input(“enter 1st num:”))
if (a>0):
print(“positive no.”)
elif (a<0):
print(“negative no”)
else:
print(“zero.”)
Example 6: Write a program to calculate total marks in 5 subjects (Full
marks=100) as well as percentage of marked division as per the following
condition:
Percentage>=80-Grade A
Percentage>=60-Grade B
Percentage>=40-Grade C
Percentage<40-Grade D
Solution
a=int(input(“enter 1st num:”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd num:”))
c=int(input(“enter 3rd num:”))
d=int(input(“enter 4rt num:”))
e=int(input(“enter 5th num:”))
total = a+b+c+d+e
percent=(total/500)*100
print(“Total Marks=”, total,”Percentage”, percent)
 Looping Statement 19

if (percent>=80):
print(“you have got grade A.”)
elif (percent>=60):
print(“you have got grade B.”)
elif (percent>=40):
print(“you have got grade C.”)
else:
print(“you have got grade D.”)

3.1.4 Looping Statement

Looping statement is a control statement which keeps on executing a single
statement or a block of statements “N” times till the condition is true. Once the
condition becomes false the execution is terminated.
Basically python provide the following looping statement:
1. While statement 2. For loop
Both the looping statement performs the same task. Only the difference is their
syntax.

3.1.5 While Loop

While loop is a control statement which keeps on executing a single statement
or a block of statements “N” times till the condition is true. Once the condition
become false the execution is terminated.
Every looping statement has three parts:
a. Initialization
b. Condition
c. Increment/Decrement
If anyone statement among the above three statement is missing then the loop
will not execute.

Initialization
This is the initialization of the counter variable using loop will be executed. In
other words, we can say that there must be some value from where to start and
this value is called initialization.
20 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Condition
This is the condition up to which the loop will keep executing. Till this
condition is true, the loop body will keep executing and till the given condition
becomes false.

Increment/Decrement
To terminate a loop either the counter variable is increased or decrease by a
specified value. This is called Increment/Decrement.
Program Initialization Condition Increment/Decrement
Print 1 to 10 i=1 i<=10 I=i+1
Print 2 to 10 i=2 i<=10 I=i+2
Print 10 to 1 i=10 i>=10 I=i-1

Example: Write a program to print from 1 to 10.

i=1
while(i<=10):
print(i)
i=i+1
Example: Write a program to print from 1 to n.
n=int(input(“enter number upto which you want to print”))
i=1
while(i<=n):
print(i)
i=i+1
Example:Write a program to print from 10 to 1.
i=10
while(i>=1):
print(i)
i=i-1
Example: Write a program to print from n to 1.
N=int(input(“enter number”))
while(n>=1):
print(n)
n=n-1
 Looping Statement 21

Example: Write a program to find sum from 1 to n

n=int(input(“enter number upto which you want to print”))
i=1
sum=0
while(i<=n):
sum=sum+i
i=i+1
print(“sum=sum”,sum)
Example: Write a program to find sum of square from 1 to n
n=int(input(“enter number upto which you want to print”))
i=1
sum=0
while(i<=n):
sum=sum+(i*i)
i=i+1
print(“sum=sum”,sum)
Example: Write a program to find sum of cubes from 1 to n
n=int(input(“enter number upto which you want to print”))
i=1
sum=0
while(i<=n):
sum=sum+(i*i*i)
i=i+1
print(“sum=sum”,sum)
Example: Write a program to print only even numbers between 1 to n
n=int(input(“enter number up to which you want to print”))
i=2
while(i<=n):
print(i)
i=i+2
Example: Write a program to print only even numbers between 1 to n
n=int(input(“enter number up to which you want to print”))
i=1
while(i<=n):
if i%2==0:
print(i)
i=i+1
22 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example: Write a program to find sum of even numbers from 1 to n

n=int(input(“enter number up to which you want to print”))
i=2
sum=0
while(i<=n):
sum=sum+i
i=i+2
print(“sum of even numbers=sum”,sum)
Example: Write a program to find sum of first n even numbers.
n=int(input(“enter number to find sum”))
i=1
sum=0
count=0
while(count<n):
if(i%2==0):
sum=sum+i
count=count+1
i=i+2
print(“sum of even numbers=sum”,sum)

Level 2 program
Example:Write a program to find sum of digits of a given number.
i=int(input(“enter number to find sum of digits”))
sum=0
while(i>0):
sum=sum+i%10
i=i//10
print(“sum of digits=sum”,sum)
Example:Write a program to find sum of square of digits of a given
number.
i=int(input(“enter number to find sum of square of digits”))
sum=0
while(i>0):
sum=sum+(i%10)*(i%10)
i=i//10
print(“sum of square of each digits=sum”,sum)
 Looping Statement 23

Example: Write a program to find sum of cube of digits of a given

number.
i=int(input(“enter number to find sum of cube of digits”))
sum=0
while(i>0):
sum=sum+(i%10)*(i%10)* (i%10)
i=i//10
print(“sum of cube of each digits=sum”,sum)
Example:Write a program to check whether a given number is
Armstrong or not.
i=int(input(“enter number to check for armstrong”))
orig=i
sum=0
while(i>0):
sum=sum+(i%10)*(i%10)* (i%10)
i=i//10
if orig==sum:
print(“Number is armstrong”)
else:
print(“Number is not armstrong”)
Example: Write a program to check whether a given number is
Armstrong or not.
n=int(input(“enter number to check for Armstrong:”))
i=n
count=0
while(i>0): #count no of digits
i=i//10
count=count+1
sum=0
i=n
while(i>0):
digit=i%10
x=1
producr=1
while(x<=count):
product=product*digit
x=x+1
sum=sum+product
24 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

i=i//10
if(sum==n):
print(“Armstrong”)
else:
print(“not Armstrong”)
Example: Write a program to find product of digits of a given number.
i=int(input(“enter number:”))
prod=1
while(i>0):
prod=prod*(i%10)
i=i//10
print(“product of digits=”,prod)
Example: Write a program to reverse a given number.
i=int(input(“enter number:”))
rev=0
while(i>0):
rev=(rev*10)+i%10
i=i//10
print(“reverse=”,rev)
Example: Write a program to check a number is palindrome or not.
i=int(input(“enter number:”))
rev=0
x=i
while(i>0):
rev=(rev*10)+i%10
i=i//10
if(x==rev):
print(“palindrome number”)
else:
print(“Not palindrome number”)
Example: Write a program to check a number is prime or not.
n=int(input(“enter number:”))
count=0
i=1
while(i<=n):
if(n%i==0):
count=count+1
i=i+1
 Looping Statement 25

if(count==2):
print(“prime number”)
else:
print(“composite number”)
Example: Write a program to print factorial of a given number.
i=int(input(“enter number:”))
fac=1
while(i>0):
fac=fac*i
i=i-1
print(“Factorial=”,fac)
Example1: Write a program to print Fabonacci series up to a given
number.
n=int(input(“enter number:”))
x=0
y=1
z=0
while(z<=n):
print(z)
x=y
y=z
z=x+y

3.2 Nested loop

Example 1: Triangle shape programming
i=1
while(i<=5):
j=1
while(j<=i):
print(“*”,end=’’)
j=j+1
print()
i=i+1
Example2(1)
i=1
while(i<=5):
j=1
26 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

while(j<=i):
print(“i”,end=’’)
j=j+1
print()
i=i+1
Example3(1)
i=1
while(i<=5):
j=1
while(j<=i):
print(“j”,end=’’)
j=j+1
print()
i=i+1
Example : printing stars * in reverse angle triangle shape
i=1
while(i<=5):
b=1
while(b<=5-i):
print(“_”,end=’’)
b=b+1
j=1
while(j<=i):
print(“*”,end=””)
j=j+1
print()
i=i+1
Example 1: printing pyramid program
k=1
i=1
while(i<=5):
b=1
while(b<=5-i):
print(“_”,end=’’)
b=b+1
j=1
while(j<=k):
print(“*”,end=””)
 Looping Statement 27

j=j+1
k=k+2
print()
i=i+1
Example 2(1)
k=1
i=1
while(i<=5):
b=1
while(b<=5-i):
print(“_”,end=’’)
b=b+1
j=1
while(j<=k):
print(k,end=””)
j=j+1
k=k+2
print()
i=i+1
Example3(1)
k=1
i=1
while(i<=5):
b=1
while(b<=5-i):
print(“_”,end=’’)
b=b+1
j=1
while(j<=k):
print(i,end=””)
j=j+1
k=k+2
print()
i=i+1
Example: print opposite pyramid shape
n=int(input(“enter no of row”))
i=1
While(n>0):
28 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

b=1
while(b<i):
print(“_”,end=””)
b=b+1
j=1
while(j<=(n*2)-i):
print(“*”,end=””)
j=j+1
print()
n=n-1
i=i+1

3.2.1. For Loops in Python

• A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a
tuple, a dictionary, a set, or a string).
• This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and
works more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated
programming languages.
• With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item
in a list, tuple, set etc.
Example: write a program to print table of a given number
x=int(input(“enter no to find table”))
for y in range(1,11):
print(x*y)
4
Function in Python Programming

4.1 Introduction to Function in Python

Python Functions is a block of related statements designed to perform a
computational, logical, or evaluative task. The idea is to put some commonly
or repeatedly done tasks together and make a function so that instead of
writing the same code again and again for different inputs, we can do the
function calls to reuse code contained in it over and over again. Functions
can be both built-in or user-defined.
Function means sub-program
1. Function definition
2. Function call
Example:
def message: #function definition
print(“hello python”)
message() #function call
Example:
Find addition of two number using function.
def add(-,-,-): #-argument of function it means input value
Example:
def addition(a,b): #function define
c=a+b
print(“addition=”,c)
addition(5,6) #function call
Example:
def addition(a,b): #function define
c=a+b
print(“addition=”,c)
30 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

a=int(input(“enter 1st no”)

b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”)
addition(a,b) # function call

4.1.1 Function Without Argument Program

def add:
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
c=a+b
print(“Addition=”,c)
add()

4.1.2 Function Parameters/Arguments in Python

This is the value which is supplied to the function operator on
Comparison between
Without argument With argument
Example: Example:
def addition: def addition(a,b):
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”) c=a+b
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”) print(“addition=”,c)
c=a+b addition(5,6)
print(“addition=”,c)
addition()
Example: Example:
def oddeven: def oddeven(a):
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”) if(a%2==0):
if(a%2==0): print(“even”)
print(“even”) else:
else: print(“odd”)
print(“odd”) oddeven(6)
oddeven() ######################
def oddeven(a):
if(a%2==0):
print(“even”)
else:
print(“odd”)
m=int(input(“enter no”)
oddeven(m)
 Function in Python Programming 31

4.2 Function Used

1. No argument no return
2. With argument no return
3. No argument with return
4. With argument with return

4.2.1 No Argument No Return

def add:
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
c=a+b
print(“Addition=”,c)
add()

4.2.2 With Argument No Return

def add(a,b):
c=a+b
print(“Addition=”,c)
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
add(a,b)

4.2.3 No Argument With Return

def add:
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
c=a+b
return c
x=add()
print(“Addition=”,x)

4.2.4 With Argument With Return

def add(a,b):
c=a+b
return c
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
32 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

z=add(a,b)
print(“Addition=”,z)

4.3 Default Argument

Python has a different way of representing syntax and default values for
function arguments. Default values indicate that the function argument will
take that value if no argument value is passed during the function call. The
default value is assigned by using the assignment(=) operator of the form
keywordname=value.
Syntax
def add(a,b,c=5):
------
-----------
add(5,6)
Example
def add(a,b,c=5):
d=a+b+c
print(“addition=”d)
add(5,6,7)
ouptput:18
Example
def add(a,b,c=5):
d=a+b+c
print(“addition=”d)
add(5,6)
output:16
Note:if given default argument value start then put continue otherwise error
generate.

4.3.1 Fruit Function(Function Return Value)

Calling the function generates a return value, which we usually assign to a
variable or use as part of expression
Example
def add:
a=int(input(“enter 1st no”))
b=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
 Function in Python Programming 33

c=a+b
return c
x=add()
print(“Addition=”,x)

4.3.2 Scope of The Variable(Global and Local Variable)

Global variable: A global variable is one which is not the part of any function.
It can be used in any function being a global variable.
Local variable: A local variable is one which is the part of the a function and
that’s why it can be used only within the function
Example
def add(a,b): #a,b,c are local variable
c=a+b
print(“Addition=”,c)
m=int(input(“enter 1st no”)) #m, n are global variable
n=int(input(“enter 2nd no”))
add(m,n)
Example
def demo():
a=5
print(“a=”+a)
a=10
print(“a=”+a)
demo()
output:
a=5 #for local
a=10 #for global
Note: If local and global both are variable same

4.4 Break and Continue in Python

Break: terminate the loop, continue: loop terminates particular condition
otherwise loop continue run.

4.4.1 Break Statement

The break statement takes care of terminating the loop in which it is used. If
the break statement is used inside nested loops, the current loop is terminated,
and the flow will continue with the code followed that comes after the loop.
34 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

The flow chart for the break statement is as follows:

Fig. 4.1: Flow chart of break statment

The following are the steps involved in the flowchart.

Step 1: The loop execution starts.
Step 2: If the loop condition is true, it will execute step 2, wherein the body of
the loop will get executed.
Step 3: If the loop’s body has a break statement, the loop will exit and go to
Step 6.
Step 4: After the loop condition is executed and done, it will proceed to the
next iteration in Step 4.
Step 5: If the loop condition is false, it will exit the loop and go to Step 6.
Step 6: End of the loop.
Example
i=1
while(i<=5):
if(i==3):
break
 Function in Python Programming 35

print(i)
i=i+1
Output:1,2

4.4.2 Continue Statement

The continue statement skips the code that comes after it, and the control is
passed back to the start for the next iteration.
The following are the steps involved in the flowchart.
Step 1: The loop execution starts.
Step 2: The execution of code inside the loop will be done. If there is a
continued statement inside the loop, the control will go back to Step 4, i.e., the
start of the loop for the next iteration.
Step 3: The execution of code inside the loop will be done.
Step 4: If there is a continue statement or the loop execution inside the body is
done, it will call the next iteration.
Step 5: Once the loop execution is complete, the loop will exit and go to step
7.
Step 6: If the loop condition in step 1 fails, it will exit the loop and go to step 7.
Step 7: End of the loop.

Fig. 4.2: Flow chart of continue statment

36 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example:
i=0
while(i<=5):
i=i+1
if(i==3):
continue
print(i)
Output:1,2,4,5,6
5
String in Python Programming

5.1 String Statement

String in python is stored as individual characters i.e. indexed wise. The index
by default starts with 0.
Forward
0 1 2 3 4 5
indexing
string p y t h o n
Backward
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
indexing

So, here P will be represented by str[0] or str[-6], y will be represented by

str[1] or str[-5]
Note: strings are immutable and hence you cannot change the individual letters
of string using assignment operator.
Example:
name=”shyam”
Name[0]=”A”
Result error
Example:
name=”shyam”
print(name)
Example:
name=”shyam”
for i in name:
print(i)
38 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

output
s
h
y
a
m
Example:
name=”shyam”
for i in name:
print(i,end=””)
output: shyam

5.2 String Operators

1. Concatenation operator (+):The + operator concatenates two different
string
Example:
x=”Every”+”day”
print(x)
output:Everyday
2. Replication operator (*): The * operator requires two type of operands
– a string and a number. It replicates the given string, to given number of
times.
Example:
x=3*”hello”
Print(x)
Output: hellohellohello
3. Membership operator(in/not in)
Example
“a”in”ram” output: true
“a”not in “ram” output: false
4. Comparison operators:
All relationa operators (>,<,>=,<=,==,!=) apply to strings also
 String in Python Programming 39

Example
Comparison
“a”==”a”
“ram”==”ram”
“a”!=”ram”
Comparison always according ASCII code.
String slicing:
String slicing returns the characters falling between indices n and m:
String at n, n+1,n+2,….till m-1. The syntax is:
String[start:end:step_value]
Example
1. a=”hello word”
print(a[4:-2])
output:o wor
2. a=”hello word”
print(a[6:],a[:6])
output:word hello
Note:6: by default last tak print karega, :6 by default 0 se start karega
Str[6:10] last 9 tak print karega,

5.3 String Function

Python provides some built in functions. Some of the important are:
1. len() # This function returns the length of string
Exmple
a=”ram kumar”
print(len(a))
output: 9
2. capitalize() # This function returns a copy of the string with its first
character capitalized.
40 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example:
a=”shyam kumar”
print(a.capitalize())
output:Shyam kumar
Example:
a=input(“enter you name:”)
for i in range(0,len(a)):
print(a[i])
Example: find reverse of a string
a=input(“enter string:”)
for i in range((len(a)-1),-1,-1):
Print(a[i],end=””)
Example: find reverse of a string
a=input(“enter string:”)
Print(a[-1::-1])
Example: find total no vowels and consonant in given string
a=input(“enter your name:”)
vowel=0
cons=0
for i in range(0,len(a)):
if(a[i]!=’’):
if(a[i]==”a” or a[i]==”e”or a[i] ==”i” or a[i]==”o” or a[i]==”u”
if(a[i]==”A” or a[i]==”E”or a[i] ==”I” or a[i]==”O” or
a[i]==”U”]:
vowel=vowel+1
else:
cons=cons+1
print(“total vowels=”,vowel)
print(“total consonant=”’cons)
3. find() # this function returns the lowest index in the string where the
substring is found, it returns the index where it is found and if not found
it returns -1
 String in Python Programming 41

Example:
a=”RAM IS GOING TO MARKET”
b=”TO”
a.find(b,o,(len(a)-1))
output:13
Example: check a string is palindrome or not
a=input(“enter string:”)
b=a[-1::-1]
if(a==b):
print(“Palindrome string”)
else:
print(“Not Palindrome string”)
4. isalnum() # This return if the characters in the string are alphanumeric
(alphabets or numbers) and there is at least one character otherwise it
returns false
Example:
a=”ram123”
a.isalnum()
b=”hello”
b.isalnum()
c=”1234”
c.isalnum()
c=””
c.isalnum()
5. isdigit() # isalnum() # This return if all the characters in the string are
digits and there is at least one digitotherwise it returns false
Example:
a=”ram123”
a.isdigit()
b=”hell”
b.isdigit()
6. isspace() # This return true when there are only white spaces in the
string and there is at least one character. Otherwise it returns false.
Example:
a=” ”
a.isspace() #output True
6
List in Python Programming

6.1 List Introduction

1. List is a collection of different values or different types of items.
2. Unlike array in c/c++/java a list is capable of storing different types of
values under one roof.
3. The items in the list are separated with the comma (,) and enclosed with
the square brackets [].
4. List provides us the facility to store multiple types of in a single unit.
Example:
a=[“ram”,1,”shyam”,12.5]
b=[1,2,3,4]
0 1 2 3 Forward indexing
ram 10 shyam 12.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 Backward indexing

a[0]=ram
a=[“ram”,1,”shyam”,12.5]
print(a)
print(a[0])
ram

6.2 Python List Slicing

Same as string, we have the concept of list slicing in python
Examples:
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
a[0:]= [ram,10,shyam,12.5]
a[:]=[ram,10,shyam,12.5]
a[1:3]= [10,shyam]
a[:3]= [ram,10,shyam]
44 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

6.2.1 Updating List in Python

0 1 2 3 Forward indexing
ram 10 shyam 12.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 Backward indexing

Example:
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
print(a[1])
a[1]=”Ramesh”
output : a=[ram,10,shyam,12.5]
print(a[1])
output : a=[ram,Ramesh,shyam,12.5]

6.2.2 Deleting List in python

Example:
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
print(a[1])
del(a[1])
output : a=[ram,10,shyam,12.5]
print(a[1])
output : a=[ram, shyam,12.5]

6.2.3 Accessing List Elements to Perform Various Operations

0 1 2 3 Forward indexing
ram 10 shyam 12.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 Backward indexing

Example:
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
for i in a:
print(i)
1. len(list) # This method used to find total length of the list
Example
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
b=len(a)
print(b)
2. max(list) # This method used to find max value
 List in Python Programming 45

Example
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
b=max(a)
print(b)
3. min(list) # This method used to find min value
Example
a=[“ram”,10,”shyam”,12.5]
b=max(a)
print(b)
Case 1: what if we have a list of string and integer values and we want to use
max function. In this case will produce an error message stating that string and
integer value comparison is not possible.
Case2: what if string value comparison is there. In such case, it will be
compared as a to z in ascending order.
Note: max or min compare for similar type elements in list
4. cmp(list1,list2) # This method is used to compare two list
Syntax:
cmp(list1,list2)
Returns: return 1 is list1 is greater than list2 return 0 if both the list are equal
returns -1 is list2 is greater than list1
There are some certain cases for comparison for two lists
Case1:
a. If both the list contains integers, then the comparison is done from left to
right. If we get a larger number at any particular index, that list becomes
greater and further comparison is stopped.
b. If all the elements in both the list are similar and one list is larger is size
the larger size list is greater.
c. And if both contain some value the lists are equal.
List1=[2,4,6,8]
List2=[2,4,6,9]
46 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

List3=[2,4,6,9,11]
List4=[2,4,6,8]
Print(“comparing list1 and list2:”)
Print(cmp(list1,list2)) #output -1
Print(“comparing list2 and list3:”)
Print(cmp(list2,list3)) #output -1
Print(“comparing list1 and list4:”)
Print(cmp(list1,list4)) #output 0
Case 2
a. When list contains multiple datatypes, in such case string is consider to
be greater than integer
b. The comparison in case of multiple data types is done with the sorted
case of comparison.
List1=[2,4,6,8]
List2=[2,4,6,’a’]
List3=[‘a’,’b’,’c’]
List4=[‘a’,’c’,’b’]
Print(“comparing list2 and list1:”)
Print(cmp(list2,list1)) #output 1
Print(“comparing list2 and list3:”)
Print(cmp(list2,list3)) #output -1
Print(“comparing list3 and list4:”)
Print(cmp(list3,list4)) #output -1
5. list.append(obj):This method is used to append (add) a passed object at
the end of the list. Note that the object is added to the last of the list.
Syntax:
list.append(obj)
Example
a=[“ram”,”shyam”,”sita”,”gita”]
 List in Python Programming 47

a.append(“mita”)
print(a)
output: ram,shyam,sita,gita,mita
Example
a=[]
for i in range(10):
x=input(“enter item to add in the list:”)
a.append(x)
print(a)
6. list.count(obj):This method is used to count the frequency of a given
object.
Synatax:
list.count(obj)
Example
a=[“ram”,”shyam”,”sita”,”gita”]
x=a.count(“ram”)
print(“frequency=”,x)
Example
a=[]
for i in range(10):
x=input(“enter item to add in the list:”)
a.append(x)
x=input(“enter value whose frequency you want:”)
f=a.count(x)
print(“frequency of “,x,”is=”,f)
Note: you have to specific that what type of data you are going to search for
counting frequency. The type of input is the list determines the type of value
whose frequency you want to get.
7. list.index(obj):This method is used to find the index of the object/
element. This function returns the first index of the object/index if it is
found otherwise it returns an exceptions showing that the element is not
found.
Synatx: list.index(obj)
48 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
a=[“ram”,”shyam”,”sita”,”gita”]
x=a.count(“ram”)
print(“index of ram=”,x)
Example
a=[]
for i in range(5):
x=input(“enter item:”)
a.append(x)
x=input(“enter value of index:”)
f=a.index(x)
print(“index = “,z)
8. list.insert(index,obj) :This method is used to inser an object/value at the
given index.
Syntax: list.insert(index,object)
Example
a=[5,”ram”,10]
a.insert(2,”shyam”)
print(a)
output:5,ram,shyam,10
Example
a=[]
for i in range(5):
x=input(“enter item:”)
a.append(x)
print(“orginal list is:”,a)
index=input(“enter index where you want to inser:”)
value=input(“enter value insert:”)
a.insert(index,value)
print(“list after insertion: “,a)
9. list.remove(obj) : This method is used to delete an object/value from te
given list. Note that it removes/deletes the first occurrence of the list.
Syntax: list.remove(object)
 List in Python Programming 49

Example
a=[5,”ram”,10,”ravi”,10]
a.remove(10)
print(a)
output: 5,ram,ravi,10
Example
a=[]
for i in range(5):
x=input(“enter item:”)
a.append(x)
print(“orginal list is:”,a)
val=input(“enter value to remove:”)
a.remove (val)
print(“list after deletion: “,a)
10. list.reverse() : This method is used to reverse the elements present in the
list in place. Here the word , in place means that the list gets reversed itself.
Syntax: list.reverse()
Example
a=[5,”ram”,10,”ravi”,10]
a.reverse()
print(a)
output:10,ravi,10,ram,5
Example
a=[]
for i in range(5):
x=input(“enter item:”)
a.append(x)
print(“orginal list is:”,a)
a.reverse()
print(“list after reverse: “,a)
11. list.sort() : This method is used to sort the elements present in the list in
either ascending order or in descending order. The list gets sorted itself.
Note that the sorting in done with the similar data type, that means your list
should have similar types of data otherwise it will show error. By default
the sorting is done in the ascending order.
50 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Syntax
1. List.sort(reverse=”False”) # ascending order,
2. List.sort(reverse=”True”) # descending order
Example
a=[]
for i in range(5):
x=input(“enter item:”)
a.append(x)
print(“orginal list is:”,a)
a.sort()
print(“list after sort: “,a)
Note: if you write here like:
c=a.sort()
print(c) #it is wrong because sort function ki value ko kahi copy
nahi kiya ja sakata hai.
12. list.pop(): this method is used to delete the last element from the list. Note
that this function deletes the last elements from the list one by one.
Syntax: list.pop()
Example
a=[5,2,8,3,7]
a.pop()
print()
output:5,2,8,3

6.3 Basic Program List

1. Program to find sum of elements of the list
2. Program to count total number of odd and even numbers in the list.
3. Program to find sum of even numbers and product of odd number in list
4. Program to search a number in the list.
5. Program to count frequency of a given number.
6. Program to find max number in the list
7. Program to find min number in the list
8. Program to reverse the list itself.
 List in Python Programming 51

9. Program to insert a number at given index in a list.

10. Program to remove a given number from the list.
Example: Program to find sum of elements of the list
a=[]
size=int(input(“how many elements you want to enter:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
sum=0
for i in range(size):
sum=sum+a[i]
print(“sum of list elements=”,sum)
Example: Program to count total number of odd and even numbers in
the list.
a=[]
size=int(input(“how many elements you want to enter:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
even=0
odd=0
for i in range(size):
if(a[i]%2==0):
even=even+1
else:
odd=odd+1
sum=sum+a[i]
print(“total even=”,even, “total odd=”,odd)
Example: Program to search a number in the list
a=[]
size=int(input(“how many elements you want to enter:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
key=int(input(“enter number of search:”)
flag=0
for i in range(size):
if(a[i]==key):
52 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

flag=1
pos=i+1
break
if(flag==1):
print(“enter found at:”,”pos”,”position.”)
else:
print(“element not found=”)
Example: Program to count frequency of a given number
a=[]
size=int(input(“enter size of list:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
key=int(input(“enter number of frequency:”)
count=0
for i in range(size):
if(a[i]==key):
count=count+1
print(“Frequency count=”,count)
Example: Program to find max number in the list
a=[]
size=int(input(“enter size of list:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
max=a[0]
for i in range(size):
if(a[i]>max):
max=a[i]
print(“max number=”,max)
Example: Program to find min number in the list
a=[]
size=int(input(“enter size of list:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
min=a[0]
 List in Python Programming 53

for i in range(size):
if(a[i]<min):
min=a[i]
print(“min number=”,min)
Example: Program to reverse the list itself.
a=[]
size=int(input(“enter size of list:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
i=0
j=size-1
while(i<j):
t=a[i]
a[i]=a[j]
a[j]=t
i=i+1
j=j-1
print(“List after reverse=”)
for i in range(size):
print(a[i])
Example: Program to Find Second Max, Second Min
a=[]
size=int(input(“enter size of list:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
minval=min(a)
print(“min value in the list is:”, minval)
a.remove(minval)
smin=min(a)
print(“second min value in the list=”,smin)
Max number
a=[]
size=int(input(“enter size of list:”)
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
54 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

a.sort()
print(“max num:”, a[size-1])
print(“second max num:”, a[size-2])
7
Tuple in Python Programming

7.1 Tuple Introduction

A tuple is a collection which is order and unchangeable. In python tuples are
written with round brackets. Tuples in python are very similar to list which
contains different types of elements with the following major differences.
It is declared as
tuple1=(1,2,3,”ram”,”shyam”)
List Tuple
List write in [] Tuple write in ()
List is mutable Tuples are immutable
List occupies more memory spaces tuple occupies less memory spaces as compare that
as compare that tuple list
Program implementation
import sys
list=[1,2,”ram”,”shyam”,”true”,”ravi”]
tuple=(1,2,”ram”,”shyam”,”true”,”ravi”)
print(“size of list=”,sys.getsizeof(list))
print(“size of tuple=”,sys.getsizeof(tuple))
List takes more time to tuple takes less time to execute as
execute as compared to tuple compared to list
Program implementation
import timeit
listtime=timeit.timeit(stmt=”[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]”,number=1000000)
tupletime=timeit.timeit(stmt=”(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)”,number=1000000)
print(“List takes time:”, listtime)
print(“Tuple takes time:”, tupletime)
56 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

7.2 Program Implementation

Example:
import sys
list=[1,2,”ram”,”shyam”,”true”,”ravi”]
tuple=(1,2,”ram”,”shyam”,”true”,”ravi”)
print(“size of list=”,sys.getsizeof(list))
print(“size of tuple=”,sys.getsizeof(tuple))

7.2.1 Insert Update & Deleting Tuple Elements

1. Using tuple display construct
Tuple=() #empty tuple
Tuple=(val1,val2,……)
2. Creating empty tuple
Tuple1=tuple()
3. Creating single element tuple:
Tuple=(2) #this will not be a tuple but as an integer class
Tuple=(2,)#this will be a tuple a tuple class.
# Here after the element you need to give, (comma).
Creating tuple from existing sequences: we can also use a built-in tuple type
object(tuple()) to create tuples from sequence as per the syntax:
Tuple1=tuple(<sequence>)
Sequence can be of any type like strings. List and tuples
#Creating tuple from strings
t1=tuple(‘word’)
Output:(‘w’,’o’,’r’,’l’,’d’)
#creating tuple from list
list=[1,2,3,4,5]
tuple1=tuple(list)
output
tuple1=(1,2,3,4,5)
 Tuple in Python Programming 57

7.3 Different Types of Tuple

Ways to create tuple The type of tuple
() This is an empty tuple
(7,) Tuple with one element
(1,2,3) Tuple of integers
(1,2,3.4,5) Tuple of numbers
(‘a’,’n’,’d’) Tuple of characters
(‘a’,1,2,3.5,’ram’) Tuple of mixed data type
(‘ram’,’shyam’,’sita’) Tuple of string

7.4 Indexing & Slicing of Tuple in Python

7.4.1 Traversing Tuple

If every element excess one by one is called traversen tuple
Example:
tuple1=(1,2,3,4)
for t in tuple1:
print(t)
Example:
tuple1=(1,2,3,4)
for i in range(len(tuple1)):
print(tuple[i])

7.4.2 Joining Tuple

Example
tuple1=(1,2,3,4,5)
tuple2=(6,7,8)
tuple3=tuple1+tuple2
print(tuple3)

7.4.3 Repeating or Replicating Tuples

Example:
tuple1=(1,2,3)
tuple2=tuple1*3
print(tuple2)
output(1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3)
58 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

7.4.4 Slicing The Tuples

The syntax is
T=[start:stop:step]
Example:
tuple1=(10,11,12,13,14,15)
tuple2=tuple1[3:5]
print(tuple2)
Note: by default the step 1
Example :
tuple1=(10,11,12,13,14,15)
tuple2=tuple1[0:5:2]
print(tuple2)
output: (13, 14)
output: (10,12,14)

7.5 Tuple Function

1. len() # This method returns length of the tuple, i.e. the total counting of
elements in the tuple.
Syntax: len(tuple)
Example:
employee=(‘ram’, ‘shyam’, 101, 1.56)
len(employee)
2. max()
This method returns max value from the tuple.
Syntax: max(tuple)
3. min()
This method returns min value from the tuple.
Syntax: min(tuple)
4. index() # it returns the index of an existing element in the tuple.
Syntax:tuple name.index(item)
Example: a=(10,20,30,45,20,15)
 Tuple in Python Programming 59

a.index(30)
output:2
Note:it will return 1st value index
5. count()
count() method returns the frequency of given element.
Syntax: tuple.count(item)
Example:
a=(10,20,30,45,20,15)
a.count(30)
6. tuple()
This method is used as a constructor which is used to create tuples from
different types of values.
Syantax: tuple(sequence)
Example:
1. Creating empty tuple
tuple()
2.Creating tuple from list
t=tuple([1,2,3])
output: (1,2,3)
3.Creating tuple from string
tuple1=tuple(“xyz”)
Output: (‘a’,’b’,’c’)
4.Creating tuple from key of dictionary
tuple1=tuple({1:’m’,2:’n’})
tuple1
output: (1,2)

7.5.1 Creating, Updating, Deleting & Accessing Elements of Tuple in

Python
• Change tuple values: Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its
values because tuples are unchangeable or immutable.
• But there is another way to achieve this. You can convert the tuple into
a list, change the list and convert the list back into a tuple.
60 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
You need to convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:
x=(‘apple’,’banana’,’cherry’)
y=list(x)
y[1]=’kiwi’
x=tuple(y)
print(x)
Check if item exists: To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use
the “in” keyword.
Example
tuple1=(‘ram’,’shyam’,’sita’,’gita’)
if ‘ram’ in tuple1:
print(“yes the element is present in the tuple”)
else:
print(“no element is not present in the tuple”)
Add items
• Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it. Tuple are unchangeable.
• You cannot add items to a tuple
Example
tuple1=(‘apple’,’banana’,’cherry’)
tuple1[3]=’orange’ #this will raise an error
print(tuple1)
Delete tuple elements:
Removing individual elements of the tuple is not possible. To remove entire
tuple, just use the del statement.
Example
tuple1=(‘ram’,’shyam’,’sita’,’gita’)
print(tuple1)
del(tuple1)
print(“after deleting tuple”)
print(tuple1) # error show
8
Dictionary in Python Programming

8.1 Introduction to Dictionary in Python

A dictionary is a collection which is unordered changeable and index. In
python dictionaries are written within curly brackets, and they have keys and
values. Means the dictionary contains two things first is the key and the second
is the value.

8.1.1 Create and Print a Dictionary

Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
Accessing items: you can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its
key name, inside square brackets.
Example
Accessing items: there is also a method called get() for the same task.
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
y=dict1.get(“model”)
print(y)

8.1.2 Loop Through a Dictionary

Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
for x in dict1:
print(x)
Note: this will print the index value
Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
for x in dict1:
print(dict1[x])
62 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Note: this will print the values.

We can use the values() function to return values of dictionary
Example:
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
for x in dict1.values():
print(x)

8.1.3 Change Values in Dictionary

you can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example:
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
dict1[‘year’]=2018
output: =‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2018

8.1.4 Add Update Delete Elements in Python

Checking whether a key exists in the dictionary:
Example:
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
if ‘model’ in dict1:
print(“yes, ‘model’ is one of the keys in the dictionary”)
else:
print(“NO, ‘model’ is not one of the keys in the dictionary”)

8.1.5 Adding New Element in the Dictionary:

Example:
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
dict1[‘color’]=’white’
print(dict1)
output:
{‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
{‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020,’color’:’white’}

8.1.6 Dictionary & its Function Explained:

1. len() # this function is used to find length of the dictionary.
 Dictionary in Python Programming 63

Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
x=len(dict1)
2. Removing items # pop() :this method removes the element with specified
key name
Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
dict1.pop(‘model’)
print(dict1)
output:
{‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
{‘brand’:’Suzuki’ ,’year’:2020}
3. popitem(): #this method removes the last element of the dictionary. But
the in the version before 3.7 it was used to remove the
Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
dict1.popitem()
print(dict1)
output:
{‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
{‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’}

8.1.7 Del Keyword

This keyword is also used to delete the dictionary itself.
Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
del dict1
print(dict1)
output: error

8.1.8 Clear Keyword (Deletes all the Elements of Dictionary)

This keyword is also used to delete all the elements of the dictionary. Note
that it just deletes the content of the dictionary so the dictionary is there but
without an element.
64 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
print(dict1)
dict1.clear()
print(dict1)
output:
{}

8.2 Dictionary Function in Dictionary

• 1.len()
• get()
• clear()
• pop()
• popitem()
• values()
• items()
• copy()
• fromkeys()
• keys()
• setdefault()
• update()
Copy()
Example
Dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
x=dict1.copy()
print(x)
fromkeys() # The fromkeys() method returns a dictionary with the specified
keys and the specified value.
Example
x={‘firstkey’,’second key’,’thirdkey’}
y=0
x=dict1.fromkeys(x,y)
print(dict1)
 Dictionary in Python Programming 65

output
setdefault() #
• The setdefault method returns the value of the item with the specified
key.
• If the key does not exist, it inserts the key, with the specified value.
Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
x=dict1.setdefault(‘brand’,’toyota’)
print(x)
output:
since ‘brand’ key is already present so it will return the value of this
key.
suzuki
Example
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
x=dict1.setdefault(‘place’,’new delhi’)
print(x)
output:
since ‘place’ key is not exist present in the dict1, it will insert this key
with value and then the respective value “new delhi” will assigned to
x and so “new delhi” will get printed.
Update()
The update() method inserts the specified items to the dictionary.
dict1={‘brand’:’Suzuki’,’model’:’dzire’,’year’:2020}
x=dict1.update(‘color’,’white’)
print(x)
9
Numpy in Python Programming

9.1 Introduction Numpy

Numpy: is apython package which stands for “Numerical python”.
This was created in 2005 by Travis Oliphant.
Using numpy we can perform the following functionalities:
1. Mathematical and logical calculation on array.
2. Fourier transforms and routines for shape manipulation.
3. It has built in functions for linear algebra random number generation.
4. Used for scientific calculations.
5. It is faster than python list.
6. It is fast because it is associated with c programming.
NumPy is often called as an alternate for MatLab (a programming platform
designed specifically for engineers and scientists for data analysis, developing
algorithms, create models and application etc.)
NumPy is used with packages like SciPy(Scientific Python) and Mat-Plotlib
(plotting libray) and this makes it capable to replace MATLAB.
1. 1 Dimensional array is referred to as vector.
2. 2 Dimensional arrays are referred to as matrix.
3. 3 Dimensional arrays are referred to as Tensor.

9.2 Installing Numpy

1. Anaconda (https://www.anaconda.com/) is a free python distribution for
SciPy stack. It is also available for linux and Mac.
2. Canopy, python(x,y) may also be used for the same but I will use
Anaconda for this video tutorial series.
3. Download and install Anaconda and finish it.
68 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

4. After installation go to start menu and click on “Anaconda Navigator”.

5. This comes with many options like Jupyter Notebook, Spyder, VS code
etc.
6. Here we will use Jupyter notebook.
Work with Jupyter Notebook
Jupyter notebook has two mode:
1. Command mode-blue color
2. Edit mode-green color
Some shortcuts to remember:
1. To Run the program you have written press Ctrl+Enter.
2. To Run the command as well as insert a cell below-shift+enter
3. To insert a cell below just press “b”.
4. To delete a cell-press ese button (to go to command mode as in edit
mode you cannot delete the cell) and then “d” two times.

9.2.1 Creating Numpy Array (one dimensional)

Example
import numpy as np
a=[1,2,3,4,5]
myarr=np.array(a)
myarr
We can do it directly:
import numpy as np
myarr=np.array(a[1,2,3,4,5])
myarr

9.2.2 Creating two Dimensional Array Using Numpy

Example
import numpy as np
a=[[1,2,3,4,5],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]]
myarr=np.array(a)
myarr
print(“Total dimension=”,myarr.ndim)
print(“shape of array=”,myarr.shape)
 Numpy in Python Programming 69

We can do it directly:
import numpy as np
myarr=np.array(a=[[1,2,3,4,5],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
myarr

9.3 Numpy Function

1. Zeros: This function creates an array (either one dimensional or multi-
dimensional) and fill all the values with zero (0)
Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.zeros(5)
output:([0.,0.,0.,0.,0.])
Example:
import numpy as np
arr=np.zeros(2,3)
output: 0 0 0
0 0 0
2. Zeros: This function creates an array (either one dimensional or multi-
dimensional) and fill all the values with ones (1)
Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.ones(5)
output:([1.,1.,1.,1.,1.])
Example:
import numpy as np
arr=np.ones(2,3)
output: 1 1 1
1 1 1

3. Eye function
This function creates an array with all the diagonal elements as 1 and rest as
0 (in a square matrix). In case of a non-square matrix the values are still 1 for
diagonal (up to which it can draw diagonal) and rest are zero.
Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.eye(3)
70 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

output:
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.eye(3,4)
output:
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

4. Diag function
This function creates a two dimensional array with all the diagonal elements as
the given value and rest as 0 (in a square matrix).
Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.diag([1,5,3,7])
output:
1 0 0 0
0 5 0 0
0 0 3 7

5. Randint()
This function is used to generate a random number between a given range.
Syntax:
Rand(min,max,total_values)
Example:
Import numpy as np
arr=np.random.randint(1,10,3)
output:
may be any 3 number from 1 to 9.
 Numpy in Python Programming 71

6. rand()
This function is used to generate a random values between 0 to 1.
Syntax:
rand(number_of_values)
example:
import numpy as np
arr=np.random.rand(5)
output: may be any 5 number from 0 to 1.

9.3.1 Two Dimensional(2D)

Example:
import numpy as np
arr=np.random.rand(2,3)
output: may be any 5 number from 0 to 1.
7. This function is used to generate random values close to 0 (zero). This may
return positive or negative number as well.
rand.(number_of_values)
Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.random.randn(3)
output: may be any 5 number from cantered to 0.

9.3.2 Indexing in 1 Dimensional Array

Example
import numpy as np
a[]
size=int(input(“how may numbers?”))
for i in range(size):
val=int(input(“enter number”))
a.append(val)
arr=np.array(a)
for i in range(arr.size):
print(arr[i])
arr1=arr[2:4] #this will make a new array with element from array arr
72 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

from index 2 to 3.
print(arr1)

9.3.3 Reshaping of Array in Numpy in Python

Example
a=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12]
Arr=np.array(a)
Changing the shape
a.reshape(2,6)
a.reshape(3,4)
a.reshape(2,-1)
Example:
import numpy as np
arr=np.random.randint(1,50,12)
arr.shape
arr=arr.reshape(2,6) # converting it to two dimensional array.

9.3.4 Seed Function in Python Programming

We know that randint() function generates random numbers. Every
time we run the program, new set of random number is generated. But
what if we want to fix seed, this generates fix set of random numbers.
Example
import numpy as np
np.random.seed(12)
arr=np.random.randint(1,100,10) # Now it will return the same random
numbers till we change the integer as passed to seed at any computer.

9.3.5 Creating Two Dimensional Array in Python Programming

1. Indexing/slicing using double bracket notation
[0][0] [0][1] [0][2]
[1][0] [1][1] [1][2]
[2][0] [2][1] [2][2]
2. Indexing/slicing using single bracket notation
[0,0] [0,1] [0,2]
[1,0] [1,1] [1,2]
[2,0] [2,1] [2,2]
 Numpy in Python Programming 73

Example
import numpy as np
matrix=[]
row=int(input(“enter number of row:”))
col=int(input(“enter number of col:”))
for i in range(row):
a=[]
for j in range(col):
val= row=int(input(“enter number:”))
a.append(val)
matrix.append(a)
for i in range(row):
for j in range(col):
print(arr[i][j],end=” ”)
print()
print(type(arr))

9.3.6 Indexing of 2 Dimensional Array

First we will create a two dimensional arraya
a=np.array([[10,20,30],[40,50,60],[70,80,90]])
two method :
1. Indexing/slicing using double bracket notation
2. Indexing/slicing using single bracket notation
Syntax:
a[row range, col range]
Example: a[:2]

9.4 View Vs copy

• When we slice a sub-array from an array, it may be done by two ways.
• First is by making view and the second is using a copy of it.
• But there is some difference between both of them. If you make a view
of an array, any changes made to the sub array will be replicated to
the original array whereas if you make any copy, any changes made of
copied sub array will not reflect on the original array.
74 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
a=np.array([10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80])
slicing=a[3:6]
slicing[:]=0
print(a)
output: 10,20,30,0,0,0,70,80
Example
a=np.array([10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80])
slicing=a[3:6].copy()
slicing[:]=0
print(a)
output: 10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80
Note : this means the original array has not been updated.

9.5 Conditional Selection in Python Programming

9.5.1 Conditional Selection

Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.arange(1,16)
print(arr)
b=arr>10
print(b)
output
[ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15]
[False False False False False False False False False False True True
True True True]

9.6 Operation on Numpy Array in Python Programming

Example
import numpy as np
arr=np.arange(1,5)
b=arr*2
b1=arr**2 # square every element
print(b)
output:[2,4,6,8]
 Numpy in Python Programming 75

Note: In numpy array divide by zero gives infinity and not any error.

9.6.1 Numpy Some More Function

import numpy as np
arr=np.array([10,20,30,40,50])
np.min(arr) # return the min number
np.max(arr) # return the max number
np.argmin(arr) # position of min number
np.argmax(arr) # position of max number
np.sqrt(arr) # square root of every number
np.sin(arr) # sin value of every number
np.cos(arr) # cos value of every number
linspace function returns values between a given range and with a same
gab between consecutive elements.
import numpy as np
np.linspace(1,2,5)
output: 1.,1.25,1.5,1.75,2.
9.7 Creating 2D Array with Fixed Data Type
Example
import numpy as np
np.random.seed(122)
matrix=np.random.randint(1,21,9).reshape(3,3)
print(matrix)
np.sum(matrix) # find the sum of array
OR
matrix.sum()
np.min(matrix) # find the min of matrix
np.max(matrix) # find the max of matrix
Example
import numpy as np
np.random.seed(122)
matrix=np.random.randint(1,21,9).reshape(3,3)
76 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

print(matrix)
np.sum(matrix, axis=1) # find row wise sum
np.min(matrix, axis=1) # find row wise win
np.max(matrix, axis=0) # find col wise max
np.cumsum(matrix) #cumulative sum
np.cumsum(matrix, axis=0) #cumulative sum
Example
import numpy as np
np.random.seed(122)
matrix=np.random.randint(1,21,10)
print(matrix)
np.random.shuffle(arr) #shuffles the array elements
np.unique(arr) #display unique number of the array
np.unique(arr).size #count the unique count of the elements
Example
import numpy as np
np.random.seed(122)
matrix=np.random.randint(1,21,10)
print(matrix)
np.unique(arr, return_index=True, return_counts=true)
#returns three array
1. The array with unique values
2. The array with respective index values
3. The array with counting of frequency

9.7.1 Stacking 2D Array with Fixed Data Type

Example
import numpy as np
arr1=np.array([1,2,3,4])
arr2=np.array([5,6,7,8])
print(arr1)
print(arr2)
np.hstack((arr1,arr2)) #horizontally arranges the matrix
np.vstack((arr1,arr2)) #vertically arranges the matrix
 Numpy in Python Programming 77

Example
import numpy as np
np.random.seed(122)
arr1=np.random.randint(1,21,9).reshape(3,3)
arr2=np.random.randint(31,51,9).reshape(3,3)
print(arr1)
print(arr2)
np.hstack((arr1,arr2)) #horizontally arranges the matrix
np.vstack((arr1,arr2)) #vertically arranges the matrix

9.8 Question List

1. Write statement to import numpy
2. Create an array using numpy
3. Create an array of 10 random integers
4. Create an array of elements from 10-20
5. Create an array which contains value 5 times
6. Create a one dimensional array and covert that into 3*3 matrix
7. Create an array and then convert all the even numbers with o
8. Create a 2D array of size 3*3 but all the elements should be between 0
and 1.
9. Perform the following slicing:
Input:
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16
Output:
6 7
10 11
14 15
10. Concatenate 2D array horizontally and vertically.
78 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Solution
Q 1.Write statement to import numpy
Answer
import numpy as np
Q 2. Create an array using numpy
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.array([1,2,3,4,5])
print(arr)
Q 3. Create an array of 10 random integers
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.random.randint(1,100,10)
print(arr)
Q 4. Create an array of elements from 10-20
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.arange(10,21)
print(arr)
Q 5.Create an array which contains value 5 times
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.ones()*5
print(arr)
Q 6. Create a one dimensional array and covert that into 3*3 matrix
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.arange(1,10).reshape(3,3)
print(arr)
 Numpy in Python Programming 79

Q 7. Create an array and then convert all the even numbers with o
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.arange(1,11)
arr[arr%2==0]=0
print(arr)
Q 8. Create a 2D array of size 3*3 but all the elements should be between
0 and 1.
Answer
import numpy as np
arr=np.random.rand(9).reshape(3,3)
print(arr)
Q 9. Perform the following slicing:
Input:
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16
Output
6 7
10 11
14 15
Concatenate 2D array horizontally and vertically
Answer
import numpy as np
arr1=np.arange(1,17).reshape(4,4)
arr2=arr1[1:,1:3]
print(arr2)
Q10. Concatenate 2D array horizontally and vertically
Answer
80 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

import numpy as np
arr1=np.arange(1,10).reshape(3,3)
arr2= np.arange(10,19).reshape(3,3)
np.hstack((arr1,arr2))
Answer
import numpy as np
arr1=np.arange(1,10).reshape(3,3)
arr2= np.arange(10,19).reshape(3,3)
np.vstack((arr1,arr2))

9.9 Numpy vs List Difference

• Size-Numpy data structures take up less space.
• Performance-they have a need for speed and are faster than lists.
• Functionality-SciPy and NumPy have optimized functions such as linear
algebra operations built in.

9.10 Pycharm Installation in Python IDE

Steps to Install PyCharm
Step 1: To download PyCharm, visit the official website of JetBrains:
Download PyCharm.
Step 2: Click on the ‘Download’’ button
Step 3: After that, you will see the below window with two options,
Professional and Community
Step 4: Download the Community version
Note: If you are interested to work with the Professional version, then you can
download the Professional version and avail a free trial.

9.11 Python Data Types

Data type defines the type of data a variable will store. In python, there is
no strict rule for declaring variable. Data type is auto defined in python. In
python, data type is set when you assign a value to a variable.
 Numpy in Python Programming 81

Example Data type

a=”python programming” str
a=20 int
a=20.5 float
a=1+5i complex
a=[“apple”,”boy”,”cat”] list
a=(“apple”,”boy”,”cat”) tuple
a=range(5) range
a={“name:”amit”,”age”:32} dict
a={“apple”,”boy”,”cat”} set
a=True/False boolean
If we want to know the type of a variable we use “type” function
Example
x=5
Print(type(x))

9.11.1 Type Casting

Conversion of one data type into another type is called type casting. Casting
in python is done using constructor functions.
Example
Int() # converts the argument into integer type
x=int(1) #x will be 1
y=int(2.8) #y will be 2
z=int(“3”) #z will be 3

9.11.2 Numpy Searching Arrays

we can also perform condition based searching using where() function.
Consider an example if we want to get all the indexes where there are even
numbers. The program would be.
Example
import numpy as np
a=np.array([1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10])
result=a.where(a%2==0)
print(result)
82 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Searchsorted()
This method performs a binary search in the array, and returns the index
where the specified value would be inserted to maintain the search order.
Example
import numpy as np
a=np.array([2,5,8,9,13])
result=a.searchsorted(a,7,side=’right’)
print(result)
10
Lambda Function
in Python Programming

10.1 Lambda Function

Lambda Function or anonymous function in python programming
A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one
expression.
Syntax:
Lambda arguments: expression only single line
The expression is executed and the result is returned.
Example
x=lambda a:a+10
Print(x(5))
Example
A lambda function can take any number of arguments.
x=lambda a,b:a*b
Print(x(5,6))
Example
x=lambda a,b,c:a+b+c
Print(x(5,6,2))

10.1.1 Filter Function with Lambda Function

The filter() function returns an iterator where the items are filter through a
function to test if the item is accepted or not.
Example
ages=[5,12,17,18,24,32]
def myfunc(x):
84 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

if x<18:
return False
else:
return True
adults=list(filter(myfunc, ages))
for x in adults:
print(x)
OR using lambda function
ages=[5,12,17,18,24,32]
adults=filter(lambda a:a>18, ages)
for x in adults:
print(x)
Note: filter function use a function and list of values
Example
val=[5,12,17,18,24,32]
def myfunc(x):
if x%2==0
return True
else:
return False
adults=list(filter(myfunc, val))
for x in even:
print(x)
OR using lambda function
val=[5,12,17,18,24,32]
even=filter(lambda a:a%2==0, val)
for x in even:
print(x)

10.1.2 Map Filter Lambda Function in Python Programming

The map() function executes a specified function for each item in a iterable.
The item is sent to the function as parameters.
ages=[5,12,17,18,24,32]
def myfunc(x):
if x<18:
return False
else:
return True
def myfunc1(x):
 Lambda Function in Python Programming 85

return x*x
adults=filter(myfunc, ages)
for x in adults:
print(x)
squares=map(myfunc1, adults)
for x in squares:
print(x)

10.1.3 Map Function

Doing the same uding lambda function
Example
ages=[5,12,17,18,24,32]
adults=filter(lambda a:a>18, ages)
square=list(map(lambda a:a*a, adults)
print(square)

10.2 Reduce() Function

The reduce (fun, seq) function is used to apply a particular function passed in
its argument to all of the list elements mentioned in the sequence passed along.
This function is defined in “functools” module. At first step, first two elements
of sequence are picked and the result is obtained.
Working
• At first step, first two elements of sequence are picked and result is
obtained.
• Next step is to apply the same function to the previously attained result
and the number just succeeding the second element and the result is
again stored.
• This process continues till no more elements are left in the container.
The final returned result is returned and printed on console.
Example
# python code to demonstrate working of reduce()
# importing functools for reduce()
import functools
def myfunc(a,b):
return a+b
val=[1,2,3,4,5]
add=reduce(myfunc.val)
86 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

print(“addition=”,add)
OR using lambda function
import functools
val = [1, 3, 5, 6, 2]
add-reduce(lambda a,b, a+b, val)
# using reduce to compute sum of list
print(“addition=: “, add)
Example
import functools
def myfunc(a,b):
if a>b:
return a
else:
return b
val=[1,2,3,4,5]
max=reduce(myfunc,val)
print(“max=”, max)
OR using lambda function
import functools
val=[1,2,3,4,5]
max=reduce(lambda a,b: a if a>b else b, val)
print(“max=” max)
11
Pandas in Python Programming

11.1 Introduction
Pandas is an open-source Python Library providing high-performance
data manipulation and analysis tool using its powerful data structures. The
name Pandas is derived from the word Panel Data – an Econometrics from
Multidimensional data.
In 2008, developer Wes McKinney started developing pandas when in need of
high performance, flexible tool for analysis of data.
Prior to Pandas, Python was majorly used for data munging and preparation. It
had very little contribution towards data analysis. Pandas solved this problem.
Using Pandas, we can accomplish five typical steps in the processing and
analysis of data, regardless of the origin of data — load, prepare, manipulate,
model, and analyze.
Python with Pandas is used in a wide range of fields including academic and
commercial domains including finance, economics, Statistics, analytics, etc.

11.1.1 Key Features of Pandas

• Fast and efficient DataFrame object with default and customized
indexing.
• Tools for loading data into in-memory data objects from different file
formats.
• Data alignment and integrated handling of missing data.
• Reshaping and pivoting of date sets.
• Label-based slicing, indexing and subsetting of large data sets.
• Columns from a data structure can be deleted or inserted.
• Group by data for aggregation and transformations.
• High performance merging and joining of data.
• Time Series functionality.
88 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

11.2 NumPy vs Pandas

NumPy array is used for the implementation of pandas data objects.
Python Pandas - Environment Setup
Standard Python distribution doesn’t come bundled with Pandas module. A
lightweight alternative is to install NumPy using popular Python package
installer, pip.
pip install pandas

11.3 Introduction to Data Structures

Pandas deals with the following three data structures
• Series
• DataFrame
• Panel
These data structures are built on top of Numpy array, which means they are
fast.
Dimension & Description
The best way to think of these data structures is that the higher dimensional data
structure is a container of its lower dimensional data structure. For example,
DataFrame is a container of Series, Panel is a container of DataFrame.
Data Structure Dimensions Description
Series 1 1D labeled homogeneous array, size immutable.
Data Frames 2 General 2D labeled, size-mutable tabular structure with
potentially heterogeneously typed columns.
Panel 3 General 3D labeled, size-mutable array.

Building and handling two or more dimensional arrays is a tedious task, burden
is placed on the user to consider the orientation of the data set when writing
functions. But using Pandas data structures, the mental effort of the user is
reduced.
For example, with tabular data (DataFrame) it is more semantically helpful to
think of the index (the rows) and the columns rather than axis 0 and axis 1.

Mutability
All Pandas data structures are value mutable (can be changed) and except
Series all are size mutable. Series is size immutable.
 Pandas in Python Programming 89

Note − DataFrame is widely used and one of the most important data
structures. Panel is used much less.

11.3.1 Series
Series is a one-dimensional array like structure with homogeneous data. For
example, the following series is a collection of integers 10, 23, 56,
10 23 56 17 52 61 73 90 26 72
Key Points
• Homogeneous data
• Size Immutable
• Values of Data Mutable

11.3.2 DataFrame
DataFrame is a two-dimensional array with heterogeneous data. For example,
Name Age Gender Rating
steve 32 Male 3.45
lia 28 Female 4.6
vin 45 Male 3.9

The table represents the data of a sales team of an organization with their
overall performance rating. The data is represented in rows and columns. Each
column represents an attribute and each row represents a person.

11.3.3 Data Type of Columns

The data types of the four columns are as follows :
Colum Type
Name string
Age integer
Gender string
Rating float

Key Points
• Heterogeneous data
• Size Mutable
• Data Mutable
90 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

11.3.4 Panel
Panel is a three-dimensional data structure with heterogeneous data. It is
hard to represent the panel in graphical representation. But a panel can be
illustrated as a container of DataFrame.

Key Points
• Heterogeneous data
• Size Mutable
• Data Mutable

11.4 Python Pandas Series

Series is a one-dimensional labeled array capable of holding data of any type
(integer, string, float, python objects, etc.).
A pandas Series can be created using the following constructor
pandas.Series( data, index, dtype, copy)
The parameters of the constructor are as follows:
S.No. Parameter & Description
1 data
data takes various forms like ndarray, list, constants
2 index
Index values must be unique and hashable, same length as data. Default
np.arrange(n) if no index is passed.
3 Dtype
dtype is for data type. If None, data type will be inferred
4 copy
Copy data. Default False
A series can be created using various inputs like :
• Array
• Dict
• Scalar value or constant

11.4.1 Create an Empty Series

A basic series, which can be created is an Empty Series.
 Pandas in Python Programming 91

Example
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series()
print(s)
Its output is as follows:
Series([], dtype: float64)

11.4.2 Create a Series From Ndarray

If data is an ndarray, then index passed must be of the same length. If no index
is passed, then by default index will be range(n) where n is array length, i.e.,
[0,1,2,3…. range(len(array))-1].
Example
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = np.array([‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’])
s = pd.Series(data)
print(s)
Its output is as follows:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 d
dtype: object
We did not pass any index, so by default, it assigned the indexes ranging
from 0 to len(data)-1, i.e., 0 to 3.
Example
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = np.array([‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’])
s = pd.Series(data,index=[100,101,102,103])
print(s)
92 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Its output is as follows

100 a
101 b
102 c
103 d
dtype: object
We passed the index values here. Now we can see the customized indexed
values in the output.

11.5 Create a Series from Dictonary

A dict can be passed as input and if no index is specified, then the dictionary
keys are taken in a sorted order to construct index. If index is passed, the
values in data corresponding to the labels in the index will be pulled out.
Example
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = {‘a’ : 0., ‘b’ : 1., ‘c’ : 2.}
s = pd.Series(data)
print(s)
Its output is as follows :
a 0.0
b 1.0
c 2.0
dtype: float64
Observe − Dictionary keys are used to construct index.
Example
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = {‘a’ : 0., ‘b’ : 1., ‘c’ : 2.}
s = pd.Series(data,index=[‘b’,’c’,’d’,’a’])
print(s)
 Pandas in Python Programming 93

Its output is as follows :

b 1.0
c 2.0
d NaN
a 0.0
dtype: float64
Observe − Index order is persisted and the missing element is filled with
NaN (Not a Number).

11.6 Create a Series from Scalar

If data is a scalar value, an index must be provided. The value will be
repeated to match the length of index
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
s = pd.Series(5, index=[0, 1, 2, 3])
print(s)
Its output is as follows:
0 5
1 5
2 5
3 5
dtype: int64

11.7 Accessing Data from Series with Position

Data in the series can be accessed similar to that in an ndarray.
Example
Retrieve the first element. As we already know, the counting starts from zero
for the array, which means the first element is stored at zeroth position and so
on.
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5],index = [‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,’e’])
#retrieve the first element
Print(s[0])
94 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Its output is as follows:

Example
Retrieve the first three elements in the Series. If a : is inserted in front of it,
all items from that index onwards will be extracted. If two parameters (with :
between them) is used, items between the two indexes (not including the stop
index)
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5],index = [‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,’e’])
#retrieve the first three element
Print(s[:3])
Its output is as follows:
a 1
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64
Example
Retrieve the last three elements.
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5],index = [‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,’e’])
#retrieve the last three element
Print(s[-3:])
Its output is as follows:
c 3
d 4
e 5
dtype: int64

11.8 Retrieve Data Using Label (Index)

A Series is like a fixed-size dict in that you can get and set values by index
label.
Example
Retrieve a single element using index label value.
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5],index = [‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,’e’])
#retrieve a single element
Print(s[‘a’])
Its output is as follows :
 Pandas in Python Programming 95

Example
Retrieve multiple elements using a list of index label values.
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5],index = [‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,’e’])
#retrieve multiple elements
Print(s[[‘a’,’c’,’d’]])
Its output is as follows :
a 1
c 3
d 4
dtype: int64
Example
If a label is not contained, an exception is raised.
import pandas as pd
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5],index = [‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’,’e’])
#retrieve multiple elements
Print(s[‘f’])
Its output is as follows :
…
KeyError: ‘f’

11.9 Python Pandas - DataFrame

A Data frame is a two-dimensional data structure, i.e., data is aligned in a
tabular fashion in rows and columns.
Features of DataFrame
• Potentially columns are of different types
• Size – Mutable
• Labeled axes (rows and columns)
• Can Perform Arithmetic operations on rows and columns
96 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Structure
Let us assume that we are creating a data frame with student’s data.
Regd.No Name Marks%
1000 Shyam 78.2
1001 Raj 68.5
1002 Papu 56.8
1003 Sita 86.4
1004 Geeta 49.3

pandas.DataFrame
A pandas DataFrame can be created using the following constructor −
pandas.DataFrame( data, index, columns, dtype, copy)
The parameters of the constructor are as follows :
S.No. Parameter & Description
1 data
data takes various forms like ndarray, list, constants
2 index
Index values must be unique and hashable, same length as data. Default
np.arrange(n) if no index is passed.
3 columns
For column labels, the optional default syntax is - np.arange(n). This is only true if
no index is passed.
4 dtype
dtype is for data type. If None, data type will be inferred
5 copy
Copy data. Default False

11.9.1 Create DataFrame

A pandas DataFrame can be created using various inputs like:
• Lists
• Dict
• Series
• Numpy ndarrays
• Another DataFrame
In the subsequent sections of this chapter, we will see how to create a DataFrame
using these inputs.
 Pandas in Python Programming 97

Create an Empty DataFrame

A basic DataFrame, which can be created is an Empty Dataframe.
Example
#import the pandas library and aliasing as pd
import pandas as pd
df = pd.DataFrame()
print df
Its output is as follows :
Empty DataFrame
Columns: []
Index: []

11.9.2 Create a DataFrame from Lists

The DataFrame can be created using a single list or a list of lists.
Example
import pandas as pd
data = [1,2,3,4,5]
df = pd.DataFrame(data)
print(df)
Its output is as follows :

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
Example
import pandas as pd
data = [[‘Alex’,10],[‘Bob’,12],[‘Clarke’,13]]
df = pd.DataFrame(data,columns=[‘Name’,’Age’])
print(df)
Its output is as follows :
Name Age
0 Alex 10
1 Bob 12
2 Clarke 13
98 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
import pandas as pd
data = [[‘Alex’,10],[‘Bob’,12],[‘Clarke’,13]]
df = pd.DataFrame(data,columns=[‘Name’,’Age’],dtype=float)
print df
Its output is as follows:
Name Age
0 Alex 10.0
1 Bob 12.0
2 Clarke 13.0
Note − Observe, the dtype parameter changes the type of Age column to
floating point.

11.9.3 Create a DataFrame from Dict of ndarrays / Lists

All the ndarrays must be of same length. If index is passed, then the length
of the index should equal to the length of the arrays.
If no index is passed, then by default, index will be range(n), where n is the
array length.
Example
import pandas as pd
data = {‘Name’:[‘Tom’, ‘Jack’, ‘Steve’, ‘Ricky’],’Age’:[28,34,29,42]}
df = pd.DataFrame(data)
print(df)
Its output is as follows :
Age Name
0 28 Tom
1 34 Jack
2 29 Steve
3 42 Ricky
Note − Observe the values 0,1,2,3. They are the default index assigned to
each using the function range(n).
Example
Let us now create an indexed DataFrame using arrays.
import pandas as pd
 Pandas in Python Programming 99

data = {‘Name’:[‘Tom’, ‘Jack’, ‘Steve’, ‘Ricky’],’Age’:[28,34,29,42]}

df = pd.DataFrame(data, index=[‘rank1’,’rank2’,’rank3’,’rank4’])
print(df)
Its output is as follows :
Age Name
rank1 28 Tom
rank2 34 Jack
rank3 29 Steve
rank4 42 Ricky
Note − Observe, the index parameter assigns an index to each row.

10.9.4 Create a DataFrame from List of Dicts

List of Dictionaries can be passed as input data to create a DataFrame. The
dictionary keys are by default taken as column names.
Example
The following example shows how to create a DataFrame by passing a list of
dictionaries.
import pandas as pd
data = [{‘a’: 1, ‘b’: 2},{‘a’: 5, ‘b’: 10, ‘c’: 20}]
df = pd.DataFrame(data)
print(df)
Its output is as follows:
a b c
0 1 2 NaN
1 5 10 20.0
Note − Observe, NaN (Not a Number) is appended in missing areas.
Example
The following example shows how to create a DataFrame by passing a list of
dictionaries and the row indices.
import pandas as pd
data = [{‘a’: 1, ‘b’: 2},{‘a’: 5, ‘b’: 10, ‘c’: 20}]
df = pd.DataFrame(data, index=[‘first’, ‘second’])
print(df)
100 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Its output is as follows:

a b c
first 1 2 NaN
second 5 10 20.0
Example
The following example shows how to create a DataFrame with a list of
dictionaries, row indices, and column indices.
import pandas as pd
data = [{‘a’: 1, ‘b’: 2},{‘a’: 5, ‘b’: 10, ‘c’: 20}]
#With two column indices, values same as dictionary keys
df1 = pd.DataFrame(data, index=[‘first’, ‘second’], columns=[‘a’, ‘b’])
#With two column indices with one index with other name
df2 = pd.DataFrame(data, index=[‘first’, ‘second’], columns=[‘a’, ‘b1’])
print (df1)
print (df2)
Its output is as follows:
#df1 output
a b
first 1 2
second 5 10
#df2 output
a b1
first 1 NaN
second 5 NaN
Note − Observe, df2 DataFrame is created with a column index other than the
dictionary key; thus, appended the NaN’s in place. Whereas, df1 is created
with column indices same as dictionary keys, so NaN’s appended.

11.9.5 Create a DataFrame from Dict of Series

Dictionary of Series can be passed to form a DataFrame. The resultant index
is the union of all the series indexes passed.
Example
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print(df)
 Pandas in Python Programming 101

Its output is as follows :

one two
a 1.0 1
b 2.0 2
c 3.0 3
d NaN 4
Note − Observe, for the series one, there is no label ‘d’ passed, but in the
result, for the d label, NaN is appended with NaN.
Let us now understand column selection, addition, and deletion through
examples.

11.9.6 Column Selection

We will understand this by selecting a column from the DataFrame.
Example
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print(df [‘one’])
Its output is as follows :
a 1.0
b 2.0
c 3.0
d NaN
Name: one, dtype: float64

11.9.7 Column Addition

We will understand this by adding a new column to an existing data frame.
Example
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
# Adding a new column to an existing DataFrame object with column label
by passing new series
print (“Adding a new column by passing as Series:”)
102 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

df[‘three’]=pd.Series([10,20,30],index=[‘a’,’b’,’c’])
print df
print (“Adding a new column using the existing columns in DataFrame:”)
df[‘four’]=df[‘one’]+df[‘three’]
print(df)
Its output is as follows:
Adding a new column by passing as Series:
one two three
a 1.0 1 10.0
b 2.0 2 20.0
c 3.0 3 30.0
d NaN 4 NaN
Adding a new column using the existing columns in DataFrame:
one two three four
a 1.0 1 10.0 11.0
b 2.0 2 20.0 22.0
c 3.0 3 30.0 33.0
d NaN 4 NaN NaN

11.9.8 Column Deletion

Columns can be deleted or popped; let us take an example to understand how.
Example
# Using the previous DataFrame, we will delete a column
# using del function
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’]),
‘three’ : pd.Series([10,20,30], index=[‘a’,’b’,’c’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our dataframe is:”)
print(df)
# using del function
print (“Deleting the first column using DEL function:”)
del df[‘one’]
print(df)
# using pop function
print (“Deleting another column using POP function:”)
 Pandas in Python Programming 103

df.pop(‘two’)
print(df)
Its output is as follows :
Our dataframe is:
one three two
a 1.0 10.0 1
b 2.0 20.0 2
c 3.0 30.0 3
d NaN NaN 4
Deleting the first column using DEL function:
three two
a 10.0 1
b 20.0 2
c 30.0 3
d NaN 4
Deleting another column using POP function:
three
a 10.0
b 20.0
c 30.0
d NaN

11.9.9 Row Selection, Addition, and Deletion

We will now understand row selection, addition and deletion through
examples. Let us begin with the concept of selection.

11.9.10 Selection by Label

Rows can be selected by passing row label to a loc function.
Example
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print(df.loc[‘b’])
104 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Its output is as follows:

one 2.0
two 2.0
Name: b, dtype: float64
The result is a series with labels as column names of the DataFrame. And, the
Name of the series is the label with which it is retrieved.

11.9.11 Selection by Integer Location

Rows can be selected by passing integer location to an iloc function.
Example
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print(df.iloc[2])
Its output is as follows:
one 3.0
two 3.0
Name: c, dtype: float64

11.9.12 Slice Rows

Multiple rows can be selected using ‘ : ’ operator.
Example
import pandas as pd
d = {‘one’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]),
‘two’ : pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])}
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print(df[2:4])
Its output is as follows :
one two
c 3.0 3
d NaN 4
 Pandas in Python Programming 105

11.9.13 Addition of Rows

Add new rows to a DataFrame using the append function. This function will
append the rows at the end.
Example
import pandas as pd
df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [3, 4]], columns = [‘a’,’b’])
df2 = pd.DataFrame([[5, 6], [7, 8]], columns = [‘a’,’b’])
df = df.append(df2)
print(df)
Its output is as follows:
a b
0 1 2
1 3 4
0 5 6
1 7 8

11.9.14 Deletion of Rows

Use index label to delete or drop rows from a DataFrame. If label is duplicated,
then multiple rows will be dropped.
If you observe, in the above example, the labels are duplicate. Let us drop a
label and will see how many rows will get dropped.
Example
import pandas as pd
df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [3, 4]], columns = [‘a’,’b’])
df2 = pd.DataFrame([[5, 6], [7, 8]], columns = [‘a’,’b’])
df = df.append(df2)
# Drop rows with label 0
df = df.drop(0)
print(df)
Its output is as follows :
a b
13 4
17 8
106 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

11.10 Python Pandas - Panel

A panel is a 3D container of data. The term Panel data is derived from
econometrics and is partially responsible for the name pandas − pan(el)-
da(ta)-s.
The names for the 3 axes are intended to give some semantic meaning to
describing operations involving panel data. They are −
• items − axis 0, each item corresponds to a DataFrame contained inside.
• major_axis − axis 1, it is the index (rows) of each of the DataFrames.
• minor_axis − axis 2, it is the columns of each of the DataFrames.
pandas.Panel()
A Panel can be created using the following constructor
pandas.Panel(data, items, major_axis, minor_axis, dtype, copy)
The parameters of the constructor are as follows :
Parameter Description
data Data takes various forms like ndarray, series, map, lists, dict, constants
and also another DataFrame
items axis=0
major_axis axis=1
minor_axis axis=2
dtype Data type of each column
copy Copy data. Default, false

11.10.1 Create Panel

A Panel can be created using multiple ways like:
• From ndarrays
• From dict of DataFrames
From 3D ndarray
Example
# creating an empty panel
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = np.random.rand(2,4,5)
p = pd.Panel(data)
print(p)
 Pandas in Python Programming 107

Its output is as follows:

<class ‘pandas.core.panel.Panel’>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 5 (minor_axis)
Items axis: 0 to 1
Major_axis axis: 0 to 3
Minor_axis axis: 0 to 4
Note − Observe the dimensions of the empty panel and the above panel, all
the objects are different.
From dict of DataFrame Objects
#creating an empty panel
Exmple:
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = {‘Item1’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 3)),
‘Item2’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 2))}
p = pd.Panel(data)
print(p)
Its output is as follows :
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 0 to 3
Minor_axis axis: 0 to 2

11.11.2 Create an Empty Panel

An empty panel can be created using the Panel constructor as follows :
#creating an empty panel
Exmple:
import pandas as pd
p = pd.Panel()
print(p)
Its output is as follows −
<class ‘pandas.core.panel.Panel’>
Dimensions: 0 (items) x 0 (major_axis) x 0 (minor_axis)
Items axis: None
Major_axis axis: None
Minor_axis axis: None
108 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

11.11.3 Selecting the Data from Panel

Select the data from the panel using
• Items
• Major_axis
• Minor_axis
Using Items
# creating an empty panel
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = {‘Item1’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 3)),
‘Item2’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 2))}
p = pd.Panel(data)
print(p[‘Item1’])
Its output is as follows :
0 1 2
0 0.488224 -0.128637 0.930817
1 0.417497 0.896681 0.576657
2 -2.775266 0.571668 0.290082
3 -0.400538 -0.144234 1.110535
We have two items, and we retrieved item1. The result is a DataFrame with 4
rows and 3 columns, which are the Major_axis and Minor_axis dimensions.
Using major_axis
Data can be accessed using the method panel.major_axis(index).
# creating an empty panel
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = {‘Item1’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 3)),
‘Item2’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 2))}
p = pd.Panel(data)
 Pandas in Python Programming 109

print(p.major_xs(1))
Its output is as follows −
Item1 Item2
0 0.417497 0.748412
1 0.896681 -0.557322
2 0.576657 NaN
Using minor_axis
Data can be accessed using the method panel.minor_axis(index).
# creating an empty panel
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
data = {‘Item1’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 3)),
‘Item2’ : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 2))}
p = pd.Panel(data)
print(p.minor_xs(1))
Its output is as follows:
Item1 Item2
0 -0.128637 -1.047032
1 0.896681 -0.557322
2 0.571668 0.431953
3 -0.144234 1.302466
12
Python Pandas
Basic Functionality

12.1 Introduction Basic Functionality

By now, we learnt about the three Pandas DataStructures and how to create
them. We will majorly focus on the DataFrame objects because of its importance
in the real time data processing and also discuss a few other DataStructures.

12.2 Series Basic Functionality

S.No Attribute or Method & Description
1 axes
Returns a list of the row axis labels
2 dtype
Returns the dtype of the object.
3 empty
Returns True if series is empty.
4 ndim
Returns the number of dimensions of the underlying data, by definition 1.
5 size
Returns the number of elements in the underlying data.
6 values
Returns the Series as ndarray.
7 head()
Returns the first n rows
8 tail()
Returns the last n rows.

Let us now create a Series and see all the above tabulated attributes operation
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 100 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print(s)
112 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Its output is as follows:

0 0.967853
1 -0.148368
2 -1.395906
3 -1.758394
dtype: float64

12.2.1 Axes
Returns the list of the labels of the series.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 100 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print (“The axes are:”)
print s.axes
Its output is as follows :
The axes are:
[RangeIndex(start=0, stop=4, step=1)]
The above result is a compact format of a list of values from 0 to 5, i.e.,
[0,1,2,3,4].

12.2.2 Empty
Returns the Boolean value saying whether the Object is empty or not. True
indicates that the object is empty.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 100 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print (“Is the Object empty?”)
print s.empty
Its output is as follows:
Is the Object empty?
False
 Python Pandas Basic Functionality 113

12.2.3 Ndim
Returns the number of dimensions of the object. By definition, a Series is a 1D
data structure, so it returns
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 4 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print(s)
print (“The dimensions of the object:”)
print s.ndim
Its output is as follows:
0 0.175898
1 0.166197
2 -0.609712
3 -1.377000
dtype: float64
The dimensions of the object: 1

12.2.4 Size
Returns the size(length) of the series.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 4 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(2))
print s
print (“The size of the object:”)
print s.size
Its output is as follows :
0 3.078058
1 -1.207803
dtype: float64
The size of the object:
2
114 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

12.2.5 Values
Returns the actual data in the series as an array.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 4 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print(s)
print (“The actual data series is:”)
print s.values
Its output is as follows:
0 1.787373
1 -0.605159
2 0.180477
3 -0.140922
dtype: float64
The actual data series is:
[ 1.78737302 -0.60515881 0.18047664 -0.1409218 ]

12.2.6 Head & Tail

To view a small sample of a Series or the DataFrame object, use the head() and
the tail() methods.
head() returns the first n rows(observe the index values). The default number
of elements to display is five, but you may pass a custom number.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 4 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print (“The original series is:”)
print(s)
print (“The first two rows of the data series:”)
print s.head(2)
 Python Pandas Basic Functionality 115

Its output is as follows :

The original series is:
0 0.720876
1 -0.765898
2 0.479221
3 -0.139547
dtype: float64
The first two rows of the data series:
0 0.720876
1 -0.765898
dtype: float64
tail() returns the last n rows(observe the index values). The default number of
elements to display is five, but you may pass a custom number.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a series with 4 random numbers
s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(4))
print (“The original series is:”)
print(s)
print (“The last two rows of the data series:”)
print s.tail(2)
Its output is as follows :
The original series is:
0 -0.655091
1 -0.881407
2 -0.608592
3 -2.341413
dtype: float64
The last two rows of the data series:
2 -0.608592
3 -2.341413
dtype: float64
116 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

12.3 DataFrame Basic Functionality

Let us now understand what DataFrame Basic Functionality is. The following
tables lists down the important attributes or methods that help in DataFrame
Basic Functionality.
S.No Attribute or Method & Description
1 T
Transposes rows and columns.
2 axes
Returns a list with the row axis labels and column axis labels as the only members
3 dtypes
Returns the dtypes in this object.
4 empty
True if NDFrame is entirely empty [no items]; if any of the axes are of length 0.
5 ndim
Number of axes / array dimensions.
6 shape
Returns a tuple representing the dimensionality of the DataFrame.
7 size
Number of elements in the NDFrame.
8 values
Numpy representation of NDFrame.
9 head()
Returns the first n rows.
10 tail()
Returns last n rows.

Let us now create a DataFrame and see all how the above mentioned
attributes operate.

12.3.1 Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our data series is:”)
print df
 Python Pandas Basic Functionality 117

Its output is as follows:

Our data series is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80

12.3.2 T (Transpose)
Returns the transpose of the DataFrame. The rows and columns will
interchange.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
# Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
# Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“The transpose of the data series is:”)
print df.T
Its output is as follows:
The transpose of the data series is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Age 25 26 25 23 30 29 23
Name Tom James Ricky Vin Steve Smith Jack
Rating 4.23 3.24 3.98 2.56 3.2 4.6 3.8

12.3.3 Axes
Returns the list of row axis labels and column axis labels.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
118 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

#Create a Dictionary of series

d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Row axis labels and column axis labels are:”)
print df.axes
Its output is as follows:
Row axis labels and column axis labels are:
[RangeIndex(start=0, stop=7, step=1), Index([u’Age’, u’Name’, u’Rating’],
dtype=’object’)]

12.3.4 Dtypes
Returns the data type of each column.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“The data types of each column are:”)
print df.dtypes
Its output is as follows:
The data types of each column are:
Age int64
Name object
Rating float64
dtype: object

12.3.5 Empty
Returns the Boolean value saying whether the Object is empty or not; True
indicates that the object is empty.
 Python Pandas Basic Functionality 119

Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Is the object empty?”)
print df.empty
Its output is as follows:
Is the object empty?
False

12.3.6 Ndim
Returns the number of dimensions of the object. By definition, DataFrame is
a 2D object.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our object is:”)
print df
print (“The dimension of the object is:”)
print df.ndim
Its output is as follows:
Our object is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
120 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80
The dimension of the object is:
2

12.3.7 Shape
Returns a tuple representing the dimensionality of the DataFrame. Tuple
(a,b), where a represents the number of rows and b represents the number of
columns.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our object is:”)
print df
print (“The shape of the object is:”)
print df.shape
Its output is as follows:
Our object is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80
The shape of the object is:
(7, 3)
 Python Pandas Basic Functionality 121

12.3.8 Size
Returns the number of elements in the DataFrame.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our object is:”)
print df
print (“The total number of elements in our object is:”)
print df.size
Its output is as follows:
Our object is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80
The total number of elements in our object is:
21

12.3.9 Values
Returns the actual data in the DataFrame as an NDarray.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
122 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our object is:”)
print df
print (“The actual data in our data frame is:”)
print df.values
Its output is as follows:
Our object is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80
The actual data in our data frame is:
[[25 ‘Tom’ 4.23]
[26 ‘James’ 3.24]
[25 ‘Ricky’ 3.98]
[23 ‘Vin’ 2.56]
[30 ‘Steve’ 3.2]
[29 ‘Smith’ 4.6]
[23 ‘Jack’ 3.8]]

12.3.10 Head & Tail

To view a small sample of a DataFrame object, use the head() and tail()
methods. head() returns the first n rows (observe the index values). The default
number of elements to display is five, but you may pass a custom number.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
 Python Pandas Basic Functionality 123

df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our data frame is:”)
print df
print (“The first two rows of the data frame is:”)
print df.head(2)
Its output is as follows:
Our data frame is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80
The first two rows of the data frame is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
tail() returns the last n rows (observe the index values). The default number
of elements to display is five, but you may pass a custom number.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
#Create a Dictionary of series
d = {‘Name’:pd.Series([‘Tom’,’James’,’Ricky’,’Vin’,’Steve’,’Smith’,’Jack’]),
‘Age’:pd.Series([25,26,25,23,30,29,23]),
‘Rating’:pd.Series([4.23,3.24,3.98,2.56,3.20,4.6,3.8])}
#Create a DataFrame
df = pd.DataFrame(d)
print (“Our data frame is:”)
print df
print (“The last two rows of the data frame is:”)
print df.tail(2)
124 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Its output is as follows :

Our data frame is:
Age Name Rating
0 25 Tom 4.23
1 26 James 3.24
2 25 Ricky 3.98
3 23 Vin 2.56
4 30 Steve 3.20
5 29 Smith 4.60
6 23 Jack 3.80
The last two rows of the data frame is:
Age Name Rating
5 29 Smith 4.6
6 23 Jack 3.8
13
Python Pandas
Statistical Functions

13.1 Statistical Functions

Statistical methods help in the understanding and analyzing the behavior of
data. We will now learn a few statistical functions, which we can apply on
Pandas objects.

Percent_change
Series, DatFrames and Panel, all have the function pct_change(). This
function compares every element with its prior element and computes the
change percentage.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5,4])
print s.pct_change()
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2))
print(df.pct_change())
Its output is as follows:
0 NaN
1 1.000000
2 0.500000
3 0.333333
4 0.250000
5 -0.200000
dtype: float64
0 1
0 NaN NaN
1 -15.151902 0.174730
2 -0.746374 -1.449088
126 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

3 -3.582229 -3.165836
4 15.601150 -1.860434
By default, the pct_change() operates on columns; if you want to apply the
same row wise, then use axis=1() argument.

13.1.1 Covariance
Covariance is applied on series data. The Series object has a method cov to
compute covariance between series objects. NA will be excluded automatically.
Cov Series
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
s1 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10))
s2 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10))
print(s1.cov(s2))
Its output is as follows:
-0.12978405324
Covariance method when applied on a DataFrame, computes cov between all
the columns.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 5), columns=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’,
‘e’])
print frame[‘a’].cov(frame[‘b’])
print(frame.cov())
Its output is as follows:
-0.58312921152741437
a b c d e
a 1.780628 -0.583129 -0.185575 0.003679 -0.136558
b -0.583129 1.297011 0.136530 -0.523719 0.251064
c -0.185575 0.136530 0.915227 -0.053881 -0.058926
d 0.003679 -0.523719 -0.053881 1.521426 -0.487694
e -0.136558 0.251064 -0.058926 -0.487694 0.960761
Note − Observe the cov between a and b column in the first statement and
the same is the value returned by cov on DataFrame.
 Python Pandas Statistical Functions 127

13.1.2 Correlation
Correlation shows the linear relationship between any two array of values
(series). There are multiple methods to compute the correlation like
pearson(default), spearman and kendall.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 5), columns=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’,
‘e’])
print frame[‘a’].corr(frame[‘b’])
print(frame.corr())
Its output is as follows:
-0.383712785514
a b c d e
a 1.000000 -0.383713 -0.145368 0.002235 -0.104405
b -0.383713 1.000000 0.125311 -0.372821 0.224908
c -0.145368 0.125311 1.000000 -0.045661 -0.062840
d 0.002235 -0.372821 -0.045661 1.000000 -0.403380
e -0.104405 0.224908 -0.062840 -0.403380 1.000000
If any non-numeric column is present in the DataFrame, it is excluded
automatically.

13.1.3 Data Ranking

Data Ranking produces ranking for each element in the array of elements. In
case of ties, assigns the mean rank.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
s = pd.Series(np.random.np.random.randn(5), index=list(‘abcde’))
s[‘d’] = s[‘b’] # so there’s a tie
print(s.rank())
Its output is as follows −
a 1.0
b 3.5
c 2.0
d 3.5
128 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

e 5.0
dtype: float64
Rank optionally takes a parameter ascending which by default is true; when
false, data is reverse-ranked, with larger values assigned a smaller rank.
Rank supports different tie-breaking methods, specified with the method
parameter −
• average − average rank of tied group
• min − lowest rank in the group
• max − highest rank in the group
• first − ranks assigned in the order they appear in the array
14
Python Pandas
Visualization

14.1 Basic Plotting: plot

This functionality on Series and DataFrame is just a simple wrapper around
the matplotlib libraries plot() method.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,4),index=pd.date_range(‘1/1/2000’,
periods=10), columns=list(‘ABCD’))
df.plot()
Its output is as follows:

Fig. 14.1: Basic Plotting

If the index consists of dates, it calls gct().autofmt_xdate() to format the

x-axis as shown in the above illustration.
130 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

We can plot one column versus another using the x and y keywords.
Plotting methods allow a handful of plot styles other than the default line plot.
These methods can be provided as the kind keyword argument to plot(). These
include −
• bar or barh for bar plots
• hist for histogram
• box for boxplot
• ‘area’ for area plots
• ‘scatter’ for scatter plots

14.1.1 Bar Plot

Let us now see what a Bar Plot is by creating one. A bar plot can be created
in the following way.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,4),columns=[‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’)
df.plot.bar()
Its output is as follows:

Fig. 14.2: Bar plot

To produce a stacked bar plot, pass stacked=True

 Python Pandas Visualization 131

Example
import pandas as pd
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,4),columns=[‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’)
df.plot.bar(stacked=True)
Its output is as follows

Fig. 14.3: Bar plot

To get horizontal bar plots, use the barh method

Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,4),columns=[‘a’,’b’,’c’,’d’)
df.plot.barh(stacked=True)
Its output is as follows

Fig. 14.4: Bar plot

132 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

14.1.2 Histograms
Histograms can be plotted using the plot.hist() method. We can specify
number of bins.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd. Data Frame ({‘a’:np.random.randn(1000)+1,’b’:np.random.randn
(1000),’c’:
np.random.randn(1000) - 1}, columns=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’])
df.plot.hist(bins=20)
Its output is as follows:

Fig. 14.5: Histrogram plot

To plot different histograms for each column, use the following code
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df=pd.DataFrame({‘a’:np.random.randn(1000)+1,’b’:np.random.
randn(1000),’c’:
np.random.randn(1000) - 1}, columns=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’])
df.diff.hist(bins=20)
 Python Pandas Visualization 133

Its output is as follows:

Fig. 14.6: Histrogram plot

14.1.3 Box Plots

Boxplot can be drawn calling Series.box.plot() and DataFrame.box.plot(),
or DataFrame.boxplot() to visualize the distribution of values within each
column.
For instance, here is a boxplot representing five trials of 10 observations of a
uniform random variable on [0,1).
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10, 5), columns=[‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’, ‘E’])
df.plot.box()
Its output is as follows
134 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Fig. 14.7: Box plot

14.1.4 Area Plot

Area plot can be created using the Series.plot.area() or the DataFrame.plot.
area() methods.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10, 4), columns=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])
df.plot.area()
Its output is as follows

Fig. 14.8: Area plot

 Python Pandas Visualization 135

14.1.5 Scatter Plot

Scatter plot can be created using the DataFrame.plot.scatter() methods.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(50, 4), columns=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’])
df.plot.scatter(x=’a’, y=’b’)
Its output is as follows:

Fig. 14.9: Scatter plot

14.1.6 Pie Chart

Pie chart can be created using the DataFrame.plot.pie() method.
Example
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
df = pd.DataFrame(3 * np.random.rand(4), index=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’],
columns=[‘x’])
df.plot.pie(subplots=True)
Its output is as follows:
136 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Fig. 14.10: Pie plot

15
Data Visualization

15.1 Data Visualization

Data visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. By
using different visual elements like charts, graphs and maps. Data visualization
tool provides easy way to see the understand the data and related trend/pattern.
1. There are multiple tools available for data visualization using which we
can perform data visualization.
2. In python we can use a library called “matplot” for data visualization.
3. Python based plotting library “matplotlib” enables us to produce 2D as
well as 3D graphics i.e. charts/graphs.
4. Pyplot interface of matplotlib is used for representing 2D graphs.

15.2 How to Install Matplotlib

1. Open “command promt” with administrator rights.
2. Here type “python –m pip install matplotlib” and press enter key.
3. In case this command is showing an error it means that you have not set
python to “path” variable. You need to set the path (For this different set
of instruction are there)
4. Note that internet connection is required for installation of matplotlib
library.

15.3 Pyplot
1. Pyplot is a collection of command type functions that is used for data
visualization. Its is available inside matplotlib library.
2. Pyplot interface provides many method for 2D plotting of data using
which we can draw different types of 2D graphs/charts. We can draw
different types of graphs/charts using pyplot methods i.e. plot(), bar()
etc.
138 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

3. Multiple types of charts graphs can be plotted using pyplot like chart,
bar chart, pie chart, scattered chart, histogram etc.
4. To use pyplot we can have to import matplotlib which can be done by
two types
(i) Import matplotlib
(ii) Import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

15.4 Line chart

A line chart or line graph is a type of chart which displays information as a
series of data points called ‘markers’ connected by straight line segments.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot
x=[2,4,6,8,10]
y=[5,2,6,4,8]
matplotlib.pyplot.plot(x,y)
matplotlib.pyplot.show()

15.4.1 Customization of Plots

Here, we discuss some elementary customizations applicable to almost any
plot.
parameters
color: This is used to set color of the line, This color could be any valid color.
Markeredgecolor: This is used to set color of marker. This color could be any
valid color.
Character Color
b blue
g green
r red
m magenta
y yellow
k black
c cyan
w white

# line style attributes

#’solid’,’dashed’,’dashdot’,’dotted’
 Data Visualization 139

Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
x=[5,10,15,20,25]
y=[10,14,7,15,16]
plt.plot(x,y, color=’r’,marker=’*’,
markeredgecolor=’b’,markersize=8,linewidth=10,linestyle=”dotted”)
plt.show()
Output:

Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# x axis values
x = [1,2,3,4,5,6]
# corresponding y axis values
y = [2,4,1,5,2,6]
# plotting the points
plt.plot(x, y, color=’green’, linestyle=’dashed’, linewidth = 3,
marker=›o›, markerfacecolor=›blue›, markersize=12)
# setting x and y axis range
plt.ylim(1,8)
plt.xlim(1,8)
# naming the x axis
plt.xlabel(‘x - axis’)
# naming the y axis
plt.ylabel(‘y - axis’)
140 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

# giving a title to my graph

plt.title(‘Some cool customizations!’)
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
Output

Note:
As you can see, we have done several customizations like:
• setting the line-width, line-style, line-color.
• setting the marker, marker’s face color, marker’s size.
• overriding the x and y-axis range. If overriding is not done, pyplot
module uses the auto-scale feature to set the axis range and scale.

15.5 Multiple plots on the same axis

Here we will see how to add 2 plots within the same axis.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
y = x*2
# first plot with X and Y data
plt.plot(x, y)
 Data Visualization 141

x1 = [2, 4, 6, 8]
y1 = [3, 5, 7, 9]
# second plot with x1 and y1 data
plt.plot(x1, y1, ‘-.’)
plt.xlabel(“X-axis data”)
plt.ylabel(“Y-axis data”)
plt.title(‘multiple plots’)
plt.show()
Output

Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# line 1 points
x1 = [1,2,3]
y1 = [2,4,1]
# plotting the line 1 points
plt.plot(x1, y1, label = “line 1”)
# line 2 points
x2 = [1,2,3]
y2 = [4,1,3]
# plotting the line 2 points
plt.plot(x2, y2, label = “line 2”)
# naming the x axis
plt.xlabel(‘x - axis’)
# naming the y axis
plt.ylabel(‘y - axis’)
# giving a title to my graph
142 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

plt.title(‘Two lines on same graph!’)

# show a legend on the plot
plt.legend()
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
Output

• Note: Here, we plot two lines on the same graph. We differentiate between
them by giving them a name(label) which is passed as an argument of
the .plot() function.
• The small rectangular box giving information about the type of line
and its color is called a legend. We can add a legend to our plot using
.legend() function.

15.6 Fill the Area Between Two Plots

Using the pyplot.fill_between() function we can fill in the region between two
line plots in the same graph. This will help us in understanding the margin of
data between two line plots based on certain conditions.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
y = x*2
plt.plot(x, y)
x1 = [2, 4, 6, 8]
y1 = [3, 5, 7, 9]
 Data Visualization 143

plt.plot(x, y1, ‘-.’)

plt.xlabel(“X-axis data”)
plt.ylabel(“Y-axis data”)
plt.title(‘multiple plots’)
plt.fill_between(x, y, y1, color=’green’, alpha=0.5)
plt.show()
Output

15.7 Bar Chart

A bar chart or Bar graph is a type of chart which displays information as a
series of line of rectangle with a height and length.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# x-coordinates of left sides of bars
left = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# heights of bars
height = [10, 24, 36, 40, 5]
# labels for bars
tick_label = [‘one’, ‘two’, ‘three’, ‘four’, ‘five’]
# plotting a bar chart
plt.bar(left, height, tick_label = tick_label,
width = 0.8, color = [‹red›, ‹green›])
# naming the x-axis
plt.xlabel(‘x - axis’)
# naming the y-axis
plt.ylabel(‘y - axis’)
144 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

# plot title
plt.title(‘My bar chart!’)
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
Output

Note
• Here, we use plt.bar() function to plot a bar chart.
• x-coordinates of the left side of bars are passed along with the heights of
bars.
• you can also give some names to x-axis coordinates by defining tick_
labels

15.8 Pie chart

A pie chart or pie graph is a type of chart which a circle is divided into
sectors that each represents a proportion of the whole.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# defining labels
activities = [‘eat’, ‘sleep’, ‘work’, ‘play’]
# portion covered by each label
slices = [3, 7, 8, 6]
# color for each label
 Data Visualization 145

colors = [‘r’, ‘y’, ‘g’, ‘b’]

# plotting the pie chart
plt.pie(slices, labels = activities, colors=colors,
startangle=90, shadow = True, explode = (0, 0, 0.1, 0),
radius = 1.2, autopct = ‹%1.1f%%›)
# plotting legend
plt.legend()
# showing the plot
plt.show()
Output

Note:
• Here, we plot a pie chart by using plt.pie() method.
• First of all, we define the labels using a list called activities.
• Then, a portion of each label can be defined using another list called
slices.
• Color for each label is defined using a list called colors.
• shadow = True will show a shadow beneath each label in pie chart.
• startangle rotates the start of the pie chart by given degrees
counterclockwise from the x-axis.
• explode is used to set the fraction of radius with which we offset each
wedge.
146 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

• autopct is used to format the value of each label. Here, we have set it to
show the percentage value only upto 1 decimal place.

15.9 Histogram
A histogram is graphical display of data using bars of different heights. In a
histogram, each bar groups numbers into ranges. Taller bar shows that more
data falls into that range.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# frequencies
ages = [2,5,70,40,30,45,50,45,43,40,44,
60,7,13,57,18,90,77,32,21,20,40]
# setting the ranges and no. of intervals
range = (0, 100)
bins = 10
# plotting a histogram
plt.hist(ages, bins, range, color = ‘green’,
histtype = ‘bar’, rwidth = 0.8)
# x-axis label
plt.xlabel(‘age’)
# frequency label
plt.ylabel(‘No. of people’)
# plot title
plt.title(‘My histogram’)
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
Output
 Data Visualization 147

Note
• Here, we use plt.hist() function to plot a histogram.
• frequencies are passed as the ages list.
• The range could be set by defining a tuple containing min and max
values.
• The next step is to “bin” the range of values—that is, divide the entire
range of values into a series of intervals—and then count how many
values fall into each interval. Here we have defined bins = 10. So, there
are a total of 100/10 = 10 intervals

15.10 Scatter Plot

• Here, we use plt.scatter() function to plot a scatter plot.
• As a line, we define x and corresponding y-axis values here as well.
• marker argument is used to set the character to use as a marker. Its size
can be defined using the s parameter.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# x-axis values
x = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
# y-axis values
y = [2,4,5,7,6,8,9,11,12,12]
# plotting points as a scatter plot
plt.scatter(x, y, label= “stars”, color= “green”,
marker= «*», s=30)
# x-axis label
plt.xlabel(‘x - axis’)
# frequency label
plt.ylabel(‘y - axis’)
# plot title
plt.title(‘My scatter plot!’)
# showing legend
plt.legend()
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
148 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Output

15.11 Plotting Curves of Given Equation

Here, we use NumPy which is a general-purpose array-processing package
in python.
• To set the x-axis values, we use the np.arange() method in which the first
two arguments are for range and the third one for step-wise increment.
The result is a NumPy array.
• To get corresponding y-axis values, we simply use the predefined
np.sin() method on the NumPy array.
• Finally, we plot the points by passing x and y arrays to the plt.plot()
function.
Example
# importing the required modules
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
# setting the x - coordinates
x = np.arange(0, 2*(np.pi), 0.1)
# setting the corresponding y - coordinates
y = np.sin(x)
# plotting the points
plt.plot(x, y)
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
 Data Visualization 149

15.12 Subplot
Subplots are required when we want to show two or more plots in same figure.
We can do it in two ways using two slightly different methods.
Method 1
# importing required modules
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
# function to generate coordinates
def create_plot(ptype):
# setting the x-axis values
x = np.arange(-10, 10, 0.01)
# setting the y-axis values
if ptype == ‘linear’:
y=x
elif ptype == ‘quadratic’:
y = x**2
elif ptype == ‘cubic’:
y = x**3
elif ptype == ‘quartic’:
y = x**4
return(x, y)
# setting a style to use
plt.style.use(‘fivethirtyeight’)
# create a figure
fig = plt.figure()
# define subplots and their positions in figure
plt1 = fig.add_subplot(221)
plt2 = fig.add_subplot(222)
plt3 = fig.add_subplot(223)
plt4 = fig.add_subplot(224)
# plotting points on each subplot
x, y = create_plot(‘linear’)
plt1.plot(x, y, color =’r’)
plt1.set_title(‘$y_1 = x$’)
x, y = create_plot(‘quadratic’)
plt2.plot(x, y, color =’b’)
plt2.set_title(‘$y_2 = x^2$’)
x, y = create_plot(‘cubic’)
plt3.plot(x, y, color =’g’)
150 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

plt3.set_title(‘$y_3 = x^3$’)
x, y = create_plot(‘quartic’)
plt4.plot(x, y, color =’k’)
plt4.set_title(‘$y_4 = x^4$’)
# adjusting space between subplots
fig.subplots_adjust(hspace=.5,wspace=0.5)
# function to show the plot
plt.show()
output

Method 2
# importing required modules
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
# function to generate coordinates
def create_plot(ptype):
# setting the x-axis values
x = np.arange(0, 5, 0.01)
# setting y-axis values
if ptype == ‘sin’:
# a sine wave
y = np.sin(2*np.pi*x)
elif ptype == ‘exp’:
# negative exponential function
y = np.exp(-x)
elif ptype == ‘hybrid’:
 Data Visualization 151

# a damped sine wave

y = (np.sin(2*np.pi*x))*(np.exp(-x))
return(x, y)
# setting a style to use
plt.style.use(‘ggplot’)
# defining subplots and their positions
plt1 = plt.subplot2grid((11,1), (0,0), rowspan = 3, colspan = 1)
plt2 = plt.subplot2grid((11,1), (4,0), rowspan = 3, colspan = 1)
plt3 = plt.subplot2grid((11,1), (8,0), rowspan = 3, colspan = 1)
# plotting points on each subplot
x, y = create_plot(‘sin’)
plt1.plot(x, y, label = ‘sine wave’, color =’b’)
x, y = create_plot(‘exp’)
plt2.plot(x, y, label = ‘negative exponential’, color = ‘r’)
x, y = create_plot(‘hybrid’)
plt3.plot(x, y, label = ‘damped sine wave’, color = ‘g’)
# show legends of each subplot
plt1.legend()
plt2.legend()
plt3.legend()
# function to show plot
plt.show()
Output
152 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

15.13 3-D Plotting

We can easily plot 3-D figures in matplotlib. Now, we discuss some important
and commonly used 3-D plots.
• Plotting points

Note
• Let us try to understand some important aspects of this code now.
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import axes3d
• This is the module required to plot on 3-D space.
ax1 = fig.add_subplot(111, projection=’3d’)
• Here, we create a subplot on our figure and set projection argument as
3d.
ax1.scatter(x, y, z, c = ‘m’, marker = ‘o’)
• Now we use .scatter() function to plot the points in XYZ plane.
• Plotting lines
Example
# importing required modules
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import axes3d
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from matplotlib import style
 Data Visualization 153

import numpy as np
# setting a custom style to use
style.use(‘ggplot’)
# create a new figure for plotting
fig = plt.figure()
# create a new subplot on our figure
ax1 = fig.add_subplot(111, projection=’3d’)
# defining x, y, z co-ordinates
x = np.random.randint(0, 10, size = 5)
y = np.random.randint(0, 10, size = 5)
z = np.random.randint(0, 10, size = 5)
# plotting the points on subplot
ax1.plot_wireframe(x,y,z)
# setting the labels
ax1.set_xlabel(‘x-axis’)
ax1.set_ylabel(‘y-axis’)
ax1.set_zlabel(‘z-axis’)
plt.show()
Output

Note
• Let us go through important aspects of this program:
x = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
y = [4,3,1,6,5,3,7,5,3,7]
154 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

z = np.zeros(10)
• Here, we define the base positions of bars. Setting z = 0 means all bars
start from XY plane.
dx = np.ones(10) # length along x-axis
dy = np.ones(10) # length along y-axs
dz = [1,3,4,2,6,7,5,5,10,9] # height of bar
• dx, dy, dz denote the size of bar. Consider he bar as a cuboid, then dx,
dy, dz are its expansions along x, y, z axis respectively.
for h in dz:
. if h > 5:
color.append(‘r’)
else:
color.append(‘b’)
• Here, we set the color for each bar as a list. The color scheme is red for
bars with height greater than 5 and blue otherwise.
ax1.bar3d(x, y, z, dx, dy, dz, color = color)
• Finally, to plot the bars, we use .bar3d() function.
• Plotting curves
Example
# importing required modules
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import axes3d
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from matplotlib import style
import numpy as np
# setting a custom style to use
style.use(‘ggplot’)
# create a new figure for plotting
fig = plt.figure()
# create a new subplot on our figure
ax1 = fig.add_subplot(111, projection=’3d’)
# get points for a mesh grid
u, v = np.mgrid[0:2*np.pi:200j, 0:np.pi:100j]
# setting x, y, z co-ordinates
 Data Visualization 155

x=np.cos(u)*np.sin(v)
y=np.sin(u)*np.sin(v)
z=np.cos(v)
# plotting the curve
ax1.plot_wireframe(x, y, z, rstride = 5, cstride = 5, linewidth = 1)
plt.show()
Output

Note
• Here, we plotted a sphere as a mesh grid. Let us go through some
important parts:
u, v = np.mgrid[0:2*np.pi:200j, 0:np.pi:100j]
• We use np.mgrid in order to get points so that we can create a mesh.
You can read more about this here.
x=np.cos(u)*np.sin(v)
y=np.sin(u)*np.sin(v)
z=np.cos(v)
• This is nothing but the parametric equation of a sphere.
ax1.plot_wireframe(x, y, z, rstride = 5, cstride = 5, linewidth = 1)
• Agan, we use .plot_wireframe() method. Here, rstride and cstride
arguments can be used to set how much dense our mesh must be.
156 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

15.14 Matplotlib Graph Plotting Using Object Oriented API

Example
# importing matplotlib library
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# x axis values
x =[0, 5, 3, 6, 8, 4, 5, 7]
# y axis values
y =[5, 3, 6, 3, 7, 5, 6, 8]
# creating the canvas
fig = plt.figure()
# setting the size of canvas
axes = fig.add_axes([0, 0, 1, 1])
# plotting the graph
axes.plot(x, y, ‘mo--’)

# displaying the graph

plt.show()
Output:

Note
Everything is pretty much clear in the first example but there is a thing that
needs to be focused on, “Setting size of the canvas”, what this basically means
is to set the size of the figure on which you want to plot the graph, the syntax
is like this.
add_axes([left, bottom, width, height])
 Data Visualization 157

The values of left, bottom, height and width lies between 0 to 1. Another
example will make you more clear about this concept.
Example
# importing matplotlib library
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# x-axis values
x =[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# y-axis values
y =[0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 17]
# creating the canvas
fig = plt.figure()
# setting size of first canvas
axes1 = fig.add_axes([0, 0, 0.7, 1])
# plotting graph of first canvas
axes1.plot(x, y, ‘mo--’)
# setting size of second canvas
axes2 = fig.add_axes([0.1, 0.5, 0.3, 0.3])
# plotting graph of second canvas
axes2.plot(x, y, ‘go--’)
# displaying both graphs
plt.show()
Output
16
Object Oriented Programming in
Python

16.1 OOP in python

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming language model which
organized object and data.

16.1.1 What is Encapsulation

If same variable is reapet in two different palce then which problem is solved
using encapsulation it means one variable is making private otherwise program
generate error.

16.1.2 Abstraction
Abstraction in Python is the process of hiding the real implementation of an
application from the user and emphasizing only on usage of it. For example,
consider you have bought a new electronic gadget. Along with the gadget, you
get a user guide, instructing how to use the application, but this user guide has
no info regarding the internal working of the gadget.
Another example is, when you use TV remote, you do not know how pressing
a key in the remote changes the channel internally on the TV. You just know
that pressing + volume key will increase the volume.

16.1.3 Why Do We Need Abstraction?

Through the process of abstraction in Python, a programmer can hide all the
irrelevant data/process of an application in order to reduce complexity and
increase efficiency.

16.1.4 Inheritance in Python

Inheritance is the capability of one class to derive or inherit the properties from
another class. The benefits of inheritance are:
160 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

1. It represents real-world relationships well.

2. It provides reusability of a code. We don’t have to write the same code
again and again. Also, it allows us to add more features to a class without
modifying it.
3. It is transitive in nature, which means that if class B inherits from another
class A, then all the subclasses of B would automatically inherit from
class A.

16.1.5 Polymorphism in Python

• It means we can use same method/function name for different types.
• If a variable, object or method perform different behaviour according to
situation, it is called polymorphism.

16.2 Class in OOP

Class:A python class is a group of attributes and methods.
What is attribute: attributes are represented by variable the contain data
What is method: Method performs an action or task. It is similar to function.
Method three type
(i) Instance method (ii) class method (iii) static method

16.2.1 How to Create to Class

Syntax1:
Class classname(object):
def __init__(self): #constructor
self.variable_name=value #attributes
self.variable_name=’value’
def method_name(self):
Body of method
OR
Class classname(object):
def __init__(self): #constructor
self.variable_name=value #attributes
self.variable_name=’value’
def method_name(self):
Body of method
Syntax2:
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 161

Class classname(object):
def __init__(self): #constructor
self.variable_name=value #attributes
self.variable_name=’value’
def method_name(self):
Body of method
def method_name(self, f1, f2): #f1, f2 are formal argument
Body of method
OR
Class classname:
def __init__(self, f1, f2): #constructor #f1, f2 are formal argument
self.variable_name=value #attributes
self.variable_name=’value’
def method_name(self):
Body of method
def method_name(self, f1, f2): #f1, f2 are formal argument
Body of method
Class: class keyword is used to create a class
Object: object represents the base class name from where all classes in
python are derived. This class is also derived from object class. This is
optional
__init__():This method is use to initialize the variable. This is a special
method. We do not call this method explicitly.
Self: self is a variable which refers to current class instance/object
Example
class computer:
def feature(self): #self as pointer it is take object atumatically
print(“i5,8gb,1tb”)
com1=computer() #object it means taken raw material for making
computer
com2=computer()
computer.feature(com1) #1st method for parameter pass this is given for
final shape for computer
com2.feature() #2nd method for parameter pass
Object: object is class type variable or class instance. To use a class we
should create an object to class
162 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Syntax:
Object_name=class_name()
Object_name=class_name(arg)
Example without argument
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’
def show_model(self):
print(‘model:’, self.model)
realme=Mobile() #object call
Note:
realme=Mobile()
realme.model # method call
• A block of memory is allocated on heap. The size of allocated memory be
decided from the attributes and method available in the class (Mobile).
• After allocating memory, the special method_init_() is called internally.
This method stores the initial data into the variables.
• The allocated memory location adrdress of the instance is returned into
object(realMe)
• The memory location is passed to self

16.2.2 Accessing Class Member Using Object

We can access variable and method of a class using object or instance of
class.
Syntax:
Object_name.method_name #method call
Object_name.method_name(parameter list)
Self: self is a default variable that contains the memory address of the current
object
This variable is used to refer all the instance variable and method.
Example with argument
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self, m):
self.model=m
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 163

def show_model(self):
print(‘model:’, self.model)
realme=Mobile(‘RealMe X’) #object call

16.2.3 Constructor in Python

• Python supports a special type of method called constructor for
initializing the instance variable of a class.
• A constructor is called only once at the time of creating an instance.
• If two instances are created for a class, theconstructor will be called
once for each instance.
ExampleConstructor without parameter
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’
realme=Mobile() #object call
ExampleConstructor with parameter
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self, m):
self.model=m

realme=Mobile(‘RealMe X’) #object call

Type of variable
(i) Instance variable (ii) class variable or static variable
Example Instance variable
class computer:
def __init__(self,ram,hd): #for define instance variable or value define
within function
self.ram=ram
self.hd=hd
def feature(self): #self as pointer it is take object atumatically and this
method instance method
print(“your computer config is:”,self.ram,self.hd)
com1=computer(“8gb”,”1tb”) #object it means taken raw material for
making computer
com2=computer(“16gb”, “2tb”)
164 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

computer.feature(com1) #1st method for parameter pass this is given for final
shape for computer
com2.feature() #2nd method for parameter pass

16.2.4 Accessing Instance Variable

With instance method to access instance variable, we need instance methods
with self as first parameter then we can access instance variable using self.
variable_name
Example
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’ #instance variable
def show_model(self): #instance method
self.model #accessing instance variable
realme=Mobile() #object call
outside class
we can access instance variable using object_name.variable_name
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’ #instance variable
def show_model(self): #instance method
print(self.model) #accessing instance variable within the class
realme=Mobile() #object call
realme.model #accessing instance variable outside class
Example
class computer:
def __init__(self,ram,hd,pro):
self.ram=ram
self.hd=hd
self.pro=”i5”
def feature(self): #self as pointer it is take object atumatically and this
method instance method
print(“your computer config is:”,self.ram,self.hd,self.pro)
com1=computer(“8gb”,”1tb”,pro=”i6”) #object it means taken raw
material for making computer
com2=computer(“16gb”, “2tb”,pro=”i5”)
com1.pro=”i6”
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 165

computer.feature(com1) #1st method for parameter pass this is given for final
shape for computer
com2.feature() #2nd method for parameter pass
Note: init function automatically call
Note which method use only instance variable it is called instance method.
This type method not use class variable or static variable

16.2.5 Class Variable/static Variable

Class variables are the variables whose single copy is available to all the
instance of the class. If we modify the copy of the class variable in instance,
it will effect all the copies in the other instance.
Example
Class mobile:
fp=’yes’ #class variable
def_init_(self):
self.model=’realme x’
def show_model(self):
print(self.model)
realme=mobile()

16.2.6 Accessing Class/ Static Variable

With class method
To access class variable, we need class methods with cls as first parameter
then we can access class variable using cls.variable_name
Example
Class mobile:
fp=’yes’ #class variable
def_init_(self):
self.model=’realme x’
def show_model(self):
print(self.model)
@classmethod #class method
def is_fp(cls):
cls.fp #accessing class variable inside class method
realme=mobile()
166 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

With class method

We can access class variable using Classname.variable_name
Example
Class mobile:
fp=’yes’ #class variable
def_init_(self):
self.model=’realme x’
def show_model(self):
print(self.model)
@classmethod #class method
def is_fp(cls):
cls.fp #accessing class variable inside class method
realme=mobile()
mobile.fp #accessing class variable outside class
Note: Class variables are the variables whose single copy is available to
all the instance of the class. If we modify the copy of the class variable in
instance, it will effect all the copies in the other instance.
Example
class mobile:
fp=’yes’
def_init_(self):
self.model=’realme x’
def show_model(self):
print(self.model)
@classmethod
def show_model(cls):
print(“Fingerprint:”,cls.fp) #accessing class variable inside class
method
realme=mobile()
realme.show_model()
mobile.is_fp
print()
mobile.fp=’No’ #change class value out side method
mobile.is_fp
Example Multiple object
class mobile:
fp=’yes’
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 167

@classmethod
def show_model(cls):
print(“Fingerprint:”,cls.fp) #accessing class variable inside class
method
realme=mobile()
redmi=mobile()
geek=mobile()
print(“RealMe:”, mobile.fp)
print(“Remi:”, mobile.fp)
print(“geek:”, mobile.fp)
print()
mobile.fp=’No’ #change class value out side method
print(“RealMe:”, mobile.fp)
print(“Remi:”, mobile.fp)
print(“geek:”, mobile.fp)
Class Method
class method are the methods which act upon the class variable or ststic
variable of the class.
decorator @classmethod need to write above the class method
By default, the first parameter of class method is cls which refers to the class
itself.
Syntax:
@classmethod
def method_name(cls): # class method without parameter
method body
Example
class mobile:
fp=’yes’
@classmethod
def show_model(cls):
print(“Fingerprint:”,cls.fp)
realme=mobile()
mobile.show_model() #calling class method without argument
calling class method
syntax: classname.method_name()
class method with parameter
@classmethod
def method_name(cls,f1,f2): # class method with parameter
method body
168 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
class mobile:
fp=’yes’
@classmethod
def show_model(cls,r):
cls.ram=r
print(“Fingerprint:”,cls.fp)
print(“RAM:”,cls.ram)
realme=mobile() #object
mobile.show_model(‘4GB’) #calling class method without argument
Calling class method
syntax: classname.method_name(actual_argument)
Accessing class/static variable
With class method: To access class variable, we need class methods with cls
as first parameter then we can access class variable using cls.variable_name.

16.3 Namespace in Python Programming

In python, Namespace represents a memory block where names are mapped
to objects.
Class Namespace-A class maintains it’s own namespace known as class
namespace. In the class namespace, the names are mapped to class variable.
Instance Namespace-Every instance have it’s own name space know as
instance namespace. In the instance namespace, the name are mapped to
instance variable.

Class mobile:
fp=yes #class variable
realme=mobile()
redmi=mobile()
geek=mobile()
mobile.fp #yes
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 169

realme.fp #yes
redmi.fp #yes
geek.fp #yes
Note: if change the any value using class name and class variable then effect
instance object and class namespace both e.g
mobile.fp=no
mobile.fp #no
realme.fp #no
redmi.fp #no
geek.fp #no
but if change using the class variable and instance name then effect only
single object e.g.
realme.fp=not working
mobile.fp #no
realme.fp # not working
redmi.fp #no
geek.fp #no

16.4 Type of Methods

16.4.1 Instance Methods

Instance method are the methods which act upon the instance variable of
the class. Instance method need to know the memory address of the instance
which is provided through self variable by defaults as first parameter for the
instance method.
Syntax: without parameter
def method_name(self)
Function body
Example
Syntax: with parameter
def method_name(self, f1, f2)
Function body
calling instance method w/o argument
instance methods are bound to object of the class so we call instance method
with object name.
syntax: object_name.method_name()
Class Mobile:
170 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’ #instance variable
def show_model(self): #instance method
self.model #accessing instance variable inside instance method
realme=Mobile() #object call
realme.show_model() # calling instance method w/o argument
synatax: calling instance method with argument
syntax: object_name.method_name(actual_argument)
Example
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’ #instance variable
def show_model(self,p): #instance method
self.price=p # instance variable
print(self.model, self.price)
realme=Mobile() #object call
realme.show_model(1000) # calling instance method w/o argument
(i) Accessor methods (ii) mutator methods

16.4.2 Accessor Method

This method is used to access or rad data of the variables. This method do not
modify the data in the variable. This is called as getter method.
Syntax: def get_value(self)
def get_result(self)
Example
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’ #instance variable
def get_model(self): #instance method
return self.model
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 171

realme=Mobile() #object call

m=realme.get_model()

16.4.3 Mutator Methods

This methods is used to access or read and modify data of the variable. This
method modify the data in the variable. This is also called as setter method.
Syntax:
def set_value(self):
def set_result(self):
Example
Class Mobile:
def_init_(self):
self.model=’RealMe X’ #instance variable
def set_model(self): #instance method
self.model=’RealMe 2’
realme=Mobile() #object call
m=realme.set_model()

16.4.4 Class Method

• class method are the methods which act upon the class variable or ststic
variable of the class.
• decorator @classmethod need to write above the class method
• By default, the first parameter of class method is cls which refers to the
class itself.
Syntax:
@classmethod
def method_name(cls): # class method without parameter
method body
Example
class mobile:
fp=’yes’
@classmethod
def show_model(cls):
print(“Fingerprint:”,cls.fp)
realme=mobile()
mobile.show_model() #calling class method without argument
172 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Calling class method with argument

Example
class mobile:
fp=’yes’
@classmethod
def show_model(cls, r):
cls.ram=r
print(cls.fp, cls.ram)
realme=mobile()
mobile.show_model(101) #calling class method with argument
Example Class variable or static variable and class method
class computer:
name=”dell” #class variable or static variable
def __init__(self,ram,hd,pro):
self.ram=ram
self.hd=hd
self.pro=”i5”
def feature(self): #self as pointer it is take object atumatically
print(“your computer config is:”,self.ram,self.hd,self.pro)
@classmethod #class method
def company(cls):
print(“company name is:”,cls.name)
com1=computer(“8gb”,”1tb”,pro=”i6”) #object it means taken raw
material for making computer
com2=computer(“16gb”, “2tb”,pro=”i5”)
com1.pro=”i6”
computer.feature(com1) #1st method for parameter pass this is given for final
shape for computer
com2.feature() #2nd method for parameter pass
com2.company() #call classmethod

16.4.5 Static methods

Static methods are used when some processing is related to the class but not
need the class or its instance to perform any work
When use static method when we want to pass some values from outside and
perform some action in the method.
Decorator @staticmethod need to write above the static method
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 173

Syntax:
@staticmethod
def method_name():
Mehod body
Or
@staticmethod
def method_name(f, f2): #with parameter
Mehod body
Example
class mobile:
@staticmethod #decorator
def show_model(): #static method
print(‘Raelme X’)
realme=mobile()
mobile.show_model() #calling static method without argument
Calling static method with argument
Syntax: classname.method_name(actual parameter)
Example
class mobile:
@classmethod
def show_model(m, p):
model=m
price=p
print(model, price)
realme=mobile()
mobile.show_model(‘RealMe X’,101) #calling static method with argument
Example Class variable or static variable and static method
class computer:
name=”dell” #class variable or static variable
def __init__(self,ram,hd,pro):
self.ram=ram
self.hd=hd
self.pro=”i5”
def feature(self): #self as pointer it is take object atumatically
print(“your computer config is:”,self.ram,self.hd,self.pro)
@classmethod
174 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

def company(cls):
print(“company name is:”,cls.name)
@staticmethod #static method
def price():
print(“the price is 45k”)
com1=computer(“8gb”,”1tb”,pro=”i6”) #object it means taken raw
material for making computer
com2=computer(“16gb”, “2tb”,pro=”i5”)
com1.pro=”i6”
computer.feature(com1) #1st method for parameter pass this is given for final
shape for computer
com2.feature() #2nd method for parameter pass
com2.company() #call classmethod
com2.price() #call static method
Note: static method use no variable is call static method, class method use
class variable and instance method use instance variable.

16.4.6 Passing Member of one Class to Another Class

Class student:
#constructor
def __init__(self, n, r):
self.name=n
self.roll=r
#instance method
def disp(self):
print(“student Name:”, self.name)
print(“student Roll:”, self.roll)
#user define class
class user:
@staticmethod
def show(s):
print(“user Name:”, self.name)
print(“user Roll:”, self.roll)
s.disp()
#creating object of student class
stu=student(‘Rahul’, 101)
user.show(stu)
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 175

16.4.7 Inner Class

It means class generated within the class
Example
class a:
def laptop(self):
print(“i5,1tb”)
class comname:
def name(self):
print(“dell”)
lap1=a() #constator it means class name and ()
lap1.laptop() #call function
lap2=a.comname() #call inner class
lap2.name()
Single inheritance
Example
class a:
def feature1(self):
print(“fature of 1”)
def feature2(self):
print(“feature2 of a”)
class b(a):
def feature3(self):
print(“feature1 of b”)
def feature4(self):
print(“fature2 of b”)
ob1=b()
ob1.feature1()
Note: inheritance means kisi dusere class ki value ko kisi dusere class se
access kerna it is called inheritance
Multiple inheritance
If a class is derived from more than one parent class, then it is called multiple
inheritance.
class Father:
def feature1(self):
print(“fature of 1”)
def feature2(self):
176 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

print(“feature2 of a”)
class Mother:
def feature3(self):
print(“feature1 of b”)
def feature4(self):
print(“fature2 of b”)
class Son(Father,Mother):
def feature5(self):
print(“feature1 of c”)
def feature6(self):
print(“fature2 of c”)
ob1=Son()
ob1.feature4()
16.5 Multiple Level Inheritance
In multi-level inheritance, the class inherits the feature of another derived
class (child class)
Example
class a:
def feature1(self):
print(“fature of 1”)
def feature2(self):
print(“feature2 of a”)
class b(a):
def feature3(self):
print(“feature1 of b”)
def feature4(self):
print(“fature2 of b”)
class c(b):
def feature5(self):
print(“feature1 of c”)
def feature6(self):
print(“fature2 of c”)
ob1=c()
ob1.feature1()

16.6 Constructor in Inheritance

By default, The constructor in the parent class is available to the child class
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 177

Example with init method

class a:
def __init__(self): #constructor method
print(“hii”)
def feature1(self):
print(“fature of 1”)
def feature2(self):
print(“feature2 of a”)
class b(a):
def feature3(self):
print(“feature1 of b”)
def feature4(self):
print(“fature2 of b”)
ob1=b()
ob1.feature1()

16.6.1 Constructor Overriding

If we write constructor in the both classes, parent class and child class then the
parent class constructor is not available to child class.
In this case only child class constructor is accessible which means child
class constructor is replacing parent class constructor. This concept is called
overriding constructor.
Example
Class Father:
def __init__(self):
self.money=2000
print(“Father class constructor”)
class Son(Father):
def __init__(self):
self.money=5000
print(“son class constructor”)
def disp(self):
print(self.money)
s=Son()
s.disp()
178 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

16.6.2 Constructor with Super() Method

• If we write constructor in the both classes, parent class and child class
then the parent class constructor is not available to the child class.
• In this case only child class constructor is accessible which means child
class constructor is replacing parent class constructor. This concept is
called overriding constructor.
• super() method is used to call parent class constructor or methods from
the child class.
Example supper use command
class a:
def __init__(self): #constructor method
print(“hii”)
def feature1(self):
print(“fature1 of a”)
def feature2(self):
print(“feature2 of a”)
class b(a):
def __init__(self): #constructor method
print(“bye”)
super().__init__() #this command use for calling init fuction ineritance
def feature3(self):
print(“feature1 of b”)
super().feature1()
def feature4(self):
print(“fature2 of b”)
ob1=b()
ob1.feature3()

16.6.3 Method Resolution Order

In the multiple inheritance scenario members of class are searched first in the
current class. If not found, the search continue into parent classed in depth
first, left to right manner without searching the same class twice.
• Search for the child class before going to its parent class.
• When a class is inherited from several classes, it searches in the order
from left to right in the parent classes.
• It will not visit any class more than once which means a class in the
inheritance hierarchy is traversed only once exactly
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 179

Example
class a:
def __init__(self): #constructor method
print(“hii”)
def feature1(self):
print(“fature1 of a”)
def feature2(self):
print(“feature2 of a”)
class c:
def __init__(self): #constructor method
print(“cc”)
def feature1(self):
print(“fature1 of c”)
def feature2(self):
print(“feature2 of c”)
class b(a,c):
def __init__(self): #constructor method
print(“bye”)
super().__init__()
def feature3(self):
print(“feature1 of b”)
def feature4(self):
print(“fature2 of b”)
ob1=b()
output:
hii
bye

16.7 Hierarchical Inheritance

When more than one derived classes are created from a single base this type
of inheritance is called hierarchical inheritance. In this program, we have a
parent (base) class and two child (derived) classes.
180 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Syntax
Class parentclassName(object):
Members of parent class
Class ChildclassName1(ParentClassName):
Members of child class2
Class ChildclassName2(ParentClassName):
Members of child class2
Example
class Father:
def showF(self):
print(“Father class method”)
class Son(Father):
def showS(self):
print(“Son class method”)
class Daughter(Father):
def showD(self):
print(“Daughter class method”)
s=Son()
s.showS()
s.showF() #error

16.8 Polymorphism
If a variable, object or method perform different behaviour according to
situation, it is called polymorphism.
• Duck Typing
• Operator overloading
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 181

• Method overloading
• Method overriding

16.8.1 Duck Typing

In python, we follow a principle- If ‘it walks like a duck and talks like a duck,
it must be a duck’ which means python doesn’t care about which class of
object it is, if it is an object and required behaviour is present for that object
then it will work. The type type of object is distinguished only at runtime. This
is called as duck typing.
Python doesn’t care about which class of object it is, in order to call an existing
method on an object. If the method is defined on the object, then it will be
called.

Walk-thapak thapak

Walk-tabdak tabdak
182 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
class duck:
def walk(self):
print(“thapak thapak”)
clas horse:
def walk(self):
print(“tabdak tabdak”)
def myfunction(obj):
obj.walk()
d=duck()
myfunction(d)

16.8.2 Strong Typing

We can check whether the object passed to the method has the method being
invoked or not.
hasattr() function is used to check whether the object has a method or not.
Syntax: hasattr(object, attribute)
Where attribute can be a method or variable. If it is found in the object then
this method returns True else False.
Example
class duck:
def walk(self):
print(“thapak thapak”)
clas horse:
def walk(self):
print(“tabdak tabdak”)
class Cat:
def talk(self):
print(“Meow Meow”)
def myfunction(obj):
if hasattr(obj, ‘walk’):
obj.walk()
d=duck()
myfunction(d)
c=Cat()
myfunction(C)
 Object Oriented Programming in Python 183

16.8.3 Overriding Method in OOP

If we write method in the both classes, parent class and child class then the
parent class’s method is not available to the child class.
If this case only child class,s method is accessible which means child class’s
method is replacing parent class,s method.
Method overriding is used when programmer want to modify the existing
behaviour of a method.
Overriding the methods allows a user to override the parent class method.
The name of the method must be the same in the parent class and the child
class
Example
class first():
def m(self): #method name same
print(“m method first class”)
class second(first):
def m(self): #method name same this concept is called overriding
print(“m method second class”)
ob1=second()
ob1.m()
ob1=first()
ob1.m()
Note: object call different-2 class at a same time is called polymorphism

16.8.4 Overloading in Python Programming

When more than one method with the same name is defined in the same
class, it is known as method overloading.
In python, if a method is written such that it can perform more than one task,
it is called method overloading.
Example
class myclass:
def sum(selfself,a):
print(“1st sum method”,a)
def sum(self):
print(“2nd sum method”)
obj=myclass()
184 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

obj.sum()
obj.sum(10)
output:
2nd sum method
Note: In python overloading is not perform. If above program is run the 2nd
output come and 1st output error show because last function priority is high.
17
Modules in Python Programming

17.1 Modules
• A module is a file containing python definitions and statements.
• A python module is (.py file) containing variables, class definitions,
statement and function related to a particular task. The major feature
of having module is that its content can be reused in other programs,
without having to rewrite or recreate them.
• They are executed only the first time the module name is encounter in an
import statement.
Type of modules:
• User defined modules
• Built-in modules
Ex.-array, math, numpy, sys, etc.

17.1.1 When and why use Module

• Assume that you are building a very large project, it will be very difficult
to manage all logic within one single file so if you want to separate your
similar logic to a separate file, you can use module.
• It will not ony separate your logics but also help you to debug your code
easily as you know which logic is defined in which module.
• When a module is developed, it can be reused in any program that needs
that module

17.1.2 Structure of Python Module

a. Docstring: trple quoted string for documentation purpose
b. Variable and constants
c. Classes: template/blueprint to create object
186 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

d. Object: instance of class

e. Statement: instruction
f. Function: to perform task
Note:function use within the program but module use any program using
import statement.

17.1.3 Create a Module

Example
#addition.py
def add(a,b):
c=a+b
print(c)
How to use
import addition
addition.add(12,13)
Importing module
The import statement can be used in tow forms
a. import<module_name>
b. from<module_name>import<function_name>
c. import module_name as alias_name
d. from module_name import*
If we want show all list of function in a modules then we use dir() function.
This show all function and its variables.
Note: Modules can import other other modules

17.1.4 How to Access Methods, Functions, Variable and Classes

Using the module name you can access the functions.
Syntax: module_name.function_name()
Example
addition.add(12,13)
 Modules in Python Programming 187

17.2 Package in Python Programming

A package can have one or more modules which means, a package is collection
of modules and packages.
A package can contain packages
Package is nothing but a directory/folder

17.2.1 Creating package

Package is nothing but a directory/folder which MUST contain a special file
called __init__.py
__init__.py file can be empty, it indicates that the directory it contains is a
python package, so it can be imported the same way a module can be imported.
How to import package
import packageName.moduleName
Example
Import modules from single package
Pack1 folder
def display():
print(“this is display function in module1 “)
pack1 folder
def show():
print(“this is show function in module2 “)
Pack 1

Module 1 Module 2

Display () Display ()

Client
188 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Pack2 folder
import sys
sys.path.append(“C:/Users/AGYA VERMA/PycharmProjects/myProject/
pack1”)
#aproach1
import module1
import module2
module1.display()
module2.show()
#aproach2
from module1 import*
from module2 import*
display()
show()
Example
Import modules from two different packages

Pack 1
Pack 1

Module 1 Module 2

Display () Display ()

Client

import sys
sys.path.append(“C:/Users/AGYA VERMA/PycharmProjects/myProject/
demo1”)
from module1 import*
sys.path.append(“C:/Users/AGYA VERMA/PycharmProjects/myProject/
demo1/demo2”)
from module2 import*
module1.display()
module2.show()
 Modules in Python Programming 189

How to access variable, function, method, class etc.

packageName.moduleName.functionName()
packageName.subpackage Name.moduleName.functionName()
or
from packageName.moduleName import functionName()
from packageName.subpackage Name.moduleName import functionName()

17.3 Abstract class

• A class derived from ABC class which belongs to abc module, is known
as abstract class in python.
• ABC class is known as meta class which means a class that defines the
behaviour of other classes. So we can say, meta class ABC defines that
the class which is derived from it becomes an abstract class.
• Abstract class can have abstract method and concrete methods.
• Abstract class needs to be extended and its and its method implemented.
• PVM can not create objects of an abstract class
Example
From abc import ABC, abstractmethod
Class Father(ABC):

17.3.1 Abstract method

A abstract method is a method whose action is redefined in the child classes
as per the requirement of the object.
We can declare a method as abstract by using @abstractmethod decorator
Example
From abc import ABC, abstractmethod
Class Father(ABC): #abstract class
@abstractmethod
def disp(self): #abstract method
pass
190 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

17.3.2 Concrete Method

A concrete method is a method whose action is defined in the abstract class
itself.
Example
From abc import ABC, abstractmethod
Class Father(ABC): #abstract class
@abstractmethod
def disp(self): #abstract method
pass
def show(self): #concrete method
print(“concrete Method”)
class child(Father):
def disp(self):
print(“child class”)
print(“defing abstract method”)
c=child()
c.disp()
c.show()

Rules
• PVM can not create objects of an abstract class.
• It is not necessary to declare all methods abstract in a abstract class
• Abstract class can have abstract method and concrete methods
• If there is any abstract method in a class, that class must be abstract.
• The abstract methods of an abstract class must be defined in its child
class/subclass.
• If you are inheriting abstract class that have abstract method, you must
either provide the implementation of the method or make this class
abstract.
When use abstract class
We use abstract class when there are some common feature shared by all the
objects as they are
 Modules in Python Programming 191

17.4 Interface
In python, the interface concept is not explicity available, like available in
other language e.g. Java
In python, an interface is an abstract class which contains only abstract
method but not a single concrete method
Example
From abc import ABC, abstractmethod
Class Father(ABC): #abstract class
@abstractmethod
def disp(self): #abstract method
pass
class child(Father):
def disp(self):
print(“child class”)
print(“defing abstract method”)
c=child()
c.disp()

Rules
• All methods of an interface is abstract.
• We can not create object of interface.
• If a class is implementing an interface it has to define all the methods
given in that interface.
• If a class does not implement all the methods declared in the interface,
the class must be declared abstract.
192 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

When use interface

We use interface when all the feature need to be implemented differently for
different object.

17.5 Data Hiding in Python

We use double underscore (__) before the attributes name and those attributes
are hide from other classes in the program.
a=10 (public in the program
_a=10 (protected)
__a=10 (private)
Example
class arv:
__secretverma=0 #data member is hiding by prefixing two__ it means
private variable
def verma(self):
self.__secretverma+=1
print(self.__secretverma)
obj=arv()
obj.verma()
obj.verma()
print(obj._arv__secretverma) # you can access hide data member by object
with using class
#print(obj.__secretverma) # without using class name, object can not access
hide data member and show

17.6 Error in Python

Errors are the problems in a program due to which the program will stop the
execution. On the other hand, exceptions are raised when some internal events
occur which changes the normal flow of the program.
Two types of Error occurs in python.
• Syntax errors
• Logical errors (Exceptions)

17.7 Exception in Python

An exception is a runtime error which can be handled by the programmer.
All exception are represented as classes in python
 Modules in Python Programming 193

17.7.1 Type of Exception

(i) Built in exception: Exception which are already available in python
language. The base class for all built-in exception is base exception
class.
(ii) User defined exception: A programmer can create his own exception,
called user-defined exceptions.

17.7.2 Need of Exception Handling

• When an exception occurs, the program terminates suddenly.
• Suddenly termination of program may corrupt the program.
• Exception may cause data loss from the database or a file

17.7.3 Exception Handling

Try – the try block contains code which may cause exceptions.
Syntax:
try:
statement
Except- The except block is used to catch an exception that is raised in the
try block. There can be multiple except block for try block.
Syntax:
Except Exception Name
Else-this block will get executed when no exception is raised. Else block is
executed after try block.
Syntax:
Else:
Statement
Finally-this block will get execute irrespective of whether there is an
exception or not
Syntax:
Finally:
statement
194 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Some points for exception handling

• We can write several except block for a single try block.
• We can write multiple except blocks to handle multiple exceptions.
• We can write try block without any except blocks.
• We cannot write except block without a try block.
• Finally block is always executed irrespective of whether there is an
exception or not.
• Else block is optional.
• Finally block is optional
Example
a=10
b=5
d=a/0
print(d)
print(‘rest of the code’)
output:
exception error
zerodivisionerror:division by zero
Note: program terminate
Handling exception
Example
a=10
b=0
try:
d=a/b
print(d)
except:
print(“division by zero not allowed”)
print(‘rest of code’)
output:
division by zero not allowed
rest of code
 Modules in Python Programming 195

Note: it means program is not terminate

Example
a=10
b=0
try:
d=a/b
print(d)
except:
print(“division by zero not allowed”)
else:
print(‘inside else’) #if exception occur then this line not run
finally:
print(‘inside finally’) # this line always run
print(‘rest of code’)
output:
division by zero not allowed
inside finally
rest of code

17.7.4 User Defined Exception

A programmer can create his own exception, called user-defined exceptions.
• creating exception class using exception class as a base class
• raising exception
• handling exception

17.7.5 Creating Exception

we can create our own exception by creating a sub class to built-in exception
class:
syntax:
class MyException(exception):
pass
class MyException(Exception):
def __init__(self, arg):
196 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

17.7.6 Raising Exception

Raise statement is used to raise the user defined exception
Syntax:
Raise MyException(exception)
Handling Exception: using try and except block programmer can handle
exception
Syntax:
try:
statement
except MyException as mye:
statement
Example User define exception make, raise and handling
class BalanceException(Exception):
pass
def checkbalance():
money=10000
withdraw=9000
try:
balance=money - withdraw
if(balance<=2000):
raise BalanceException(‘Insuficent balance’) # raise exception
print(balance)
except BalanceException as be:
print(be)
checkbalance()
output:
Insuficent balance
18
Python Library

18.1 Library Introduction

This library contains modules for various types of functionalities. Some
commonly use module of python standard library are:
(i) math module: which provides mathematical function to support
difference types of calaculations.
(ii) cmath modules: which provides mathematical function for complex
number.
(iii) random module: which provides function generation random number.
(iv) staticstics module: which provides mathematical satical function.
(v) urllib module: which provides URL handling function so that you can
access websites from within your program.
1. NmPy library, provides some advance math functionalities along with
tools to create and manipulate numeric arrays.
2. Scipy library, provides algorithmic and mathematical tools for scientific
calculations.
3. Tkinter library, provides python user interface toolkit and helps you to
create user friendly GUI for different types of applications.
4. Matplotlib library, provides functins and tools to produce quality output
in variety of formats such as plots, charts, graphs, ete.

18.1.1 Brief Tour of the Standard Library

GUI programming in python
You would have used a lot of applications. One common thing you observe in
all the applications is that they have multiple components like labels, fields to
give inputs, buttons, etc. These are the elements that form the GUI (Graphical
User Interface).
198 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

In this chapter, we will learn to make GUIs using Python. We will see different
toolkits that Python provides for GUI programming. Then we will discuss the
Tkinter, one of the most commonly used modules, in detail.
Let us start by seeing different modules Python offers.
Python Libraries for GUI Programming
We can use any of the following toolkits in Python for GUI programming.
1. Tkinter: Tkinter is a standard package used for GUI programming in
Python. This is built on top of the Tk interface.
2. PyQt:PyQt is a Python toolkit binding of the Qt toolkit. Qt is a C++
framework that is used by Python to implement a cross-platform PyQt
toolkit as a plug-in.
3. wxPython: wxPython is also a cross-platform GUI toolkit. It is a wrapper
for the API wxWidgets.

18.1.2 Python Tkinter Module

Tkinter tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Python Tkinter. In
this chapter is designed for beginners and professionals.
Python provides the standard library Tkinter for creating the graphical user
interface for desktop based applications.
Developing desktop based applications with python Tkinter is not a complex
task. An empty Tkinter top-level window can be created by using the following
steps.
1. import the Tkinter module.
2. Create the main application window.
3. Add the widgets like labels, buttons, frames, etc. to the window.
4. Call the main event loop so that the actions can take place on the user’s
computer screen.
Example
from tkinter import *
root=Tk()
root.title(“My First Window”)
label=Label(root, font=(“Ariel”,45),text=”enter your
name”,bg=”yellow”,fg=”blue”)
label.pack()
 Python Library 199

root.geometry(“400x500+300+150”)
root.resizable(0,0)
root.mainloop()

18.2 Tkinter Widgets

There are various widgets like button, canvas, checkbutton, entry, etc. that are
used to build the python GUI applications.
S.N Widget Description
1 Button The Button is used to add various kinds of buttons to the python
application.
2 Canvas The canvas widget is used to draw the canvas on the window.
3 Checkbutton The Checkbutton is used to display the CheckButton on the
window.
4 Entry The entry widget is used to display the single-line text field to the
user. It is commonly used to accept user values.
5 Frame It can be defined as a container to which, another widget can be
added and organized.
6 Label A label is a text used to display some message or information about
the other widgets.
7 ListBox The ListBox widget is used to display a list of options to the user.
8 Menubutton The Menubutton is used to display the menu items to the user.
9 Menu It is used to add menu items to the user.
10 Message The Message widget is used to display the message-box to the user.
11 Radiobutton The Radiobutton is different from a checkbutton. Here, the user
is provided with various options and the user can select only one
option among them.
12 Scale It is used to provide the slider to the user.
13 Scrollbar It provides the scrollbar to the user so that the user can scroll the
window up and down.
14 Text It is different from Entry because it provides a multi-line text field
to the user so that the user can write the text and edit the text inside
it.
14 Toplevel It is used to create a separate window container.
15 Spinbox It is an entry widget used to select from options of values.
16 PanedWindow It is like a container widget that contains horizontal or vertical
panes.
17 LabelFrame A LabelFrame is a container widget that acts as the container
18 MessageBox This module is used to display the message-box in the desktop
based applications.
200 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

18.3 Python Tkinter Geometry

The Tkinter geometry specifies the method by using which, the widgets are
represented on display. The python Tkinter provides the following geometry
methods.
1. The pack() method
2. The grid() method
3. The place() method
Let’s discuss each one of them in detail.

18.3.1 Python Tkinter Pack() Method

The pack() widget is used to organize widget in the block. The positions widgets
added to the python application using the pack() method can be controlled by
using the various options specified in the method call.
However, the controls are less and widgets are generally added in the less
organized manner.
The syntax to use the pack() is given below.
Syntax: widget.pack(options)
A list of possible options that can be passed in pack() is given below.
• expand: If the expand is set to true, the widget expands to fill any space.
• Fill: By default, the fill is set to NONE. However, we can set it to X or
Y to determine whether the widget contains any extra space.
• size: it represents the side of the parent to which the widget is to be
placed on the window.
Example
from tkinter import *
parent = Tk()
redbutton = Button(parent, text = “Red”, fg = “red”)
redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)
greenbutton = Button(parent, text = “Black”, fg = “black”)
greenbutton.pack( side = RIGHT )
bluebutton = Button(parent, text = “Blue”, fg = “blue”)
 Python Library 201

bluebutton.pack( side = TOP )

blackbutton = Button(parent, text = “Green”, fg = “red”)
blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)
parent.mainloop()
Output

18.3.2 Python Tkinter Grid() Method

The grid() geometry manager organizes the widgets in the tabular form. We
can specify the rows and columns as the options in the method call. We can
also specify the column span (width) or rowspan(height) of a widget.
This is a more organized way to place the widgets to the python application.
The syntax to use the grid() is given below.
Syntax: widget.grid(options)
A list of possible options that can be passed inside the grid() method is given
below.
• Column: The column number in which the widget is to be placed. The
leftmost column is represented by 0.
• Columnspan: The width of the widget. It represents the number of
columns up to which, the column is expanded.
• ipadx, ipady: It represents the number of pixels to pad the widget inside
the widget’s border.
• padx, pady: It represents the number of pixels to pad the widget outside
the widget’s border.
• Row: The row number in which the widget is to be placed. The topmost
row is represented by 0.
202 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

• Rowspan: The height of the widget, i.e. the number of the row up to
which the widget is expanded.
• Sticky: If the cell is larger than a widget, then sticky is used to specify
the position of the widget inside the cell. It may be the concatenation of
the sticky letters representing the position of the widget. It may be N, E,
W, S, NE, NW, NS, EW, ES.
Example
# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
parent = Tk()
name = Label(parent,text = “Name”).grid(row = 0, column = 0)
e1 = Entry(parent).grid(row = 0, column = 1)
password = Label(parent,text = “Password”).grid(row = 1, column = 0)
e2 = Entry(parent).grid(row = 1, column = 1)
submit = Button(parent, text = “Submit”).grid(row = 4, column = 0)
parent.mainloop()
Output

18.3.3 Python Tkinter Place() Method

The place() geometry manager organizes the widgets to the specific x and y
coordinates.
Syntax:widget.place(options)
A list of possible options is given below.
• Anchor: It represents the exact position of the widget within the
container. The default value (direction) is NW (the upper left corner).
• bordermode: The default value of the border type is INSIDE that refers
to ignore the parent›s inside the border. The other option is OUTSIDE.
• height, width: It refers to the height and width in pixels.
 Python Library 203

• relheight, relwidth: It is represented as the float between 0.0 and 1.0

indicating the fraction of the parent›s height and width.
• relx, rely: It is represented as the float between 0.0 and 1.0 that is the
offset in the horizontal and vertical direction.
• x, y: It refers to the horizontal and vertical offset in the pixels.
Example
# !/usr/bin/python3
from tkinter import *
top = Tk()
top.geometry(“400x250”)
name = Label(top, text = “Name”).place(x = 30,y = 50)
email = Label(top, text = “Email”).place(x = 30, y = 90)
password = Label(top, text = “Password”).place(x = 30, y = 130)
e1 = Entry(top).place(x = 80, y = 50)
e2 = Entry(top).place(x = 80, y = 90)
e3 = Entry(top).place(x = 95, y = 130)
top.mainloop()
Output
19
Turtle Graphics

19.1 Python Turtle Graphics

Turtle is a special feathers of Python. Using Turtle, we can easily draw in a
drawing board.
First we import the turtle module. Then create a window, next we create
turtle object and using turtle method we can draw in the drawing board.
19.2 Some Turtle Method
Method Parameter Description
Turtle() None It creates and returns a new turtle object
forward() amount It moves the turtle forward by the specified amount
backward() amount It moves the turtle backward by the specified amount
right() angle It turns the turtle clockwise
left() angle It turns the turtle counter clockwise
penup() None It picks up the turtle’s Pen
pendown() None Puts down the turtle’s Pen
up() None Picks up the turtle’s Pen
down() None Puts down the turtle’s Pen
color() Color name Changes the color of the turtle’s pen
fillcolor() Color name Changes the color of the turtle will use to fill a polygon
heading() None It returns the current heading
position() None It returns the current position
goto() x, y It moves the turtle to position x,y
begin_fill() None Remember the starting point for a filled polygon
end_fill() None It closes the polygon and fills with the current fill color
dot() None Leaves the dot at the current position
stamp() None Leaves an impression of a turtle shape at the current
location
shape() shapename Should be ‘arrow’, ‘classic’, ‘turtle’ or ‘circle’

Example
from turtle import *
t = Turtle() #object in python
wn=Screen()
206 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

wn.title(“my first graphic”)

wn.bgcolor(“yellow”) #color filling in window
t.shape(“turtle”) #turtle shape given
t.color(“red”, “green”)
t.speed(1) #turtle speed given
t.begin_fill()
for i in range(4):
t.forward(100)
t.left(90)
t.penup() #pen up
t.forward(200)
t.pendown()
for i in range(4):
t.forward(100)
t.left(90)
t.end_fill()
done()
20
Brief Tour of the Standard Library

20.1 Unit Testing in Python Programming

The process of testing wheather a particular unit is working properly or not is
called unit testing. A unit test checks small component in your application
Example
def testsum1():
assert sum([1,2,3])==6
def testsum2():
assert sum([1,1,1])==6 #assertion error
testsum1()
testsum2()

20.1.1 Step Involved in Unit Testing

(1) Import unittest from library.
(2) Create a class for test and inherit (unittest.TestCase).
(3) Write the test function in the class.
(4) Call unittest.main()

20.1.2 Writing Test Cases & Running Tests

Example
import unittest
class Testsum(unittest.TestCase):
def testsum1(self):
self.assertEqual(sum([1,2,3]),6)
def testsum2(self):
self.assertEqual(sum([1,2,2]),6)
unittest.main()
208 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

output
AssertionError: 5 != 6
Example 2
import unittest
class Testsum(unittest.TestCase):
def testsum1(self):
self.assertEqual(sum([1,2,3]),6)
def testsum2(self):
self.assertEqual(sum([1,2,2]),5)
unittest.main()
output:
No error

20.2 Thread in Python Programming

Thread is a separate flow of execution. Every thread has a task

20.2.1 Multithreading
Using multiple threads in program or process

The main important application areas of multi threading are:

• Multimedia graphic
• Animations
• Video games
• Web servers
• Application servers

20.3 Error vs Exception

• An exception is an error that can be handled by a programmer.
 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 209

• An exception which are not handled by programmer, becomes an error.

• All exception occur only at runtime.
• Error may occur at compile time or runtime.

Data compression:
with help of zlib.compress(s) and bzz.compress(s) we can get compress the
bytes of string
Syntax: zlib.compress(string), bzz.compress(string)
Example
import zlib
s=”welcome to python”
print(s)
print(len(s)) #output 18
t=zlib.compress(s)
print(t)
print(len(t)) #output 26
import bzz
t=bzz.compress(s)
print(t)
print(len(t)) #output 53

20.4 Operating System Interface in Python

The OS module provides many variables and functions for interacting with
the operating system.
• os.name is either ‘posix’ or ‘nt’
• os.curdir is a string representing the current directory (always ‘.’)
• os.pardir is a string representing the parent directory (always ‘..’)
• os.sep is the (or a most common) pathname separator (‘/’ or ‘\\’)
• os.extsep is the extension separator (always ‘.’)
• os.pathsep is the component separator used in $PATH etc
• os.defpath is the default search path for executables
• os.cpu_count()
210 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Return the number of CPUs in the system; return None if

indeterminable.
• os.listdir()
Return a list containing the names of the files in the directory.
• os.getcwd()
Return a unicode string representing the current working directory.
• os.getcwdb()
Return a bytes string representing the current working directory.
• os.chdir()
Change the current working directory to the specified path.
• os.system(‘mkdir today’)
• os.system(command)
Execute the command in a subshell.
• os.renames(old, new): change the name of the file
Example
import platform
>>> platform.system()
‘Windows’
>>> platform.release()
‘8’
Example
#create floder in c drive with name itutees
import os,platform
print(os.name)
print(platform.system())
print(platform.release())
print(os.curdir)#’.’
print(os.pardir)#’..’
print(os.sep)#’\’
print(os.extsep)#’.’
print(os.pathsep)#’;’
print(os.defpath)#’.;C:\bin’
print(os.cpu_count())
 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 211

print(os.listdir())
print(os.getcwd())
print(os.getcwdb())
print(os.chdir(‘C:\itutees’))
print(os.getcwd())
os.system(‘mkdir xyz’)
os.renames(‘xyz’,’abc’)

20.4.1 String Pattern Matching

The re module provides regular expression tools for advanced string
processing
Function –import re
findall(): #returns a list containing all matches
Example
s=”itutees channel”
f=re.findall(“[a-f]”,s) #A set of characters
print(f)
search(): #returns a list where the string has been split at each match
Example
s=”welcome to 123”
f=re.search(“\d”,s)
print(f.start())
split(): #returns a list where the string match with a string
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.split(“\s”,s)
print(f)
sub(): #Replaces one or many matches with a string
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.sub(“\s”,”*”,s)
print(f)
metacharacters
characters with a special meaning
[] a set characters
s=”itutees channel”
f=re.findall(“[a-f]”,s) #A set of characters
print(f)
\ signals a special sequence
212 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

s=”itutees 123”
f=re.findall(“\d”,s)
print(f)
. any character(except newline character)
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.findall(“it....s”,s)
print(f)
^ starts with
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.findall(“^welcome”,s)
print(f)
$ ends with
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.findall(“itutees$”,s)
print(f)
* Zero or more occurences
s=”The ran in spain”
f=re.findall(“ai*”,s)
print(f)
+ Zero or more occurences
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.findall(“ai+”,s)
print(f)
{} exactly the specify number of occurance
s=”welcome to itutees”
f=re.findall(“te{2}”,s)
print(f)
: either or
s=’good boy’
f=re.findall(“good|nice”,s)
print(f)
20.5 Datetime Module
• datetime- it handles date and time. It has year, month, day, hour, minute,
second, microsecond and tzinfo attributes
• date-it handle dates of Gregorian clender, without taking time zone into
consideration. It has year month and day attributes.
• Time-it handles time assuming that every day has exactly 24x60x60
seconds. It has hour, minute, second, microsecond and tzinfo attributes.
 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 213

• Timedelta-it handles durations. The duration may be the difference

between two date time or datetime instances.
• datetime object-a datetime object is a single object containing all the
information from a date object and a time object.

20.5.1 Creating Object of Datetime Class

Object_name=datetime(year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0, second=0,
microsencd=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)
The year, month and day arguments are required. Tzinfo may be none, or an
instance of a tzinfo subclass. The remaining arguments may be integers, in the
following ranges:
fold in [0, 1]
the fold parameter specifies whether there was any fold in time. A fold in time
means a reverse back of the clock time. In countries following Daylight saving
time during the end of summer clocks are reversed back by 1 hour. This reverse
back is a fold in time
* mean a splat operator. Using s splat plot operator a tuple can be unpacks and
a time object can be constructed out of the value from the tuple.
Exmple
from datetime import datetime
dt=datetime(year=2019, month=6, day=30)
dt1=datetime(2016, 6, 25, 14, 30)
print(dt)
print(dt1)
now() – this method is used to get the current date and time. We can provide
timezone information to this method. If the timezone is not provided, then ot
takes the local time zone. It returns an object that contains date information in
any timezone. We can use day, month, year, hour, minute and second
Example
Syntax: datetime.now()
today()-this method is used to get the current date and time. It returns the
date and time information.
Ex: datetime.today()
214 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

Example
from datetime import datetime
ct=datetime.now()
print(ct)
print(ct.year)
output:
2021-12-05 14:18:49.826925
2021

20.5.2 Date Class

Date object- A date object is an object containging information of year,
month and day
Creating object of date class
Syntax:
Object_name=date(year, month, day)
All argument are required. Arguments may be integers and fallowing ranges:
Example
D=date(year=2019, month=6, day=30)
Date class’s method
Example
from datetime import date
ct=date(year=2021, month=12, day=5)
cd=date.day()
print(ct)
print(cd)

20.5.3 Time Class

time object – a time object is an object containing information of local time
of day, independent of any particular day and subject to adjustment via a
tzinfo object
syntax:
Creating object of time class
Object_name=time(hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsencd=0,
tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)
 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 215

All argument are optional. tzinfo may be none or an instance of a tzinfo

subclass. The remaining argument may be integers
Example
from datetime import time
ct=time(hour=20, minute=12, second=5)
print(ct)
print(ct.hour)

20.5.4 Timedelta Class in Python

• timedelta object-a timedelta object represent a duration, the difference
between two dates or times.
• it is possible to know the future dates or previous dates using timedelta
syntax:
Creating object of time class
Object_name=timedelta(days=0, seconds=0, miroseconds=0, miniseconds=0,
minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)
All argument are optional and default to 0. Argument may be integers or floats
and may be positive or negative
Only days, seconds and microseconds are stored internally. Argument are
converted to those units:
A miliseconds is converted to 1000 microseconds
A minute is converted to 60 seconds
A hour is converted to 3600 seconds
A week is converted to 7 days
Example
from datetime import timedelta, date
ct=timedelta(days=10)
d=date.today()
print(ct)
print(d)
print(d+ct)
216 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

20.6 Math Module in Python

• It is a module that contains several function to perform mathematical
operation.
• If we want to use this module then we have to import it first from mat
import *

20.7 Numbers and Numeric Representation

Sr.No. Function & Description
1 ceil(x)
Return the Ceiling value. It is the smallest integer, greater or equal to the number x.
2 copysign(x, y)
It returns the number x and copy the sign of y to x.
3 fabs(x)
Returns the absolute value of x.
4 factorial(x)
Returns factorial of x. where x ≥ 0
5 floor(x)
Return the Floor value. It is the largest integer, less or equal to the number x.
6 fsum(iterable)
Find sum of the elements in an iterable object
7 gcd(x, y)
Returns the Greatest Common Divisor of x and y
8 isfinite(x)
Checks whether x is neither an infinity nor nan.
9 isinf(x)
Checks whether x is infinity
10 isnan(x)
Checks whether x is not a number.
11 remainder(x, y)
Find remainder after dividing x by y.

These functions are used to represent numbers in different forms. The

methods are like below
Example
import math
print(‘The Floor and Ceiling value of 23.56 are: ‘ + str(math.ceil(23.56)) + ‘,
‘ + str(math.floor(23.56)))
x = 10
y = -15
print(‘The value of x after copying the sign from y is: ‘ + str(math.
copysign(x, y)))
 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 217

print(‘Absolute value of -96 and 56 are: ‘ + str(math.fabs(-96)) + ‘, ‘ +

str(math.fabs(56)))
my_list = [12, 4.25, 89, 3.02, -65.23, -7.2, 6.3]
print(‘Sum of the elements of the list: ‘ + str(math.fsum(my_list)))
print(‘The GCD of 24 and 56 : ‘ + str(math.gcd(24, 56)))
x = float(‘nan’)
if math.isnan(x):
print(‘It is not a number’)
x = float(‘inf’)
y = 45
if math.isinf(x):
print(‘It is Infinity’)
print(math.isfinite(x)) #x is not a finite number
print(math.isfinite(y)) #y is a finite number
output:
The Floor and Ceiling value of 23.56 are: 24, 23
The value of x after copying the sign from y is: -10.0
Absolute value of -96 and 56 are: 96.0, 56.0
Sum of the elements of the list: 42.13999999999999
The GCD of 24 and 56 : 8
It is not a number
It is Infinity
False
True

20.8 Power and Logarithmic Functions

These functions are used to calculate different power related and logarithmic
related tasks.
Sr.No. Function & Description
1 pow(x, y)
Return the x to the power y value.
2 sqrt(x)
Finds the square root of x
3 exp(x)
Finds xe, where e = 2.718281
218 Basic and Advance Phython Programming Language

4 log(x[, base])
Returns the Log of x, where base is given. The default base is e
5 log2(x)
Returns the Log of x, where base is 2
6 log10(x)
Returns the Log of x, where base is 10

Example
import math
print(‘The value of 5^8: ‘ + str(math.pow(5, 8)))
print(‘Square root of 400: ‘ + str(math.sqrt(400)))
print(‘The value of 5^e: ‘ + str(math.exp(5)))
print(‘The value of Log(625), base 5: ‘ + str(math.log(625, 5)))
print(‘The value of Log(1024), base 2: ‘ + str(math.log2(1024)))
print(‘The value of Log(1024), base 10: ‘ + str(math.log10(1024)))
output:
The value of 5^8: 390625.0
Square root of 400: 20.0
The value of 5^e: 148.4131591025766
The value of Log(625), base 5: 4.0
The value of Log(1024), base 2: 10.0
The value of Log(1024), base 10: 3.010299956639812

20.9 Trigonometric & Angular Conversion Functions

These functions are used to calculate different trigonometric operations.
Sr.No. Function & Description
1 sin(x)
Return the sine of x in radians
2 cos(x)
Return the cosine of x in radians
3 tan(x)
Return the tangent of x in radians
4 asin(x)
This is the inverse operation of the sine, there are acos, atan also.
5 degrees(x)
Convert angle x from radian to degrees
6 radians(x)
Convert angle x from degrees to radian
 Brief Tour of the Standard Library 219

Example
import math
print(‘The value of Sin(60 degree): ‘ + str(math.sin(math.radians(60))))
print(‘The value of cos(pi): ‘ + str(math.cos(math.pi)))
print(‘The value of tan(90 degree): ‘ + str(math.tan(math.pi/2)))
print(‘The angle of sin(0.8660254037844386): ‘ + str(math.degrees(math.
asin(0.8660254037844386))))
output:
The value of Sin(60 degree): 0.8660254037844386
The value of cos(pi): -1.0
The value of tan(90 degree): 1.633123935319537e+16
The angle of sin(0.8660254037844386): 59.99999999999999
 ISBN 939138363-7

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