MODULE - 5

Cellular Wireless Networks

Introduction
Cellular telephone system
Cellular concept and frequency reuse

Wireless Network Topologies

First Generation (1G) Technology
Second Generation (2G) Technology
GSM Communications, GSM System architecture
Third Generation (3G) Technology
CDMA Technology, High-level architecture of LTE
Fourth Generation (4G) Technology
Wireless LAN
Bluetooth, Bluetooth Architecture

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5.1 Cellular Wireless Networks

Wireless technology employs radio waves (RF) and/or microwaves (IR signals) between the devices without
using wires or cables. It enables mobile communication, in turn, cellular networks allow broadcast of voice and
multimedia data between the mobile devices and the wireless network system. Hence, it makes human life
easier, saves time and effort.
A typical cell site offers geographical coverage of between 5 - 20 kms. The base station is responsible for
monitoring the level of the signals when a call is made from a mobile phone. When the user moves away from
the geographical coverage area of the base station (BS), the signal level may fall. This can cause a base station
to make a request to the mobile switching center (MSC) to transfer the control to another base station that is
receiving the strongest signals without notifying the subscriber; this phenomenon is called handover. Cellular
networks often encounter environmental interruptions like a moving tower crane, overhead power cables, or
the frequencies of other devices.
A cellular system comprises the following basic components:
Mobile Station (MS): This is the mobile handset. It consists: i) subscriber identity module (SIM) which stores
all the user specific data ii) software needed for communication with a mobile network.
Cell: A basic geographical service area (5-20kms) of a cellular communication system. Each cell is allocated a
band of frequencies and is served by a base station.
Base Station (BS): Each cell contains an antenna, which is controlled by a small office called base station,
consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit. Each BS is controlled by a MSC office.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): It is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for
connecting calls, SMS and other services such as conference calls, FAX, billing. It interfaces with telephone
company zone offices, controls call processing, provides operation and maintenance (hand-over requirements
during the call).

Fig.1 Cellular system

5.1.1 Cellular concept
In a cellular system, as shown in the fig. 1, hand-sets carried by the users, vehicles, etc are called Mobile
Stations (MS). The MS communicate to the Base Stations (BS) through a pair of frequency channels, one for
up-link and another for down-link. All the BS of cellular systems are controlled by a central switching station
called Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The MSC is responsible for all kinds of network management
functions such as channel allocations, handoffs, handover, billing, power control etc. The MSC can route voice
calls through the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and it can also provide internet access.

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5.1.2 Features of cellular concept

i) Geographical area is divided into number of smaller service areas (5-20kms) called as cells.
ii) The groups of cells are known as clusters, in which no frequency is reused within a cluster.
iii) Frequencies used in one cell can be reused in other cell of neighboring clusters.
iv) High power transmitter is replaced by many low power transmitters, each providing coverage to only a
small portion of the service area.
v) Cluster size is not fixed, it can be varied based on the subscriber density and the demand.
vi) Small cells will increase the network capacity.

Fig. 2 Cellular concept in wireless & mobile networks

Disadvantages: i) Co-channel interference (CCI)

ii) Increase in hardware cost as cluster size increases.
iii) Reuse of radio channel in different cells

5.1.3 Frequency Reuse

In a cellular system, each cell has a base transmitter and receiver. Cells with the same number (say, cell-1 in
the fig.3,) use the same frequency in other nearby cells, thus allowing the frequency to be used for multiple
simultaneous conversations.

Fig.3 Concept of frequency reuse

Reuse distance, D is given by

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D = Minimum distance between center of cells that use the same frequency band (called co-channels)
R = Radius of a cell
N = number of cells in a repetitious pattern that provide sufficient isolation between two uses of the same
frequency (each cell in the pattern uses a unique band of frequencies), termed the reuse factor. N = 7, is
the smallest pattern that can provide sufficient isolation between two uses.
d = Distance between centers of adjacent cells. Relation is,

5.1.4 Reduction in Interference

The essential issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells using the same frequency
so that the two cells do not interfere with each other.
Co-channel interference (CCI) caused by transmitting at the same frequency by two or more wireless systems,
that limits the reusing the same frequency channel in different cells. These are the ways to reduce CCI:
i) Sufficient distance between two co-channel cells to be maintained
ii) Use of directional antennas at the BS which is called as cell sectoring
iii) Increasing the ratio D/R
Adjacent channel interference (ACI) caused due to overlapping between two neighboring channels. These are
the ways to reduce ACI:
i) Filtering the signal to be received
ii) Proper separation of adjacent channels

5.2 Basic operation of cellular network (Transmitting and Receiving)

Basic operations of transmitting in a cellular telephone network are discussed in this section.
Assume a caller enters a 10-digit code (phone number) and
presses the send button.

1. Mobile unit initialization

 Mobile unit scans and choose strongest free channel.
 Automatically pick up a BS antenna of cell.
 Handshake is used to identify user and register location.

2. Request for connection

 Check if the set up channel is free and monitor up-link
channel (from BS) and wait for idle.

 Send number on the pre-selected channel.

3. Paging
 MSC attempts to connect to mobile unit and it sends over
the Mobile Identification Number (MIN) to all BSs
depending on called mobile number.

 Each BS transmits paging signal on its own set up channel

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 4. Call accepted
 Mobile unit recognizes the number on the set up channel
and responds to BS.
 Then BS sends response to MSC, a circuit is setup between
calling and called BSs.
 MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call and call is
established.
5. Ongoing call
 Voice/data exchanged through respective BSs and MSC.

6. Handoff
 If the signal strength decreases as the mobile moves out of
range from the BS and the traffic channel changes to the one
assigned to new BS, without interruption of service to user.

5.3 Mobility management

When an MS moves out from current BS into another BS, a procedure is performed to maintain service
continuity, known as handoff management. The procedure to keep track of the user’s current location is
referred to as location management. Handoff management and location management together are referred to as
mobility management.
Handoff: At any instant, each MS is logically in a cell and under the control of the cell’s BS. When a MS
moves out of a cell, the BS notices the MS’s signal fading away and requests all the neighboring BSs to report
the strength they are receiving. The BS then transfers ownership to the cell getting the strongest signal and the
MSC changes the channel carrying the call. The process is called handoff.

There are two types of handoff.

1. Hard Handoff and 2. Soft Handoff.
Hard handoff: As a MS moves from cell A to cell B (see fig.(a)),
the communication between the MS and BS-1 of cell A is first
broken before communication is started between the MS and the
BS-2 of B (position-2). Hence, the transition is not smooth.
Soft handoff: As the MS moves from cell A to cell B, it ensures
that no communication break occurs between cell A and cell B.
That means, new connection is established before break the old
connection, see fig. (b). Hence, the transition is smooth.

Fig. (b)

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Roaming
Roaming is a facility provided to the cell phone user to use the cellular services (telephone calls, data, or access
other services) when travelling outside the home network. Roaming can be either national roaming or
international roaming.
Two fundamental operations are associated with location management:
1. Location update:
• The foreign network contacts the home network and requests service information.
• Home directory of the MS is updated with its current location.
2. Paging: Broadcasting of Mobile Identification Number (MIN) by MSC.

5.4 Wireless Network Topologies

Wireless network topology is defined as the configuration in which a mobile terminal (MT) communicates
with other MTs. The topology of a wireless network is simply the way network components are arranged. It
describes both the physical layout of devices, routers, and gateways, and the paths that data follows between
them.
There are TWO types of topologies used in wireless networks:
1. Ad – Hoc Network Topology
2. Infrastructure Network Topology
1. Ad – Hoc Network Topology: Wireless devices communicate directly with each other without any access
point (AP). Ad hoc network is also known as IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set) configuration.
Single ad-hoc network: Without Base Station, each node can communicate wirelessly with each other within
their radio range. Suitable for rapid wireless communication.
Application: Military- establishing common communication among soldiers for voice and data, Collaborative –
conference held among groups
Multi ad-hoc network: In multi-hop ad-hoc network, the coverage area is larger than radio range of single
nodes. Therefore, to reach some destination a node can use other nodes as relays. Direct transmission will held
with the neighboring nodes.

Single ad-hoc network Multi ad-hoc network

2. Infrastructure Network Topology

In this topology, there is a fixed infrastructure that supports the communication between the mobile terminals
and fixed terminals. This topology is often designed for large coverage areas.

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5.5 First Generation (1G) System
The first generation was designed for voice communication. For example, Advanced Mobile Phone System
(AMPS) used in North America. AMPS is an analog cellular phone system. It uses 800 MHz ISM band and
two separate analog channels; forward (uplink) and reverse (downlink) analog channels. The band between 824
to 849 MHz is used for reverse communication from MS to BS. The band between 869 to 894 MHz is used for
forward communication from BS to MS. Each band is divided in to 832 channels of 30-KHz as shown in Fig.

As each location area is shared by two service providers, each provider can have 416 channels, out of which 21 are
used for control. AMPS uses Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-
KHz channels as shown in Fig.

1G featured mobile radio telephones and technologies such as:

Mobile Telephone System (MTS)
Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS)
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS)
Push to Talk (PTT)
Limitations:
 Poor voice quality
 Poor battery life
 Large phone size
 No security
 Limited capacity

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5.6 Second Generation (2G) System

To provide better voice quality, 2G was developed for digitized voice communication. It enables services such
as text messages SMS, picture messages and multi-media message (MMS).
2G can be divided into TWO standards based on the type of multiplexing used, TDMA and CDMA. Three
major 2G systems were evolved, as shown in fig.4.

D-AMPS is essentially a digital version of AMPS and it is backward compatible with AMPS. It uses the same
bands and channels as AMPS. There are 6 slots shared by three channels. D – AMPS uses both TDMA and
FDMA medium access control techniques.

Fig.4 Digital AMPS

5.6.1 Global System for Mobile (GSM)

The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication is a European standard developed to replace 1G. It is an
open, digital cellular radio network operated on three different frequencies:
 900 MHz: It was used by the original GSM system.
 1800 MHz: It was used to support the growing number of subscribers.
 1900 MHz: It is mainly used in the US.
Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13Kbps. For medium access control, GSM combines both
TDMA and FDMA. GSM is used 76% of the users worldwide.

Architecture of GSM networks

The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with themselves and
with users through certain network interface. They are Mobile Station (MS), the Base Station Subsystem
(BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OMSS).

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Mobile System (MS): comprises user equipment and software needed for communication with a mobile
network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). See fig 5.

Fig.5 Architectural block diagram of Global System for Mobile (GSM)

Base sub-system (BSS): The BSS handles traffic between the MS and the NSS. It consists of two main
components: the base transceiver station (BTS) and the base station controller (BSC). The BTS contains the
equipment that communicates with the mobile phones, while the BSC is to allocate necessary time slots
between the BTS and MSC.
Network Sub-system (NSS): The NSS is the core network that tracks the location of callers to enable the delivery
of cellular services. It includes 5 functional units.
i) Mobile switching center (MSC): performs call setup, call release, call tracing, call forwarding and Short
Message Service (SMS)
ii) Home location register (HLR): functions the subscriber’s ID, plan and caller tune you are using location,
authentication via SIM cards.
iii) Visitor location register (VLR): contains the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in
the service area of MSC
iv) Equipment identity register (EIR): It is a database which contains a list of valid mobile equipment on the
network. database that keeps the record of all allowed or banned in the network.
v) Authentication center (AuC): It perform authentication of subscriber.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): connects with MSC. It is originally a network of fixed line analog
telephone systems.

5.7 Third Generation (3G) System

3G is the upgrade over 2G, 2.5G, GPRS and 2.75G EDGE networks (family of standards), offering faster data
transfer, and better voice quality, with high speed packet switched data (up to 2 Mbps). In this generation smart
phones are introduced. 3G networks operate on frequency bands between 400 MHz and 3GHz.
Two main 3G networks are:
1. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) and
2. CDMA-2000

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Both these systems use CDMA technology.
AS seen from the fig.6, goals of the third generation (3G) technologies are mentioned below:
Allow both digital data and voice communication.
To facilitate universal personnel communication.
Listen music, watch movie, access internet, video conference, universal global roaming, etc.

Fig.6 Architectural block diagram of 3G

MSC – Mobile Switching Center, GMSC – Gateway MSC, SGSN – Service GPRS Support Node, GGSN –
Gateway GPRS Support Node, IMS –IP Multimedia system

5.7.1 CDMA Technology

The dominant technology for 3G systems is CDMA. Code Division Multiple Access system is very different
from time and frequency multiplexing. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The technology is
commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands ranging between the 800-
MHz and 1.9-GHz. Though CDMA is used only by 24% of the users worldwide, CDMA phones emit less
radiation than GSM phones.
Capacity of a Mobile Telecommunication System is given by
𝐶 = 𝐵 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(1 + 𝑆𝐼𝑁𝑅)
CDMA offers these advantages: Error Control Coding, Spreading of the spectrum, Soft handoffs, Strict power
control.

5.7.2 High Level Architecture of Long Term Evolution (LTE)

The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has redesigned both the radio network and the core network is
brand named as LTE. LTE uses OFDM with QAM modulation in 10 - 20 MHz channels to provide downlink
data rates of up to 100 mbps.
UMTS (universal Mobile Telecommunication Services) is the main technology responsible behind 3G.
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) consists of multiple Radio Network Sub-systems
(RNSs) which is equivalent to the base station subsystem (BSS). RNS consists of radio transceivers referred to
as Node B which are equivalent to the BTSs in the GSM architecture.
High Level Architecture of Long Term Evolution (LTE) is given in the fig.7.

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Core Network (CN)
The CN is similar to the network and switching subsystem (NSS) of the GSM architecture. The main function
of the CN is to perform packet routing, connection of users, security, billing and the connection of UMTS to
external packet switched and circuit switched networks.
Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
The EPC in the LTE technology supports access to the packet switched domain and provides no support for the
circuit switch domain. The EPC functions include: policy control, interconnection to external networks,
subscriber charging. The Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) is the network, which handles the evolved pocket
core’s (EPC) radio communications with the mobile unit. It distributes voice and data using the packet
switching technologies. Voice calls are transported using voice over IP.

Fig.7 High Level Architecture of Long Term Evolution (LTE)

Table: Comparison of GSM, UMTS and LTE

GSM (2G) UMTS (3G) LTE (4G)

Wideband CDMA OFDMA and SC-

Radio Access Methodology FDMA and TDMA
(WCDMA) FDMA
Downlink speed 10-150kbps 384kbps 100-150mbps
Uplink speed 10-150kbps 128kbps 50mbps
Bandwidth 200kHz 5MHz 1.4-20MHz
Modulation Types GMSK QPSK QPSK,16-QAM,
Supported 64-QAM
Core network type circuit switched circuit /packet switched Fully IP based
support complete mobile support Email, web support only high speed
Communication communication network browsing, video calling data communication
Support and text messaging and internet access and
(SMS) rely on GSM

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5.8 Fourth Generation (4G) technology

4G has mainly three benefits: improved speeds, reduced latency, and crystal-clear voice calls. Two candidates
for 4G are Wi-Max (Enhancement of previous fixed wireless standard for mobility) and Long Term Evolution
(LTE), third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
Advantages of 4G are wireless high-data applications to include multimedia consumption such as video and
audio streaming, video gaming, and video conferencing using mobile devices, as well as cloud computing
applications. The high level requirements for a 4G technology were identified as:
i) High spectral efficiency
ii) Reduced cost per bit
iii) Increased services by increasing the efficiency
iv) Open interfaces
v) Power efficiency
vi) Flexible usage of frequency bands

5.8.1 LTE-A System Architecture

A standard LTE system architecture as shown in the fig.8, consists of an Evolved UMTS (E-UTMS),
Terrestrial Radio Access Network (TRAN), more commonly known as E-UTRAN, and the System
Architecture Evolution, also known as SAE. SAE's main component is the Evolved Packet Core, also known
as an EPC. The E-UTRAN is comprised of: User Equipment (UEs).

The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:
 The User Equipment (UE).
 The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
 The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).

User Equipment (UE)

User Equipment is a device that allows a user to access network services consists of hardware and software
needed for communication. It connects to the base stations, known as NodeB and eNB via radio interface.
UE = Mobile Equipment (ME) + Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
USIM stores user specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about the user's phone
number, home network identity and security keys etc.

E-UTRAN (Radio access network)

The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet core (EPC) and
consists the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles
in one or more cells. The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analog and
digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.

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Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)
Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is a unit for providing converged voice and data on 4G LTE network. It is formed
by elements: Serving Gateway (SGW), the PDN Gateway (PDN GW), the MME and the HSS.
Serving Gateway (SGW) – It routes data packets through the access network. The ePDG is responsible for
interworking between the EPC and untrusted non-3GPP networks that require secure access, such as a WiFi,
etc.

Fig.8 LTE-A System Architecture

Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (GW) - It communicates with the outside world. The serving GW acts as a
router, and forwards data between the base station and the PDN gateway.
The mobility management entity (MME) - It controls the high level operation (supports user equipment, identity,
authentication and tracks a user across the network) of the mobile by means of signaling messages and Home
Subscriber Server (HSS).
Home Subscriber Server (HSS) – is the main user database used within one single node which manages
customers in real time.
Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) - is the software node designated in real-time to determine
policy rules (decision-making) in a multimedia network. PCRF plays a key role in VoLTE as a mediator of
network resources offering personalized data plans.

5.9 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a method of connecting two or more devices together within a single organization using a wireless
communication method. It usually provides a connection through an Access Point (AP) to the wider internet.
AP sends and receives radio frequency signal to the connected devices; they normally function as routers. Data
is sent in packets. The packets contain layers with labels and instructions.

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WLAN connects laptops, smart phones, personal digital assistants, desktop computers, workstations and
printers. This network is easy to install and use at the home or any other place.

WLAN Specifications
The major IEEE (802.11) WLAN standards include: 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g. Details of each
standards is given in the below table.

IEEE Standard Frequency Band Bandwidth Modulation Type Maximum Data Rate

802.11 2.4GHz 20MHz Phase Shift Keying 2 mbps

802.11a 5 to 6 GHz 20MHz Orthogonal FDM 54 mbps

Complementary code
802.11b 2.4GHz 20MHz 11 mbps
keying (CCK)
802.11g 2.4GHz 20MHz DSSS, OFDM 54 mbps

Advantages of WLAN over Wired LAN

 No physical wires , so easy to install
 Add or remove workstation
 It provides high data rate due to small area coverage
 Move workstation while maintaining the connectivity
 Economical because of the small area access

5.10 Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard, used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances. It operates in the band of 2.4 GHz. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE
802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7.
Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It provides data rates up to 1 mbps or 3 mbps depending upon the version.
Bluetooth technology can be used at home, office, car, etc. It allows communicating voice and text information
between several devices in real time. Bluetooth is a small microchip that operates in a band of available frequency
throughout the world. Communications can realize point to point and point to multipoint.
Bluetooth architecture
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected piconets is called
scatternet. Piconets are small Bluetooth networks, formed by at most 8 stations, one of which is the master
node and the rest slave nodes (maximum of 7 slaves). Master node is the primary station that manages the
small network. The slave stations are secondary stations that are synchronized with the primary station.

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 Review Questions

1. Draw the schematic diagram of a cellular telephone system and explain its basic components.
2. Define the terms cell & cluster in a cellular system. And explain the cellular concept in wireless mobile
networks.
3. What is frequency reuse technique? List out the advantages of it.
4. Discuss the steps involved in transmission of data in a cellular telephone network.
5. What is Mobility management? Explain Handoff & Roaming in Mobility management.
6. With the help of diagrams, discuss the following types of network topologies.
a. Ad-Hoc Network Topology
b. Infrastructure Network Topology
7. Describe the first generation of wireless telecommunication technology.
8. List the major systems evolved in 2G wireless telephone technology.
9. Draw the architecture of GSM system and explain the important features of it.
10. Define the following terms with respect to GSM system.
a. Mobile Station (MS)
b. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
c. Network & Switching System (NSS)
11. List the advantages of CDMA technology over FDMA & TDMA.
12. With the help of architecture figures explain the evolution from GSM to LTE.
13. List the requirements identified for the 4G technology.
14. Draw the LTE – system architecture and define the important terms.
15. Define the following IEEE standards:
a. IEEE 802.11a
b. IEEE 802.11b
c. IEEE 802.11g
16. Compare Wireless LAN & Wired LAN and bring out the advantages of Wireless LAN.
17. Write a short note on Bluetooth technology.

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