Analysis and Design of Algorithms

Subject Code:3150703
Subject credit:5

Prepared by:
Prof. Nishaba Jadeja
 Teaching Scheme
Teaching Scheme Credits Examination Marks

Theory Marks Practical Marks Total

L T P C Marks
ESE
(E) PA
(M) ESE (V) PA (I)

4 0 2 5 70 30 30 20 150

[L-Lecture;
T – Tutorial/Teacher Guided Theory Practice;
P - Practical;
C – Credit,
ESE - End Semester Examination,
PA – Progressive Assessment]
Evaluation Methodology
Theory Exam Marks Marks Conversion
GTU External Exam 70 NA

GTU MidSem Exam 70 30

Internal Exam Marks Activity Marks

Conversion
Assignment 05

Internal 20
Class Test 1 & 2,3 10

Lab performance 05
Google Classroom Code

2665apc
https://classroom.google.com/c/NjkzMjIxODIyMTc1?cjc=2665apc
 Syllabus
• Total syllabus is covered in 09 topics.
• ADA-3150703 syllabus.pdf
CH-1
Basics of Algorithms and
Mathematics
Outlines
 What is an algorithm?
 Mathematics for Algorithmic Sets,
 Functions and Relations,
 Vectors and Matrices,
 Linear Inequalities and
 Linear Equations
What is Algorithm ???????
 An algorithm, named for the ninth-century Persian mathematician
al-Khowarizm, is simply a set of rules for carrying out some
calculation, either by hand or, more usually, on a machine.
 Definition :
It is a set of instructions of how to carry out a process. An
algorithm list the steps that must be followed to complete the
process and to reach the solution.
 Different types of algorithms :
Probabilistic of Algorithm,
Approximate Algorithm,
Heuristics Algorithm

 Hence a cooking recipe can be consider to be an algorithm if it

describe precisely how to make a certain dish, giving exact
quantities to use and detailed instruction for how long to cook it.
Example : To make a tea

 Step-1
Take a pan, and add water,
tea , and sugar to it

 Step-2
Put the burner on low flame
 Step-3
Heat the tea until it turns
a reddish brown colour

 Step-4

Take Basil leaves and

ginger flakes, and crush
them together
 Step-5
Add milk

 Step-6
Increase the flame
 Step-7
Stop the burner when the
milk rises to the top of
the pan.

Step-8
Filter all the solid out
 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.
 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This

means that the action specified by the step cannot be
interpreted (explain the meaning of) in multiple ways & can be
performed without any confusion.
 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that

the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning
of) in multiple ways & can be performed without any confusion.

3) Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs

 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that

the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning
of) in multiple ways & can be performed without any confusion.

3) Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs

4) Output:- it produces at least one output.

 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that

the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning
of) in multiple ways & can be performed without any confusion.

3) Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs

4) Output:- it produces at least one output.

5) Effectiveness:- it consists of basic instructions that are

realizable. This means that the instructions can be performed
by using the given inputs in a finite amount of time.
 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that

the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning
of) in multiple ways & can be performed without any confusion.

3) Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs

4) Output:- it produces at least one output.

5) Effectiveness:- it consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This

means that the instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a
finite amount of time.

6) Should be written in simple English

 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that

the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning
of) in multiple ways & can be performed without any confusion.

3) Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs

4) Output:- it produces at least one output.

5) Effectiveness:- it consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This

means that the instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a
finite amount of time.

6) Should be written in simple English

7) Should provide the correct solutions

 Properties of the algorithm
1) Finiteness: - an algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.

2) Definiteness: - each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that

the action specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning
of) in multiple ways & can be performed without any confusion.

3) Input:- an algorithm accepts zero or more inputs

4) Output:- it produces at least one output.

5) Effectiveness:- it consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This

means that the instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a
finite amount of time.

6) Should be written in simple English

7) Should provide the correct solutions

8) Every statement should be perfect

Issues in writing an algorithm
 How to devise algorithms?
◦ Create using algorithmic design strategy
 How to validate algorithms?
◦ Checking whether algorithm computes correct answer for all possible
inputs.
 How to analyze algorithms?
◦ Computing time and storage, performance analysis.
 How to test a program?
◦ Debugging and performance measuring.
 How to write an algorithm?
 Algorithm name (p1,p2,.....,pn)

This keyword Here write the Write parameters (if

should be name of an any)
written first algorithm

 Write following things in heading section:

//Problem Description:
//Input:
//Output:
 While statement can be written as:
While (condition) do
{
statement 1
statement 2
.
.
.
statement n
}
 General form for writing loop is:
for variable  valuei to valuen do
{
statement 1
statement 2
.
.
.
statement n
}
Example of an algorithm
 Write an algorithm to count the sum of n
numbers.
Algorithm sum (1,n)
//Problem Description: This algorithm is for finding
the sum of given n numbers.
//Input: 1 to n numbers
//Output: The sum of n numbers
result 0
for i1 to n do ii+1
result  result +1
return result
 Designing of Algorithm

Natural Lang
Psuedo Code
Flowchart
Mathematics for algorithm

Set :
 Definition :
◦ Set is a collection of objects. These objects are called
elements of the set. So, A set is an unordered collection
of distinct element.
◦ All elements are enclosed within curly brackets ‘{‘ and
‘}’ and every element is separated by commas.
◦ If ‘a’ is an element of set A then we say that a€A and if
‘a’ is not an elements of A then we say that a € A.
◦ Normally set is denoted by capital letter. The set can be
represented using three methods.
 1) Listing Method
 2) Describing properties
 3) Recursive Method
Cont . . .
 1. Listing Method
The elements are listed in the set.
Ex. A set of elements which is less than 5
{0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4}
 2. Describing Properties
The properties of elements of a set defined the set.
Ex. A set of vowels
A = { a , e , i , o , u}
 3. Recursion method
The recursion occurs to define the elements of the set.
Ex. A = {x / x is square of n} where n<=10
A = {0 , 1 , 4 , 9 , 16, 25 , …….. 100}
Finite-Infinite Set
 A set is finite if it contains a finite number of elements; otherwise, the set
is infinite.

Cardinality
 If X is a finite set, |x| , the cardinality of X, denotes the number of
elements in X.
 If X is infinite set, we may write |X| = .
 The empty set, denoted O, is the unique set whose cardinality is 0.

Power Set
 The power set is a set of all the subsets of its elements.
Ex. A= {1 , 2 , 3}
Q = { O , {1} , {2} , {3} , {1,2} , {1,3}, {2,3} , {1,2,3}}
 X Y “ X is subset of Y ”
Each elements of X is belongs to Y.

 X Y “ X is a proper subset of Y ”
Means that X Y and moreover that there is at
least one element in Y that does not belongs to X.

Equal Set
The two sets are said to be equal (A=B) if A B and
B A.
Operations on Sets
1) Union 2) Intersection 3) Difference 4) Complement
 1) Union
AUB is a union operation – If A={1,2,3} , B={1,2,4}
then AUB = {1, 2, 3, 4}
 2) Intersection
A∩B is intersection operation – If A={1,2,3} , B={2,3,4}
then A∩B = {2 , 3}
 3) Difference
A-B is the difference operation – If A={1,2,3} ,B={2,3,4}
then A-B = {1} means elements which are in set A but not in set B
 4) Complement of A
Complement of (A) = U – A where U is universal set
Ex. U={10,20,30,40,50} and A={10,20}
Complement(A) = {30 , 40 , 50}
 Cartesian Product of Two Set
Ex.
A = {a , b} and B = {0 , 1 , 2}
A X B = {{a,0},{a,1},{a,2},{b,0},{b,1},{b,2}}
Explain Function & Relation with Example

 Let X and Y be two sets.

 Any subset p of their Cartesian product
X x Y is a relation.
 When x X and y Y, we say that x is in
relation with y according to p, denoted x p
y, if and only if (x,y) p.
 Consider any relation f between X and Y.
The relation is called a function if, for each
x X, there exists one and only one y
Y such that (x,y) f.
Cont…
 For example:
A = {1,2}; B = {3,4}
A × B = {1,2} × {3,4}
= {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)}
P = {(1,4) , (2,3)}

Here A has relation with B according to P.

This relation is called function because for each
element of A there exist one and only one
element of B which is belongs to P.
 Injective (One To One),
 Surjective (Onto),
 Bijective.

 Injective (One To One) : A function f : X Y is

injective if there do not exist two distinct x1, x2 X
such that
f(x1) = f(x2).
 Injective (One To One),
 Surjective (Onto),
 Bijective.

 Surjective (Onto) : It is surjective if for each y Y

there exist at least one x X such that f(x) = y.
 Injective (One To One),
 Surjective (Onto),
 Bijective.

 Bijective : It is bijective if it is both injective and

surjective.
Cont…

 Propositional calculation:
A Boolean (or propositional) variable may only take
one of this two values(true or false).
If p is a Boolean variable, we write “p is true” , or
simply “p” , to mean “p=true”
Let p and q be two Boolean variables.
conjunction p q or p and q ,
disjunction p q or p or q ,
negation p or not p,
if p then q p q
p q either both true or both false.
 Interval :
An interval is a set of real numbers lying between
two bonds.
Let a and b be two real numbers such that a<=b.

The open interval (a,b) denotes

{x R / a < x < b}
Closed interval [a,b] denotes
{x R / a <= x <= b}
Semi Open Intervals
(a,b] = { x R / a < x <= b} and
[a,b) = { x R / a < = x < b}
Vectors and Matrices
 A vector, u, means a list (or n-tuple) of numbers:
u = (u1, u2, . . . , un)
where ui are called the components of u.

Zero Vector :
If all the ui are zero i.e., ui = 0, then u is called the zero
vector.

Equal Vector :
Given vectors u and v are equal i.e., u = v, if they have
the same number of components and if corresponding
components are equal.
 Addition of Two Vectors
If two vectors, u and v, have the number of components, their sum,
u + v, is the vector obtained by adding corresponding components from
u and v.
u + v = (u1, u2, . . . , un) + (v1, v2, . . . , vn)
= (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn)

 Multiplication of a vector by a Scalar

The product of a scalar k and a vector u i.e., ku, is the vector obtained
by multiplying each component of u by k:
ku = k(u1, u2, . . . , un)
= ku1, ku2, . . . , kun
Dot Product and Norm

The dot product or inner product of vectors u = (u1, u2, . . . , un) and
v = (v1, v2, . . . , vn) is denoted by u.v and defined by
u.v = u1v1 + u2v2 + . . . + unvn

The norm or length of a vector, u, is denoted by ||u|| and defined by

Matrices
Matrix, A, means a rectangular array of numbers

A =

The m horizontal n-tuples are called the rows of A, and the n

vertical m-tuples, its columns.

Note that the element aij, called the ij-entry, appear in the ith row
and the jth column.

In algorithmic (study of algorithms), we like to write a matrix A

as A(aij).
 Column Vector
A matrix with only one column is called a column vector
 Zero Matrix
A matrix whose entries are all zero is called a zero matrix and
denoted by 0.
 Matrix Addition
Let A and B be two matrices of the same size. The sum of A and
B is written as A + B and obtained by adding corresponding
elements from A and B.

A+B =

=
 Scalar Multiplication
 The product of a scalar k and a matrix A, written kA or Ak, is
the matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by k.

kA = k

If K = 3
 Properties of Matrix under Addition and
Multiplication

Let A, B, and C be matrices of same size and let k and l be

scalars. Then

1. A+B=B+A
2. A+0 = 0 +A=A
3. A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0
4. k(A + B) = kA + kB
5. (k + l)A = kA + lA
6. (kl)A = k(lA)
Matrix Multiplication
 Suppose A and B are two matrices such that the number of
columns of A is equal to number of rows of B. Say matrix A is
an m×p matrix and matrix B is a p×n matrix. Then the product
of A and B is the m×n matrix whose ij-entry is obtained by
multiplying the elements of the ith row of a by the
corresponding elements of the jth column of B and then adding
them.

 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Let A, B, and C be matrices and let k be a scalar. Then

1. (AB)C = A(BC)
2. A(B+C) = AB + AC
3. (B+C)A = BA + CA
4. k (AB) = (k A)B = A(k B)
 Transpose
 The transpose of a matrix A is obtained by writing the row of A, in
order, as columns and denoted by AT.

It is not hard to see that if A is an m×n matrix, then AT is an n×m

matrix.

For example if A =

then AT =
 Square Matrix
 If the number of rows and the number of columns of any
matrix are the same, we say matrix is a square matrix, i.e., a
square matrix has same number of rows and columns.
 A square matrix with n rows and n columns is said to be
order n and is called an n-square matrix.

 Unit Matrix
 The n-square matrix with 1's along the main diagonal and
0's elsewhere is called the unit matrix and usually denoted
by I.
 Determinants
 To each n-square matrix A = (aij), we assign a
specific number called the determinants of A and
denoted as
|A| = del(A)

The determinant of order one is |a11| = a11

The determinant of order two is

= a11a22 - a12a21
 The determinant of order three is

= a11(a22a33 - a23a32) – a12(a21a33 - a31a23) +

a13(a21a32 -a22a31)

= a11a22a33+ a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 - a13a22a31 -

a12a21a33 - a11a23a32
Linear Inequality
 In mathematics, linear inequality is a statement
containing < , > <= , >=.
Example : x + y > 14

Solution to Linear Inequality :

 The solution of linear inequality is based on number of
variables.

 The solution to one variable inequality :

3x+7<=10, the value of x gives true statement.
For example x=1
Cont. . .
 The solution to two variable inequality:
3x+7y-5 <=17, the value of x and y should be such that the
statement remains true. The solution to above inequality
is (2,2) because
= 3(2) + 7(2) - 5<= 17
= 6 + 14 - 5<= 17

 The solution to three variable inequality:

3x+2y-7z <=5, the value of x, y and z should be such that
the statement remains true. The solution to above
inequality is (2,2,1).
Because
= 3(2)+2(2)-7(1)
= 3 <= 5.
Properties of Inequality
1. If x<=y and y<=z then x<=z
2. If x <= y and c is some positive number then
x+c <= y+c
3. If x <= y and c is negative, then xc >= yc
Linear Equations
 The linear equation is an equation containing n
unknowns. A linear with one unknown can be given in
standard form:
ax = b
Where x is unknown and a and b are constants. The
solution of such equation will be,
x = b/a
The linear equation with two unknowns can be given in
standard form as
ax+by = c
Where x,y are unknowns and a, b, c are constant.
Two linear equations with two unknowns
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2

Step-1 : Multiply two equation by any two numbers

such that resulting coefficients of at least one term will
be negative of each other.

Step-2 : Perform addition of two equations.

Example :
5x + 10y = 15
3x + 2y = 5
Cont . .
 Example
Gauss Elimination Method
 GTU QUESTIONS

 Define algorithm. Discuss key characteristics of algorithms. –3 marks

 What is an algorithm? Why analysis of algorithm is required? –3 marks