(15A04602 )ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

PREPARED
BY
R.RANI
Associate Professor
Electronics & Communication Engineering

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 COURSE OUTCOMES

C323.1 Explain the performance characteristics of AC & Dc meters used in instrumentation.

C323.2 Explain the construction, principle and working of CRO and time period &voltage measurements.

Demonstrate the working of function generator, wave analyzers, logic analyzers and spectrum
C323.3
analyzers.

Illustrate the working of AC & DC bridge and measurement of resistance, capacitance, and
C323.4
inductance and Q factor.

C323.5 Explain the principles involved in sensors & transducers.

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 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
B. Tech III-II Sem. (ECE) LTPC
3103
15A04602 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
 Course Objectives:
Studies on various analyzers and signal generators and can analyze the
frequency component of a wave generated and its distortion levels.
Studies on the difference between the various parameters which are to be
measured that are getting out from the different sensors.
 Course Outcomes:
After the completion of the course the students will be able to
Understand basic principles involved in the meters for measuring voltage,
current, resistance, frequency and so on.
Employ CRO for measuring voltage, current, resistance, frequency and so on.
Understand principles of measurements associated with different bridges.
Get complete knowledge regarding working of advanced instruments such as
logic analyzers and spectrum analyzers.

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 UNIT-I
Performance characteristics of Instruments: Static characteristics, Accuracy,
Precision, Resolution, Sensitivity, static and dynamic calibration, Errors in
Measurement, and their statistical analysis, dynamic characteristics-speed of
Response, fidelity, Lag and dynamic error. DC ammeters, DC voltmeters-
multirange, range extension/solid state and differential voltmeters, AC voltmeters –
multirange, range extension. Thermocouple
type RF ammeter, ohm meters, series type, shunt type, multimeter for voltage,
current and resistance measurements.

 UNIT-II
Oscilloscopes: Standard specifications of CRO,CRT features, derivation of
deflection sensitivity, vertical and horizontal amplifiers, horizontal and vertical
deflection systems, sweep trigger pulse, delay line, sync selector circuits, probes for
CRO – active, passive, and attenuator type, triggered sweep CRO, and Delayed
sweep, dual trace/beam CRO, Measurement of amplitude, frequency and phase
(Lissajous method).Principles of sampling oscilloscope, storage oscilloscope, and
digital storage oscilloscope, Digital frequency counters, time & Period
measurements.

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 UNIT-III
 Signal generators-fixed and variable, AF oscillators, function generators, pulse,
random noise, sweep, and arbitrary waveform generators, their standards,
specifications and principles of working (Block diagram approach).Wave
analyzers, Harmonic distortion analyzers, Spectrum analyzers, and Logic
analyzers.
 UNIT-IV
 Review of DC Bridges: Wheatstone bridge, Wein Bridge, errors and precautions in
using bridges, AC bridges: Measurement of inductance-Maxwell‟s bridge,
Anderson Bridge. Measurement of capacitance- SchearingBridge.Kelvin Bridge,
Q-meter, EMI and EMC, Interference and noise reduction techniques.
 UNIT-V
 Sensors and Transducers - Active and passive transducers: Measurement of
displacement (Resistance, capacitance, inductance; LVDT) Force (strain gauges)
Pressure (piezoelectric transducers) Temperature (resistance thermometers,
thermocouples, and thermistors), Velocity, Acceleration, Vibration, pH
measurement Signal Conditioning Circuits.

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 UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
 Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which
serves sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.

 Measurement is the process of determining the

amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used.

 Instrument is a device for determining the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable.

 Electronic instrument is based on electrical or

electronic principles for its measurement functions.

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FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES
 The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
 Indicating – visualize the process/operation
 Recording – observe and save the measurement
reading
 Controlling – to control measurement and process

 Advantages of electronic measurement

 Results high sensitivity rating – the use of amplifier
 Increase the input impedance – thus lower loading
effects
 Ability to monitor remote signal

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 Typical Measurement System Architecture
Noise and Interference

Proce Sensor
Signal
ss or Amp Conditioner
Transducer
or
Test
ADC
Converter
OUR TOPIC IS HERE
Proces
s
PC
Controller comp
… and control and
over the process or experiment data
storage
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Examples of Electronic Sensor applications

Uses infrared optical sensor

New Solar Power Faucet by Sloan Valve
•0.5 gpm aerator regulates water flow
•Electronic sensor automatically turns water
on/off
•Integral temperature control

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
 Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the
performance of an instrument.
 Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.
 Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a
specific measuring jobs.
 Two basic characteristics :
 Static – measuring a constant process condition.
 Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
 Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of
measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
 Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement variable
to which an instrument will respond.
 Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement, i.e successive reading do not differ.
 Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
 Expected value – the design value or the most probable
value that expect to obtain.
 Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired
value.
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ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
 Measurement always introduce error
 Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage of
error
Yn − X n
Absolute error,Ye =
n
where X n – expected value
– measured value
Yn − X n
100
Yn
% error =

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ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Yn − X n
Relative accuracy, A = 1 −
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A 100

Xn − Xn
Precision, P = 1 −
Xn

where X -n value of the nth measurement

-X n average set of measurement

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The precision of a measurement is a quantitative or numerical indication of
the closeness with which a repeated set of measurement of the same
variable agree with the average set of measurements.

Example 1.1

Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.

The measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy

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Solution (Example 1.1)

Given that , expected value = 80V

measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error, e =Yn − X n = 80V – 79V = 1V

Yn − X n 80 − 79
ii. % error = Y 100 =  100 = 1.25%
n 80

Yn − X n
iii. Relative accuracy,A = 1 − = 0.9875
Yn

iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

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Example 1.2
From the value in table 1.1 calculate Table 1.1
the precision of 6th measurement? No Xn
1 98
2 101
Solution
3 102
4 97
the average of measurement value 5 101
98 + 101 + .... + 99 1005 6 100
Xn = = = 100.5
10 10 7 103
8 98
the 6th reading
9 106
Precision = 1 − 100 − 100.5 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.995 10 99
100.5 100.5

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LIMITING ERROR

 The accuracy of measuring instrument is

guaranteed within a certain percentage (%) of
full scale reading
 E.g manufacturer may specify the instrument to
be accurate at 2 % with full scale deflection
 For reading less than full scale, the limiting
error increases

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LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example 1.6

Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy 2% full scale.

Calculate limiting error when the instrument is used to measure
a voltage of 250V?

Solution

The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V

Therefore, the limiting error for 250V = 12/250 x 100 = 4.8%

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LIMITING ERROR (cont)

Example 1.7

Given for certain measurement, a limiting error for voltmeter

at 70V is 2.143% and a limiting error for ammeter at 80mA is
2.813%. Determine the limiting error of the power.

Solution

The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813%

= 4.956%

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Exercise
 A voltmeter is accurate 98% of its full scale reading.
i. If the voltmeter reads 200V on 500V range, what is
the absolute error?
ii. What is the percentage error of the reading in (i).

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Significant Figures

 Significant figures convey actual information regarding the

magnitude and precision of quantity
 More significant figure represent greater precision of
measurement

Example 1.3

Find the precision value of X1 and X2?

X n = 101
X 1 = 98 ===>> 2 s.f
X 2 = 98.5 ===>> 3 s.f

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Solution (Example 1.3)

X n = 101
X 1 = 98===>> 2 s.f
X 2 = 98.5===>> 3 s.f

98 − 101
X1 =
Precision = 1− = 0.97
101
98.5 − 101
X 2 = Precision = 1 − = 0.975 ===>more precise
101

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Significant Figures (cont)

Rules regarding significant figures in calculation

1) For adding and subtraction, all figures in columns to the
right of the last column in which all figures are significant
should be dropped

Example 1.4
V1 = 6.31 V
+ V2 = 8.736 V

Therefore V T = 15.046 V
 15.05 V

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Significant Figures (cont)

2) For multiplication and division, retain only as many

significant figures as the least precise quantity contains

Example 1.5

From the value given below, calculate the value for R1, R2
and power for R1?

I = 0.0148 A ===> 4 s.f

V1 = 6.31 V ===> 2 s.f
V2 = 8.736 V ===> 3 s.f

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Solution (Example 1.5)

V1 6.31V
R1 = = = 426.35 = 426 ===> 3 s.f
I 0.0148 A

V2 8.736V
R2 = = = 590.27 = 590 ===> 3 s.f
I 0.0148 A

P1 = V1  I = (6.31V ) (0.0148 A)
= 0.09339
= 0.0934 ===> 3 s.f

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Significant Figures (cont)
3) When dropping non-significant figures

0.0148 ==> 0.015 (2 s.f )

==> 0.01 (1 s.f )

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TYPES OF STATIC ERROR

 Types of static error

1) Gross error/human error

2) Systematic Error
3) Random Error

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1. Gross Errors or Human Errors
– Resulting from carelessness, e.g. misreading,
incorrectly recording

Serious measurement errors can occur if an instrument is not read

correctly. The digital instrument is on a 300 mA range, so its
reading is in milliamperes. For the analog meter, the range
selection must be noted, and the pointer position must be read
from the correct scale 29
 Absolute Errors and Relative Errors

Percentage accuracy gives the relative error in a measured, or

specified quantity. The absolute error can be determined by
converting the percentage error into an absolute quantity

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• Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant
Figures
– Accuracy (A) and Precision
• The measurement accuracy of 1% defines how close the
measurement is to the actual measured quality.
• The precision is not the same as the accuracy of measurement,
but they are related

Measurement precision depends on the smallest change that can be

observed in the measured quantity. A 1mV change will be indicated on the
digital voltmeter display above. For the analog instrument, 50 mV is the
smallest change that can be noted 31
a) If the measured quantity increases or decreases by 1 mV, the reading
becomes 8.936 V or 8.934 V respectively. Therefore, the voltage is
measured with a precision of 1 mV.
b) The pointer position can be read to within one-fourth of the smallest
scale division. Since the smallest scale division represents 0.2 V, one-
fourth of the scale division is 50 mV.
➢ Resolution
The measurement precision of an instrument defines the smallest
change in measured quantity that can be observed. This smallest
observable change is the resolution of the instrument.
➢ Significant Figures
The number of significant figures indicate the precision of
measurement.

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Example 2.1: An analog voltmeter is used to measure voltage of
50V across a resistor. The reading value is 49 V. Find
a) Absolute Error
b) Relative Error
c) Accuracy
d) Percent Accuracy

Solution
a) e = X t − X m = 50V − 49V = 1V
Xt − Xm
b) % Error = 100%
Xt
50V − 49V
= 100% = 2%
50V
c) A = 1 − % Error = 1 − 2% = 0.98
d) % Acc = 100% − 2% = 98% 33
Measurement Error Combinations

➢When a quantity is calculated from measurements made on two (or

more) instruments, it must be assumed that the errors due to instrument
inaccuracy combine is the worst possible way.
➢Sum of Quantities
Where a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the
total error is the sum of the absolute errors in each measurement.

E = (V1  ΔV1 ) + (V2  ΔV2 )

giving E = (V1 + V2 )  ( ΔV1 + ΔV2 )

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 ➢Difference of Quantities
The error of the difference of two measurements are again additive

E = (V1  ΔV1 ) − (V2  ΔV2 )

= (V1 − V2 )  (ΔV1 + ΔV2 )

➢Product of Quantities
When a calculated quantity is the product of two or more quantities,
the percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in each
quantity
P = EI
= (E  ΔE )(I ΔI )
= EI  EΔ I  IΔ E  ΔEΔI
since ΔEΔI is very small ,
P  EI  (EΔ I  IΔ E )

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Example: An 820Ω resistance with an accuracy of  10% carries a current of
10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25mA range
with an accuracy of  2% of full scale. Calculate the power dissipated in the
resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result.

Solution
P = I 2 R = (10 mA)  820
2

= 82 mW
error in R =  10%
error in I =  2% of 25 mA
=  0.5 mA
 0.5 mA
= 100% =  5%
10 mA

%error in I 2 = 2( 5%) =  10%

( )
%error in P = %error in I 2 + (%error in R )
=  (10% + 10%) =  20%

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➢Deviation
• Difference between any one measured value and
the arithmetic mean of a series of measurements
• May be positive or negative, and the algebraic sum
of the deviations is always zero
dn = x n − x

• The average deviation (D) may be calculated as the

average of the absolute values of the deviations.
d1 + d 2 + d 3 + ... + d n
D=
n

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➢Standard Deviation and Probable of Error
✓Variance: the mean-squared value of the deviations
d 2
+ d 2
+ ... + d 2
2 = 1 2 n
n
✓Standard deviation or root mean squared (rms)
d12 + d 22 + ... + d 2n
SD or σ =
n
✓For the case of a large number of measurements in
which only random errors are present, it can be shown
that the probable error in any one measurement is
0.6745 times the standard deviation:

Probable Error = 0.6745

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Example: The accuracy of five digital voltmeters are checked by using each of
them to measure a standard 1.0000V from a calibration instrument. The
voltmeter readings are as follows: V1 = 1.001 V, V2 = 1.002, V3 = 0.999, V4 =
0.998, and V5 = 1.000. Calculate the average measured voltage and the
average deviation.
Solution
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5
Vav =
5
1.001 + 1.002 + 0.999 + 0.998 + 1.000
= = 1.000 V
5
d1 = V1 − Vav = 1.001 − 1.000 = 0.001V
d 2 = V2 − Vav = 1.002 − 1.000 = 0.002 V
d 3 = 0.999 − 1.000 = − 0.001V
d 4 = 0.998 − 1.000 = − 0.002 V
d 5 = 1.000 − 1.000 = 0 V
d1 + d 2 + ... + d 5
D =
5
0.001 + 0.002 + 0.001 + 0.002 + 0
= = 0.0012 V
5
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Instrument ‘loading’ effect : Some measuring instruments depend for
their operation on power taken from the circuit in which measurements are
being made. Depending on the ‘loading’ effect of the instrument (i.e. the current
taken to enable it to operate), the prevailing circuit conditions may change.
The resistance of voltmeters may be calculated since each have a stated
sensitivity (or ‘figure of merit’), often stated in ‘k per volt’ of f.s.d. A voltmeter
should have as high a resistance as possible ( ideally infinite).
In a.c. circuits the impedance of the instrument varies with frequency and thus
the loading effect of the instrument can change.
Example:
Calculate the power dissipated by the voltmeter and by resistor R in Figure 10.9 when
(a) R=250 Ω, (b) R=2 MΩ. Assume that the voltmeter sensitivity (sometimes called
figure of merit) is 10 kΩ/V.

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41
2. Systematic Error: due to shortcomings of the instrument
(such as defective or worn parts, ageing or effects of the
environment on the instrument)
• In general, systematic errors can be subdivided into static and
dynamic errors.
– Static – caused by limitations of the measuring device or the
physical laws governing its behavior.
– Dynamic – caused by the instrument not responding very fast
enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.
- 3 types of systematic error :-
(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error

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Types of static error
(i) Instrumental error
- inherent while measuring instrument because of
their mechanical structure (eg: in a D’Arsonval meter,
friction in the bearings of various moving component,
irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)
- error can be avoid by:
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application
(b) apply correction factor by determining
instrumental error
(c) calibrate the instrument against standard

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(ii) Environmental error
- due to external condition effecting the
measurement including surrounding area condition
such as change in temperature, humidity,
barometer pressure, etc
- to avoid the error :-
(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields

(iii) Observational error

- introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and estimation error
(while reading the scale)
- Eg: an observer who tend to hold his head too far to
the left while reading the position of the needle on the
scale.
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3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic
error has accounted
- accumulation of small effect, require at high
degree of
accuracy
- can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best
approximation
of true value

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2- Systematic Errors versus Random errors

➢Systematic Errors
✓Instrumental Errors
▪Friction
▪Zero positioning
✓Environment Errors
▪Temperature
▪Humidity
▪Pressure
✓Observational Error
➢Random Errors 46
Dynamic Characteristics
 Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.
 Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in
the measured variables due to such things as mass, thermal
capacitance, fluid capacitance or electrical capacitance.
 Pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument waits for some reaction to take place.
 Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for
measuring quantities that fluctuate with time.
 Therefore, the dynamic and transient behavior of the
instrument is important.

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Dynamic Characteristics
 The dynamic behavior of an instrument is
determined by subjecting its primary element
(sensing element) to some unknown and
predetermined variations in the measured
quantity.
 The three most common variations in the
measured quantity:
 Step change
 Linear change
 Sinusoidal change

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Dynamic Characteristics
 Step change-in which the primary element is subjected to
an instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.
 Linear change-in which the primary element is following
the measured variable, changing linearly with time.
 Sinusoidal change-in which the primary element follows
a measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in
accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.

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Dynamic Characteristics
• The dynamic performance characteristics of an
instrument are:
– Speed of response- The rapidity with which an
instrument responds changes in measured quantity.
– Dynamic error-The difference between the true and
measured value with no static error.
– Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to
changes in the measured variable.
– Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error (faithful reproduction).

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Standard
 A standard is a known accurate measure of physical
quantity.
 Standards are used to determine the values of other
physical quantities by the comparison method.
 All standards are preserved at the International Bureau of
Weight and Measures (BIMP), Paris.
 Four categories of standard:
 International Standard
 Primary Standard
 Secondary Standard
 Working Standard

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Standard
 International Std
 Defined by International Agreement
 Represent the closest possible accuracy attainable by the current
science and technology

 Primary Std
 Maintained at the National Std Lab (different for every country)
 Function: the calibration and verification of secondary std
 Each lab has its own secondary std which are periodically checked and
certified by the National Std Lab.
 For example, in Malaysia, this function is carried out by SIRIM.

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Standard
 Secondary Standard
 Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement
and calibration laboratories in industries.
 Each industry has its own secondary standard.
 Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National
standards laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary
standard.
 After comparison and calibration, the National Standards Laboratory
returns the secondary standards to particular industrial laboratory with a
certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.

 Working Std
 Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for accuracy and performance.
 For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors,
resistors and many more use a standard called a working standard for
checking the component values being manufactured.

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ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
• Basic elements of an electronics instrument
Signal Indicating
Transducer Modifier Device

1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
- e.g: a pressure sensor detect pressure and convert it to electricity for
display at a remote gauge.
2) Signal modifier
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the indicating
device
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measure

54
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

 Selection, care and use of the instrument :-

✓ Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly
familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully
✓ Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy
required (accuracy + resolution + cost)
✓ Before used any selected instrument, do the inspection for
any physical problem
✓ Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make
sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’
has been set-up at the proper function or range

55
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Analog Multimeter
56
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Digital Multimeter
57
CHAPTER REVIEW
 Define the terms accuracy, error, precision, resolution, expected value
and sensitivity.
 State three major categories of error.
 A person using an ohmmeter reads the measured value as 470 ohm
when the actual value is 47 ohm. What kind of error does this
represent?
 State the classifications of standards.
 What are primary standards? Where are they used?
 What is the difference between secondary standards and working
standards?
 State three basic elements of electronic instrument.

58
Oscilloscopes
Objectives:
 This final chapter discusses the key instruments of
electronic measurement with special emphasis on the most versatile
instrument of electronic measurement—the cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO).
 The objective of this book will remain unrealized without
a discussion on the CRO.
 The chapter begins with the details of construction of
the CRO, and proceeds to examine the active and passive mode input–
output waveforms for filter circuits and lead-lag network delay.
 This will be followed by a detailed study of the dual beam
CRO and its uses in op-amp circuit integrator, differentiator, inverting
and non-inverting circuits, comparative waveform study, and accurate
measurement with impeccable visual display.
 In addition to the CRO, the chapter also examines the
sweep frequency generator, the function generator, the sine wave
generator, the
square wave generator and the AF signal generator.
INTRODUCTION:
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a
multipurpose display instrument used for the observation,
measurement , and analysis of waveforms by plotting amplitude along
y-axis and time along x-axis.
 CRO is generally an x-y plotter; on a single screen it
can display different signals applied to different channels. It can
measure amplitude, frequencies and phase shift of various signals.
Many physical quantities like temperature, pressure
 and strain can be converted into electrical signals by the use of
transducers, and the signals can be displayed on the CRO.
 A moving luminous spot over the screen displays the
signal. CROs are used to study waveforms, and other time-varying
phenomena from very low to very high frequencies.
 The central unit of the oscilloscope is the cathode-
ray tube (CRT), and the remaining part of the CRO consists of the
circuitry required to operate the cathode-ray tube.
Block diagram of a cathode-ray
oscilloscope:
COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:

The CRO consists of the following:

 (i) CRT
 (ii) Vertical amplifier
 (iii) Delay line
 (iv) Horizontal amplifier
 (v) Time-base generator
 (vi) Triggering circuit
 (vii) Power supply
CATHODE-RAY TUBE:
 The electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting
system and the fluorescent screen are the three major components of
a general purpose CRT. A detailed diagram of the cathode-ray oscilloscope is
given in Fig. 14-2.
Electron Gun:
 In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted,
converted into a sharp beam and focused upon the fluorescent screen.
 The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated
cathode, a control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode.
 The electrodes are connected to the base pins. The
cathode emitting the electrons is surrounded by a control grid with a
fine hole at its centre.
 The accelerated electron beam passes through the fine
hole.
 The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow
of electrons in the electron beam, and consequently, the brightness of
the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
Deflection Systems:
 Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is
used in a general purpose oscilloscope. The deflecting
system consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical
deflecting plates.
 Let us consider two parallel vertical deflecting
plates P1 and P2. The beam is focused at point O on the
screen in the absence of a deflecting plate voltage.

 If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1 with

respect to plate P2, the negatively charged electrons are
attracted towards the positive plate P1, and these electrons
will come to focus at point Y1 on the fluorescent screen.
Deflection Systems:
The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between
the plates. If the polarity of the deflecting voltage is reversed, the spot
appears at the point Y2, as shown in Fig. 14-3(a).
 Deflection Systems:
 To deflect the beam horizontally, an alternating voltage is applied to the horizontal
deflecting plates and the spot on the screen horizontally, as shown in Fig. 14-3(b).
 The electrons will focus at point X2. By changing the polarity of voltage, the beam will focus
at point X1. Thus, the horizontal movement is controlled along X1OX2 line.
Spot Beam Deflection Sensitivity:
Electrostatic Deflection:
Electrostatic Deflection:
Electrostatic Deflection:
Electrostatic Deflection:
Fluorescent Screen:
 Phosphor is used as screen material on the inner
surface of a CRT. Phosphor absorbs the energy of the
incident electrons. The spot of light is produced on the
screen where the electron beam hits.
 The bombarding electrons striking the screen,
release secondary emission electrons. These electrons are
collected or trapped by an aqueous solution of graphite
called “Aquadag” which is connected to the second anode.
 Collection of the secondary electrons is
necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical
equilibrium.
 The type of phosphor used, determines the
color of the light spot. The brightest available phosphor
isotope, P31, produces yellow–green light with relative
luminance of 99.99%.
Display waveform on the screen:
Figure 14-5(a) shows a sine wave applied to vertical deflecting plates and a
repetitive ramp or saw-tooth applied to the horizontal plates.
 The ramp waveform at the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to be
deflected horizontally across the screen.
 If the waveforms are perfectly synchronized then the exact sine wave applied
to the vertical display appears on the CRO display screen.
Triangular waveform:
 Similarly the display of the triangular waveform is as shown in Fig. 14-5(b).
TIME-BASE GENERATORS:
 The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the
wave form is to be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal
velocity.
 As the beam velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, the deflecting
voltage must increase linearly with time.
 A voltage with such characteristics is called a ramp voltage. If the voltage
decreases rapidly to zero—with the waveform repeatedly produced, as shown in Fig. 14-
6—we observe a pattern which is generally called a saw-tooth waveform.
 The time taken to return to its initial value is known as flyback or return time.
Simple saw-tooth generator &
associated waveforms:
 The circuit shown in Fig. 14-7(a) is a simple sweep circuit, in which the
capacitor C charges through the resistor R.
 The capacitor discharges periodically through the transistor T1, which
causes the waveform shown in Fig. 14-7(b) to appear across the capacitor.
 The signal voltage, Vi which must be applied to the base of the
transistor to turn it ON for short time intervals is also shown in Fig. 14-7(b).
Time-base generator using UJT:
 The continuous sweep CRO uses the UJT as a time-base generator. When power
is first applied to the UJT, it is in the OFF state and CT changes exponentially through
RT .
 The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and VE reaches the plate voltage
VP.
 The emitter-to-base diode becomes forward biased and the UJT triggers ON.
This provides a low resistance discharge path and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
 When the emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly, the UJT goes
OFF. The capacitor recharges and the cycles repeat.

To improve the sweep linearity, two

separate voltage supplies are used; a low voltage
supply for the UJT and a high voltage supply for the
RTCT circuit. This circuit is as shown in Fig. 14-7(c).

RT is used for continuous control of

frequency within a range and CT is varied or
changed in steps. They are sometimes known as
timing resistor and timing capacitor.
Oscilloscope Amplifiers:
 The purpose of an oscilloscope is to produce a faithful representation of the
signals applied to its input terminals.
 Considerable attention has to be paid to the design of these amplifiers for this
purpose. The oscillographic amplifiers can be classified into two major categories.
(i) AC-coupled amplifiers
(ii) DC-coupled amplifiers
 The low-cost oscilloscopes generally use ac-coupled amplifiers. The ac amplifiers,
used in oscilloscopes, are required for laboratory purposes. The dc-coupled amplifiers are
quite expensive. They
offer the advantage of responding to dc voltages, so it is possible to measure dc voltages as
pure signals
and ac signals superimposed upon the dc signals.
 DC-coupled amplifiers have another advantage. They eliminate the problems of
low-frequency phase shift and waveform distortion while observing low-frequency pulse
train.
 The amplifiers can be classified according to bandwidth use also:
(i) Narrow-bandwidth amplifiers
(ii) Broad-bandwidth amplifiers
Vertical Amplifiers:
 Vertical amplifiers determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of an
oscilloscope. Sensitivity, which is expressed in terms of V/cm of vertical
deflection at the mid-band frequency.
 The gain of the vertical amplifier determines the smallest signal that
the oscilloscope can satisfactorily measure by reproducing it on the CRT screen.
 The sensitivity of an oscilloscope is directly proportional to the gain
of the vertical amplifier. So, as the gain increases the sensitivity also increases.
 The vertical sensitivity measures how much the electron beam will
be deflected for a specified input signal. The CRT screen is covered with a
plastic grid pattern called a graticule.
 The spacing between the grids lines is typically 10 mm. Vertical
sensitivity is generally expressed in volts per division.
 The vertical sensitivity of an oscilloscope measures the smallest
deflection factor that can be selected with the rotary switch.
Frequency response:
 The bandwidth of an oscilloscope detects the range of frequencies
that can be accurately reproduced on the CRT screen. The greater the bandwidth,
the wider is the range of observed frequencies.
 The bandwidth of an oscilloscope is the range of frequencies over
which the gain of the vertical amplifier stays within 3 db of the mid-band
frequency gain, as shown in Fig. 14-8.
 Rise time is defined as the time required for the edge to rise from
10–90% of its maximum amplitude. An approximate relation is given as follows:
MEASUREMENTS USING THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:
MEASUREMENTS USING THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:
 2) Measurement of Phase:

 3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:

Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:
Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:
Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:
Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures:
TYPES OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPES:
 The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether they
are digital or analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as storage
oscilloscopes.
 1. Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and frequency are
measured from the displayed waveform, through direct manual reading.
 2. Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal information,
i.e., the time, voltage or frequency along with signal display. It consists of an
electronic counter along with the main body of the CRO.
 3. Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial
amount of time after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The storage
CRO is also useful for the display of waveforms of low-frequency signals.
 4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall on a
single CRT. The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams.
 These two beams produce two spots of light on the CRT screen which make
the simultaneous observation of two different signal waveforms possible. The
comparison of input and its corresponding output becomes easier using the
dual-beam CRO.
SWEEP FREQUENCY GENERATOR:
 A sweep frequency generator is a
signal generator which can automatically vary
its frequency smoothly and continuously over
an entire frequency range. Figure 14-15 shows
the basic block diagram of a sweep frequency
generator.
 The sweep frequency generator has
the ramp generator and the voltage-tuned
oscillator as its basic components.
Applications of the Sweep Frequency Generator:
FUNCTION GENERATOR:
 The basic components of a function generator are:
 (i) Integrator
 (ii) Schmitt trigger circuit
 (iii) Sine wave converter
 (iv) Attenuator
SINE WAVE GENERATOR:
 A sine wave is produced by converting a triangular wave, applying proper circuits.
The triangular wave is produced by employing an integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit.
 This triangular wave is then converted to a sine wave using the diode loading circuit
,as shown in Fig. 14-19. Resistors R1 and R2 behave as the voltage divider. When VR2 exceeds V1,
the diode D1 becomes forward-biased.
 There is more attenuation of the output voltage levels above V1 than levels below V1.
With the presence of the diode D1 and resistor R3 in the circuit, the output voltage rises less
steeply.
 The output voltage falls below V1 and the diode stops conducting, as it is in reverse-
bias. The circuit behaves as a simple voltage-divider circuit. This is also true for the negative half-
cycle of the input Vi . If R3 is carefully chosen to be the same as R4 , the negative and the positive
cycles of the output voltage will be the same. The output is an approximate sine wave.
SINE WAVE GENERATOR:
 The approximation may be further improved by employing
a six-level diode loading circuit, as shown in Fig. 14-20(a).
SINE WAVE GENERATOR:
 The circuit is adjusted by comparing a 1 kHz sine wave and the
output of the triangular/sine wave converter on a dual-track CRO. R1, R2, R3 and the
peak amplitude of Ei are adjusted in sequence for the best sinusoidal shape.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SINE WAVE GENERATOR:
SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR
 A square wave can be most easily obtained from an operational amplifier
astable multi-vibrator. An astable multi-vibrator has no stable state—the output
oscillates continuously between high and low states.
 In Fig. 14-21, the block comprising the op-amp, resistors R2 and R3
constitutes a Schmitt trigger circuit. The capacitor C1 gets charged through the resistor
R1. When the voltage of the capacitor reaches the upper trigger point of the Schmitt
trigger circuit, the output of the op-amp switches to output low. This is because the
Schmitt trigger is a non-inverting type. Now, when the op-amp output is low, the
capacitor C1 starts getting discharged.
SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR:
 As the capacitor discharges and the capacitor voltage reaches the
lower trigger point of the Schmitt trigger, the output of the op-amp switches
back to the output high state.
 The capacitor charges through the resistor again and the next
cycle begins. The process is repetitive and produces a square wave at the
output.
 The frequency of the output square wave depends on the time
taken by the capacitor to get charged and discharged when the capacitor
voltage varies from UTP (upper trigger point) and LTP (lower trigger point).
AF SIGNAL GENERATOR:
POINTS TO REMEMBER:
 1. CRO is used to study waveforms.
 2. CRT is the main component of a CRO.
 3. Prosperous P31 is used for the fluorescent screen of a CRO.
 4. A CRO has the following components:
 (a) Electron gun
 (b) Deflecting system
 (c) Florescent screen
 5. Lissajous figures are used to measure frequency and phase of the
waves under study.
 6. A time-base generator produces saw-tooth voltage.
 7. An oscilloscope amplifier is used to provide a faithful representation
of input signal applied to its input terminals.
IMPORTANT FORMULAE:
Distortion Analyzer
Distortion – the alteration of the original shape of a waveform.

Function of distortion analyzer: measuring the extent of distortion (the o/p differs
from the waveform at the i/p) introduced by the active or passive devices.
An amplitude distorted sine wave is made up of pure sine wave components,
including the fundamental frequency, f of the input signal, and harmonic multiples of
fundamental frequency, 2f, 3f, 4f, etc.

Harmonic distortion can be measured accurately using harmonic distortion

analyzer, generally called a distortion analyzer.
The total harmonic distortion (THD) is given by :
Continue..

The total harmonic distortion (THD) can also

be
written as :
Continue..
Wave Analyzer
A harmonic distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic content in a waveform.
Any complex waveform is made up of a fundamental and its
harmonics.

Wave analyzer is used to measure the amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental

frequency individually.
Wave analyzers are also referred to as frequency selective voltmeters, carrier
frequency voltmeters, and selective level voltmeters.

The instrument is tuned to the frequency of one component whose amplitude is

measured.

Some wave analyzers have the automatic frequency control which tunes to the
signal automatically.
 Wave Analyzer
Working process for wave analyzer
 The analyzer consists of a primary detector, which is a simple
LC circuit.
 The LC circuit is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the
particular harmonic component to be measured.
 It passes only the frequency to which it is tuned and provides a
high attenuation to all other frequencies.
 The full wave rectifier is used to get the average value of the
input signal.
 The indicating device is a simple dc voltmeter that is calibrated
to read the peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage.
Function Generator
What is a function generator?
 A function generator is a device that can produce
various patterns of voltage at a variety of frequencies
and amplitudes.

 It is used to test the response of circuits to common

input signals. The electrical leads from the device are
attached to the ground and signal input terminals of
the device under test.
Features and controls
 Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the
output from a small number of options.
 -Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
-Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low
voltage.
-Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed
rate
 The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage
difference between the high and low voltage of the output signal.
 The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies
the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground.
Continue..
 The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate
at which output signal oscillates. On some function generators,
the frequency control is a combination of different controls.

 One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order

of magnitude) and the other selects the precise frequency. This
allows the function generator to handle the enormous variation
in frequency scale needed for signals.
Block diagram of a function
generator
Output waveform
 Freq. Control – regulates two currents sources (control the
freq).

 Upper current source – supplies constant current to the

integrator, produces an output voltage that is increasing linearly
with time.
 Lower current source – supplies a reverse current to the
integrator so that its output decreases linearly with time.
• The integrator output voltage is given by :

• Frequency is controlled by varying upper and lower currents.

• An increase or decrease in the current will increase or

decrease the slope of the output voltage, hence controls the
frequency.

• The voltage comparator – changes states at a pre-determined

maximum and minimum level of the integrator output voltage.

• When the pre-determined level is reached, it changes the

state and switches the current source.

• Produces a square wave.

 The integrator output is a triangular waveform whose frequency is
determined by the magnitude of the constant current sources.

 The comparator output delivers a square wave of the same frequency.

 The resistance diode network produces a sine wave from the triangular
wave with less than 1% distortion.
UNIT-IV

117
Wheatstone Bridge and Balance
DC
Condition: Bridge
s
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001
Ω
 Transducer
➢ A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to
another.
➢ The input transducer is called the sensor.
➢ The output transducer is called the actuator.

129
Input and Output
Transducers

130
 Basic requirements of a transducers

The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the measurement under
specified limits for which it is designed.

➢ RUGGEDNESS (Capability of withstanding overload)

➢ LINEARITY (input – output characteristics should be linear)
➢ REPEATABILITY (should reproduce same output signal when the same
input signal is applied again and again)
➢ HIGH OUTPUT SIGNAL QUALITY (quality of output signal should be
good)
➢ HIGH RELIABILITY & STABILITY
➢ GOOD DYNAMIC RESPONSE (output should be faithful to input when
taken as a function of time)
➢ NO HYSTERESIS (should not give any hysteresis during measurement)
➢ RESIDUAL DEFORMATION (should be no deformation on removal of
local after long period of application)
131
 CLASSIFICATON OF TRANSDUCERS

PRIMARY ACTIVE AND ANALOG TRANSDUCE

AND PASSIVE AND RS AND
SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS DIGITAL INVERSE
TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCE TRANSDUCE
S RS RS (An inverse
transducer is a device
which that converts an
electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity)

132
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

133
 Active and Passive Transducers
 Active Transducers: The output energy of Active
Transducers is supplied entirety or almost entirety by its
input signal.
 Passive Transducers: Have an auxiliary source of power.
This power source is necessary for the operation of
passive transducers.

Thermocouple (Active Transducer) Mic (Passive Transdu

134
 Primary Sensing Element

 sometimes called pickup, sensor, or transducer.

 It detects the physical variable to be measured,e.g. pressure,
temperature, rate of flow, etc. and converts the signal into
amore usable form.
 In practice the physical variable is usually transformed into a
mechanical or an electrical signal.

135
Analog and Digital

136
Resistive Transducer ( Potentiometer)
Wiper
Contact

Translatory ( Displacement)

Helipot
Angular
Displace
R2
ment
Vo = VT
Rotational
R1 + R2 137
 Resistive Transducer
Fluid Level Sensor With A Float

The voltage V across the wiper of a linear pot is proportional to the displacement d
V= E (d/D)
Where D is the full-scale displacement and
E is the voltage across the pot
138
Resistance Pressure Transducer

Sensitive Diaphragm Moves

Resistance Pressure Transducer
Resistance Contact
139
Bellows and Diaphragm

140
Resistive Transducer

141
Resistance Pressure Transducer

Construction Typical Method

142
Wiper Contact

143
Strain Gauges
1. Wire Strain Gauges
➢ Resistance Wire
➢ i. Unbounded ii. Bounded
➢ Wire Types
➢ i. Grid ii. Rossette ii. Torque iv. Helical
2. Foil Strain Gauges
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauges

144
 Stress and Strain
➢Stress is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area. It
is a measure of the intensity of the total internal forces acting within a body
across imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction to external applied forces
and body forces.
In general, stress is expressed as
σ is the average stress, also called nominal stress and F is the force acting
over the area A.
➢ Strain is the geometrical expression of deformation caused by the action
of stress on a physical body. Strain is calculated by first assuming a change
between two body states: the beginning state and the final state. Then the
difference in placement of two points in this body in those two states
expresses the numerical value of strain. Strain therefore expresses itself as a
change in size and/or shape.
The strain is defined as the fractional change in length
l
Strain is thus a unit less quantity strain =
l
Stress and Strain

146
Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge

147
Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge

 l
R=
A
Resistance

R
GF ( K ) = R
l
l
Guage Factor ( K)

148
Strain Gauge In Bridge Arrangement

149
Types of Strain Gauges

Grid Type Strain Gauge Rossette Gauge

150
Types of Strain Gauges

Torque Type Gauges Helical Gauge

120 Ω, 350 Ω & 1000 Ω

151
Foil Strain Gauges
Better for higher operating
temperature ranges

0.2mm thick

50 & 1000 Ω

152
Semiconductor Strain Gauges
For Very high Gauge Factor (+130)

0.7 – 7.0 mm

Resistances as Wired Types

153
 Temperature Measurement
The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) defines six primary fixed
points for reference temperatures in terms of:
➢ The triple point of equilibrium hydrogen 259.34C
➢ The boiling point of oxygen 182.962C
➢ The boiling point of water 100.0C
➢ The freezing point of zinc 419.58C
➢ The freezing point of silver 961.93C
➢ The freezing point of gold 1064.43C
(all at standard atmospheric pressure)
The freezing points of certain other metals are also used as secondary fixed points
to provide additional reference points during calibration procedures.

154
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate
classes according to the physical principle on which they operate.
The main principles used are:
➢ The thermoelectric effect
➢ Resistance change
➢ Sensitivity of semiconductor device
➢ Radiative heat emission
➢ Thermography
➢ Thermal expansion
➢ Resonant frequency change
➢ Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
➢ Acoustic thermometry
➢ Colour change
➢ Change of state of material.
155
Resistance Thermometer

156
THERMISTOR
THERMally sensitive resISTOR

Bead Type (0.15

Disk Type (10mm)
mm)

Rod Type
4mm dia Washer Type
12.5-50mmlong
157
Thermistors
THERMally sensitive resISTOR

Thermistor
Example
158
RTD , Thermistor & Thermocouple

159
Thermocouple

Thermocouple Current through Two

Connection Dissimilar Metals

V = α(Th - Seebeck Effect Circuit

160
Seebeck effect & Peltier effect

161
Thermocouples (Types)

162
Thermocouple
O/p Voltage Vs Temperature

163
Thermocouple circuit

164
Thermocouple Compensation Circuits

Type T

Cold Junction Compensation

Type K

165
Type J Thermocouple using
Isothermal Block

166
Reference Junction Compensation

Reference Junction
Compensation

167
 Thermopiles
Multiple-junction thermocouple circuit designed to amplify the output of the circuit

Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

T Srinivasa Rao (EC-315) 168
Thermocouples in Parallel

169
Different Types of Thermocouples

170
Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples
✓ Wide temperature range (-270oC to 2700oC
✓ Rugged Construction
✓ Bridge Circuits not required for temperature measurement.
✓ Comparatively cheaper in cost
✓ Good reproducibility
✓ Speed of response is high compared to thermometer systems.
✓ Calibration checks can be easily performed
✓ Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distance transmission for
temperature measurement is possible.
✓ Good Accuracy

❖ Compensation circuits is essential for accurate measurements

❖ They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus temperature characteristics.
❖ Many applications needs signal amplifications.
❖ Proper separation of extension leads from thermocouple is required to avoid stray
electrical signal pickup.

171
Variable Inductance type Transducer
➢Inductive transducers: Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit
where a change in the current flowing through that circuit induces an
electromotive force (EMF) that opposes the change in current.
✓In electrical circuits, any electric current i produces a magnetic field and
hence generates a total magnetic flux Φ acting on the circuit. This magnetic
flux, according to Lenz's law tends to oppose changes in the flux by generating
a voltage (a counter emf) that tends to oppose the rate of change in the current.
➢The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the self-inductance
which is usually simply referred to as the inductance of the circuit
➢Mutual Inductance: When the varying flux field from one coil or circuit
element induces an emf in a neighboring coil or circuit element, the effect is
called Mutual Inductance.
✓Magnetic reluctance or magnetic resistance, is analogous to resistance in an
electrical circuit. In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric
current to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic
flux to follow the path of least magnetic reluctance. Permeance is the
reciprocal of reluctance
172
 Variation of Self Inductance
When a single coil is used as a transducer element, the mechanical input
changes the permeance of the flux path generated by the coil, thereby
changing its inductance. This change can be measured by a suitable circuit,
indicating the value of the input. As shown in fig. below, the flux path may
be changed by a change in the air gap.

Meter ~ Exciter

Air gap

Armature
movement

Single Coil Self inductance

Linear and Angular Inductive Transducers
arrangement 173
 Variation of Self Inductance
The Two Coil arrangement, is a single coil with a center tap. Movement of
the core alters the relative inductance of the two coils. These transducers are
incorporated in inductive bridge circuit in which variation in inductance
ratio between the two coils provides the output. This is used as a secondary
transducer for pressure measurement.

Core of magnetic
material Non magnetic
material

Variable Permeability
Inductive Transducers Variable self inductance -Two Coil (Single coil
with center tap)
174
 Variation of Mutual Inductance
In this type, the flux from a power coil is coupled to a pickup coil, which
supplies the output. Input information in the form of armature displacement,
changes the coupling between the coils. The air gap between the core and the
armature govern the degree of coupling.

Power coil
Pickup coil

To stage II
Excitation ~ Air gap circuitry

Armature
movement
Two Coil Mutual Inductance Transducer

175
 Variable Reluctance Transducer

A Variable reluctance Transducers are used for dynamic applications, where the
flux lines supplied by a permanent magnet are cut by the turns of the coil. Some means of
providing relative motion is included into the device.
The fig shows a simple type of reluctance pickup consisting of a coil wound on a
permanent magnetic core. Any variation of the permeance of the magnetic circuit causes a
change in the flux, which is brought about by a serrated surface subjected to movement.
As the flux field expands or collapses, a voltage
N is induced in the coil.
Permanent magnet

To CRO
Serrated
surface
S

176
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Three Coil mutual inductance device (LVDT)

177
178
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
A RVDT is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring Angular
Displacement .

The RVDT construction is similar in construction to LVDT, except that a

cam-shaped core replaces the core in the LVDT as shown below.

179
 Capacitive Transducers
The principle of these type is that variations in capacitance are used to produce
measurement of many physical phenomenon such as dynamic pressure,
displacement, force, humidity, etc. 0.088 KA( N − 1)
An equation for capacitance is C= Pico farads
d
Where K= dielectric constant (for air K=1),
A= area of one side of one plate,
N= Number of plates,
d= Separation of plate surfaces (cm)

Capacitance is the ability of a body to hold an electrical charge.

Capacitance is also a measure of the amount of electric charge stored for a
given electric potential. A common form of charge storage device is a two-plate
capacitor. If the charges on the plates are +Q and −Q, and V gives the voltage
between the plates, then the capacitance is given by C=(Q/V)
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad = 1 coulomb per volt

180
 Capacitive Transducer
Capacitance
Capacitance Pickup to
measure liquid level Central
(Changing dielectric electrode

constant) Hollow tube

Liquid
Opening

The above fig. shows a device used for the measurement of liquid level in a
container. The capacitance between the central electrode and the surrounding
hollow tube varies with changing dielectric constant brought about by changing
liquid level. Thus the capacitance between the electrodes is a direct indication
of the liquid level. Variation in dielectric constant can also be utilized for
measurements of thickness, density, etc.
181
 Capacitive Transducer
(Torque meter)
Sleeve

Internal member Air gap

Capacitance changes depending on the change in effective area. This principle

is used in the secondary transducing element of a Torque meter. This device
uses a sleeve with serrations cut axially and a matching internal member with
similar serrations as shown in the above fig.
Torque carried by an elastic member causes a shift in the relative positions of
the serrations, thereby changing the effective area. The resulting capacitance
change may be calibrated to read the torque directly.
182
 Capacitive Transducer
(Capacitive Type Pressure Transducer)
The capacitance varies inversely as the distance between the plates. The fig
shows a capacitive type pressure transducer where the pressure applied to the
diaphragms changes the distance between the diaphragm & the fixed
electrode which can be taken as a measure of pressure.
Fixed electrode

Capacitance
Change in
clearance 'd'

Diaphragm
Pressure 183
 Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1) Requires extremely small forces to operate and are highly sensitive
(2) They have good frequency response and hence useful for dynamic
measurements.
(3) High resolution can be obtained.
(4) They have high input impedance & hence loading effects are minimum.
(5) These transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic
fields render the inductive transducers useless.
Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1) Metallic parts must be properly insulated and the frames must be
earthed.
(2) They show nonlinear behaviour due to edge effects and guard rings must
be used to eliminate this effect.
(3) They are sensitive to temperature affecting their performance.
(4) The instrumentation circuitry used with these transducers are complex.
(5) Capacitance of these transducers may change with presence of dust
particles & moisture.
184
 Piezo-Electric Transducers
Certain materials can produce an electrical potential when subjected to
mechanical strain or conversely, can change dimensions when subjected to
voltage. This effect is called ‘Piezoelectric effect'.
F

Piezoelectric
crystal Output voltage
E=gtp

The fig shows a piezoelectric crystal placed between two plate electrodes and
when a force ‘F’ is applied to the plates, a stress will be produced in the
crystal and a corresponding deformation. The induced charge Q=d × F where
‘d’ is the piezoelectric constant.
The output voltage E=g × t × p where ‘t’ is crystal thickness, ‘p’ is the
impressed pressure & ‘g’ is called voltage sensitivity given by g=(d/e), e being
the strain.
185
 Piezo-Electric Materials
The common piezoelectric materials are quartz, Rochelle salt
(Potassium sodium tartrate), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and
ordinary sugar. The desirable properties are stability, high output,
insensitivity to temperature and humidity and ability to be formed into
desired shape.
Quartz is most suitable and is used in electronic oscillators. Its output
is low but stable.
Rochelle salt provides highest output, but requires protection from
moisture in air & cannot be used above 45oC.
Barium titanate is polycrystalline, thus it can be formed into a variety
of sizes & shapes.

Piezoelectric transducers are used to measure surface roughness,

strain, force & torque, Pressure, motion & noise.
186
 Photoelectric Transducers
A photoelectric transducer converts a light beam into a usable electric signal. As
shown in the fig, light strikes the photo emissive cathode and releases electrons,
which are attracted towards the anode, thereby producing an electric current in the
circuit. The cathode & the anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz envelope, which is
either evacuated or filled with an inert gas. The photo electric sensitivity is given by
I=s × f
Where I=Photoelectric current, s=sensitivity, f=illumination of the cathode.
The response of the photoelectric tube to different wavelengths is influenced by
(i)The transmission characteristics of the glass tube envelope and
(ii) Photo emissive characteristics of the cathode material.
Anode
I
Light
Photoelectric tubes are
R E
useful for counting
purposes through periodic
Cathode interruption of a light
T Srinivasa Rao
- + source 187
 Photoconductive Transducers
The principle of these transducers is when light strikes a semiconductor
material, its resistance decreases, there by producing an increase in the
current. The fig shows a cadmium sulphide semiconductor material to which a
voltage is applied and when light strikes, an increase in current is indicated by
the meter.
Photoconductive transducers are used to measure radiation at all wavelengths.
But extreme experimental difficulties are encountered when operating with
long wavelength radiations.
Light Ammeter

Semiconductor
material - +
E
188
Digital Transducers

189
References
➢ Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques
by W D Cooper & A D Helfrick
➢ Electronic Instrumentation, H S Kalsi
➢ Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook
by John G. Webster .
➢ http://www.omega.com
➢ http://www.howstuffworks.com

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