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Effective Group Discussion Theory and Practice
International Student Edition Gloria J. Galanes Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Gloria J. Galanes, Katherine L. Adams, Stephen A. Spates, Stephen
A. Spates
ISBN(s): 9781266226373, 1266226370
Edition: 16
File Details: PDF, 16.24 MB
Year: 2024
Language: english
EFFECTIVE
GROUP
DISCUSSION
Theory and Practice
 SIXTEENTH EDITION

EFFECTIVE
GROUP
DISCUSSION
Theory and Practice

GLORIA J. GALANES
Missouri State University

KATHERINE L. ADAMS
California State University, Fresno

CARRISA S. HOELSCHER
Missouri State University

STEPHEN A. SPATES
Missouri State University
 Final PDF to printer

EFFECTIVE GROUP DISCUSSION

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019. Copyright ©2024 by
McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without
the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 28 27 26 25 24 23

ISBN 978-1-266-22637-3
MHID 1-266-22637-0

Cover Image: Fizkes/Shutterstock

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does
not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the
accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
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ISTUDY gaL26370_fm_ise ii 12/27/22 04:45 PM

Brief Contents

Preface xiii

PART I THE FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATING IN GROUPS 1

1 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 3
2 Human Communication Processes in the Small Group Context 21
3 The Small Group as a System 53

PART II DEVELOPING THE GROUP 77

4 Diversity and the Effects of Culture 79
5 The Members and Their Roles 111

PART III SMALL GROUP THROUGHPUT PROCESSES 137

6 Communication and Group Culture: Tensions, Fantasy, Socialization,
Norms, and Climate 139
7 Leading Small Groups: Theoretical Perspectives 171
8 Leading Small Groups: Practical Tips 199

PART IV IMPROVING GROUP OUTPUTS 227

9 Problem Solving and Decision Making in Groups: Theoretical Perspectives 229
10 Problem Solving and Decision Making in Groups: Practical Tips and Techniques 263
11 Managing Conflict in the Small Group 295

PART V GROUP OBSERVATION AND EVALUATION TOOLS 327

12 Tools for Assessing and Evaluating Groups 329
Appendix A: Preparing for Problem-Solving Discussions: Informational Resources for the Group 361
Appendix B: Making Public Presentations of the Group’s Output 371
Glossary 389
Name Index 399
Subject Index 412
Contents

Preface xiii Listening and Responding During Discussions 30

Acknowledgments xix Listening Preferences 30
Effective Listening in the Small Group 31

PART I Computer-Mediated Communication and 

Face-to-Face Communication in Small Groups 32
The Foundations of Nonverbal Behavior in Small Group
Communicating in Groups 1 Communication 36
Types of Nonverbal Behaviors 39
Physical Appearance 39
1 The Small Groups Space and Seating 39
in Everyone’s Life 3 Eye Contact 41
Facial Expressions 42
What Is Small Group Discussion? 7
Movements 42
Types of Small Groups 9 Vocal Cues 43
Activity Groups 10 Time Cues 44
Personal Growth Groups 10 Touch 45
Educational Groups 10
Problem-Solving Groups 11
Questions for Review 46
Quality Control Circles 12 Key Terms 47
Self-Managed Work Groups 12 Notes 47
Top Management Teams (TMTs) 13
Ethical Behavior of Group Members 14
Questions for Review 17 3 The Small Group as a System 53
Key Terms 17 The Systems Perspective 54
Notes 17 Principles of a System 55
Components of a System 59
A System and Its Environment 64
2 Human Communication The Bona Fide Group Perspective 68
Processes in the Small Bona Fide Virtual Groups 69
Group Context 21 Communicating Across Boundaries 71
The Small Group Context 23 Questions for Review 73
Small Group Communication 25 Key Terms 74
Principles of Communication 25 Notes 74
viii Contents

PART II Maintenance (Relationship-Oriented) Functions

Self-Centered Functions 130
129

Developing the Group 77 Role Management Across Groups 131

Questions for Review 133
4 Diversity and the Effects of Key Terms 133
Culture 79 Notes 133
What Is Culture? 83
Cultural Characteristics That Affect
Communication 85
PART III
Individualism–Collectivism 85 Small Group Throughput
Power Distance 87 Processes 137
Uncertainty Avoidance 87
Masculinity–Femininity 88
Low- and High-Context Communication 89
6 Communication and Group Culture:
Tensions, Fantasy, Socialization,
Communication Challenges Posed by
Norms, and Climate 139
Co-Cultures 90
Co-Cultural Differences Based on Race 91 The Interplay Between Communication and 
Co-Cultural Differences Based on Gender 92 Group Culture 140
Co-Cultural Differences Based on Age 95 Structuration Theory and Group Culture 141
Co-Cultural Differences Based on Socioeconomic Negotiating Task and Social Dimensions of Group
Class 97 Culture 144
Deep Diversity and Learning to Work Together 99 Primary and Secondary Tension 144
Challenges for Co-Cultural Group Members 102 Status Hierarchy 146
Behaving Ethically in Intercultural Interactions 103 Fantasy Themes 148
Questions for Review 105 Group Socialization of Members 151
Phases of Group Socialization 153
Key Terms 106
Development of Group Rules and Norms 155
Notes 106
Changing a Norm 157

5 The Members and Their Roles 111 Development of a Group’s Climate

Cohesiveness 158
158

Group Size 112 Building Cohesiveness in Virtual Teams 160

Personal Traits 113 Supportiveness 161
Communication Apprehension 114 Teambuilding 164
Cognitive Complexity 116 Questions for Review 165
Self-Monitoring 117 Key Terms 166
Personality Characteristics 118 Notes 166
The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator® 118
The Five-Factor Model of Personality 120
7 Leading Small Groups:
Development of Group Roles 124 Theoretical Perspectives 171
Formal Versus Informal Roles 124
Role Emergence 125 Leadership and Leaders 172
Classifying Group Roles 126 Leadership 173
Task Functions 127 Sources of Influence (Power) 173
 Contents ix

Leaders 174 Developing the Group 218

Leadership Emergence 174 Helping Individuals Grow 219
Personal Characteristics of Emergent Leaders 175 Establishing and Maintaining Trust 219
Leadership Emergence in Virtual Groups 178 Promoting Teamwork and Cooperation 221
Traditional Approaches to Leadership 179 Developing Virtual Groups 222
Traits Approaches 179 Ethical Principles for Group Leaders 223
Styles Approaches 180 Questions for Review 225
Contemporary Approaches to Leadership 182 Key Terms 225
Functions Approach 182
Notes 225
Contingency Approaches 183
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Model 183
The Communicative Competencies Approach 185
Leadership Competencies in Virtual Groups 187 PART IV
The Relationship Between Leaders and Improving Group Outputs 227
Followers 189
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Model 189 9 Problem Solving and
Transformational Leadership 190 Decision Making in Groups:
Distributed Leadership and the Leader as Theoretical Perspectives 229
Completer 191
Problem Solving and Decision Making 230
Questions for Review 193 Group Versus Individual Problem Solving and 
Key Terms 194 Decision Making 231
Notes 194 Factors Affecting Quality of Group Outputs 232
The Need for Structure in Group Problem
8 Leading Small Groups: Solving 233
The Functional Perspective of Group Problem Solving
Practical Tips 199
and Decision Making 234
Responsibilities and Techniques of  Starting Out Right: Addressing the Charge, 
Discussion Leaders and Chairs 200 Type of Question, and Criteria 236
Administrative Duties 200 Understanding the Group Charge and Area of
Assembling the Group 201 Freedom 236
Planning for Meetings 201 Understanding the Type of Questions to 
Following Up on Meetings 202 Be Addressed 237
Liaison 203 Discussing Criteria for Evaluating Solutions 237
Managing Written Communication
Understanding How the Group’s Decision 
for a Group 203
Administrative Duties for Virtual Groups 208 Will Be Made 239
Leading Discussions 210 Decision Making by the Leader 240
Opening Remarks 210 Decision Making by the Leader in Consultation 
Regulating and Structuring Discussions 211 with Members 240
Equalizing Opportunity to Participate 214 Decision Making by Majority Vote 240
Stimulating Creative Thinking 215 Decision Making by Consensus 240
Stimulating Critical Thinking 216 Understanding Phasic Progression During
Fostering Meeting-to-Meeting Improvement 217 Decision Making 241
Leading Discussions in Virtual Groups 218 Tuckman’s Model of Group Development 241
x Contents

Fisher’s Model of Group Phases 242 Step 1 of P-MOPS: Problem Description and
Orientation 242 Analysis 267
Conflict 242 Identify Problems to Work On 267
Decision Emergence 242 Focus on the Problem 268
Reinforcement 243 State the Problem Appropriately 268
Promoting Critical Thinking 245 Map the Problem 269
Evaluating Information 245 Step 2 of P-MOPS: Generating and Elaborating on
Distinguishing Between Facts and Inferences 246 Possible Solutions 269
Evaluating Survey and Statistical Data 246 Using Brainstorming to Discover Alternatives 270
Evaluating the Sources and Implications of Step 3 of P-MOPS: Evaluating Possible Solutions 272
Opinions 246 Establish a Collaborative Climate for Evaluation 272
Evaluating Reasoning 248 Establish Norms That Promote Critical Thinking 272
Overgeneralizing 248 Step 4 of P-MOPS: Consensus Decision Making 275
Ad Hominem Attacks 248 Suggestions for Achieving Consensus 275
Suggesting Inappropriate Causal Relationships 248 Second-Guess the Tentative Choice Before Fully
False Dilemmas 249 Committing to It 276
Faulty Analogies 249 Step 5 of P-MOPS: Implementing the 
Evaluating Information and Reasoning from Internet Solution Chosen 277
Sources 250 Use PERT to Keep Track of Implementation
Accuracy 250 Details 277
Authority 250 Tailoring P-MOPS to Fit a Specific Problem 280
Audience 250 Problem Characteristics 280
Purpose 250 Using Technology to Help a Group’s Problem
Recency 251 Solving and Decision Making 281
Coverage 251 General Tools 285
Understanding What Can Go Wrong During Technology Designed for Group Problem Solving 287
Decision Making 252 Questions for Review 291
Hidden Profiles 252
Key Terms 291
Group Polarization 253
Groupthink 254 Notes 291
Questions for Review 256
Key Terms 257 11 Managing Conflict in the
Notes 257 Small Group 295
A Definition of Conflict 297
10 Problem Solving and Decision Positive and Negative Outcomes of Conflict 299
Making in Groups: Benefits of Conflict 299
Negative Effects of Conflict 300
Practical Tips and Techniques 263
Expressing Disagreement in a Group 300
Using Problem-Solving Guidelines 264 Types of Conflict 303
The Procedural Model of Problem Solving Conflict Types and Computer-Mediated Communication
(P-MOPS) 266 (CMC) 306
The Single Question Format 266 Managing Group Conflict 307
The Ideal Solution Format 266 Conflict Management Styles and Tactics 307
Using P-MOPS to Address Complex Avoidance 308
Problems 267 Accommodation 309
 Contents xi

Competition 310
Collaboration 310
Appendix A: Preparing for
Compromise 311 Problem-Solving Discussions:
Working with Conflict Management Styles in Informational Resources for the
Groups 312 Group 361
Expressing Disagreement Ethically 313
Cultural Factors in Conflict 315
Review and Organize Your Present Stock 
Negotiating Principled Agreement 317 of Information and Ideas 361
When Negotiation Fails: Alternative Procedures 319 Gather Information You Need 363
Mediation by the Leader 319 Note Taking 363
Voting 320 Reading: Print and Electronic Sources 364
Forcing 320 Direct Observation 365
Third-Party Arbitration 320 Surveys 366
Questions for Review 322 Individual and Group Interviews 366
Focus Group Interviews 367
Key Terms 322 Other Information Sources 367
Notes 322 Evaluate the Information and Ideas 
You Have Collected 368
PART V Organize Your Information and 
Ideas 368
Group Observation and
Key Terms 369
Evaluation Tools 327
Notes 369
12 Tools for Assessing and
Evaluating Groups 329
Internal Assessment: Members Evaluate the
Appendix B: Making Public
Presentations of the Group’s
Group 332
Self-Assessment 332
Output 371
Member and Group Assessment 337 The Planning Stage 371
Calling for Outside Help: The Consultant 343 Your Audience 371
Practice First 344 Your Occasion 372
Reminding 344 Your Purpose 372
Teaching 344 Your Subject or Topic 372
Critiquing 345 Member Strengths and Fears 373
Giving Feedback 345 Logistics 373
Planning the Consultation 346 Types of Group Oral Presentations 373
Ethical Principles for Consultants 348 Panel Discussion 374
More Instruments for Observing and Preparing for Panel Discussions 374
Consulting 349 Symposium 375
Verbal Interaction Analysis 349 Forum Discussions 375
Content Analysis 349 The Organizing Stage 376
SYMLOG: Drawing a Snapshot of a Group 354 Delegate Duties 377
Questions for Review 358 Gather Verbal and Visual Materials 377
Verbal Materials 377
Key Terms 358
Visual Materials 378
Notes 358
xii Contents

Organize Materials and Your Presentation 379 Public Meetings 384

Introduction 380 Key Terms 387
Body 381
Conclusion 381 Notes 387
The Presenting Stage 382
Glossary 389
Check Your Language 382
Practice Aloud 382 Name Index 399
Be a Good Listener 383 Subject Index 412
Inviting Public Input Using a Buzz Group
Session 383
Preface

A
s we prepare this revision, we are struck by how many important develop-
ments have happened in the world around us since the 15th edition. From
the COVID-19 pandemic to what can seem like unprecedented social divides,
our day-to-day lives feel different this time around. We worked hard in this revision
to capture what some of those developments might mean for the future of effective
group discussions.
Our focus continues to be communication: how communication creates, main-
tains, and changes a group through interaction among members and with the group’s
environment. We encourage members and leaders to employ effective and ethical
principles of communication, so their group experiences are as rewarding as they can
be. We continue to highlight bona fide group theory and return a focus to models of
group development, which we believe has contributed significantly to our understand-
ing of how real-world groups actually work. We also note that the technology avail-
able to help groups has become much more affordable, accessible, and expected than
when we first started writing. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is simply
accepted now that all groups will conduct at least part of their discussion in an online
environment. To that end, we discuss groups not as either face-to-face or virtual, but
as entities that can use a variety of technologies to assist their work and as existing on
a continuum from purely face-to-face to purely virtual. We incorporate information
about technology throughout the text.
When our students complete their study of small groups, we hope they will know
how to use the information and tools we present to understand why one group is
satisfying and another feels like torture. Most important of all, we hope they will
understand what they can do about it. Thus, as with previous editions, this book is
based on current research; our advice to students stems from what we know about
communication and small groups.
Effective Group Discussion focuses on secondary groups, such as work groups,
committees, task forces, self-directed work teams, and other small groups including
virtual ones with tasks to complete. The text provides practical tips and also serves
well as a reference source for advanced communication students, consultants, or
group leaders.
xiv Preface

Overview
Generally, the chapters move the discussion from group systems inputs to throughput
processes to outcomes. Instructors have the flexibility to skim or skip chapters or
cover them in a different order. For instance, a section in Chapter 2 covers basic com-
munication theory for students without a previous communication course, but this
section can be skimmed quickly if it reviews material students already know.
Part I presents an overview of small group and human communication theory.
Chapter 1 introduces several ideas developed in subsequent chapters: the importance
of small groups in our lives, types of groups, how many groups use technology, what
constitutes ethical behavior, and why members should become participant-observers
in their groups. Chapter 2 presents the basics of communication theory that serve
as the foundation for studying small groups. In Chapter 3, we present systems theory as
the organizing framework used throughout the text.
Part II begins the discussion of group developing by focusing on the members,
the main small group inputs. Chapter 4 introduces the importance of diversity and the
contribution that members’ cultures and co-cultures make to that diversity. Chapter 5
discusses how member characteristics contribute to the roles that members play in
groups, including a section about the relationship of the “Big Five” personality char-
acteristics from psychology to what happens in small groups.
Part III focuses on the development of the group as an entity by presenting infor-
mation about a variety of throughput processes. Chapter 6 consolidates logically the
information about norms, fantasy themes, and cohesiveness. Chapters 7 and 8 are
companion leadership chapters. Chapter 7 focuses on the theoretical concepts nec-
essary to understanding leadership, and Chapter 8 provides practical suggestions for
group leaders.
Part IV discusses the importance of having appropriate problem-solving and
decision-making processes to improve the quality of group outputs. As with leader-
ship, Chapters 9 and 10 are paired, with Chapter 9 providing conceptual information
for understanding group development, problem solving, and decision making and
Chapter 10 providing specific suggestions and techniques for improving problem-­
solving and decision-making processes. Chapter 11 focuses on how conflict, if man-
aged well, can improve group outputs.
In Part V, Chapter 12 presents tools for assessing and improving small groups.
Users of the text told us they preferred to have this chapter placed at the end,
­following discussions of theories and concepts. However, these tools and assessments
can easily be used throughout the text to enhance discussion of concepts, if instruc-
tors prefer.
Appendix A guides members in how to gather and organize their informational
resources in preparation for problem solving and decision making. Although this
information conceptually precedes Chapters 9 and 10, most upper-division students
already know how to gather information. Appendix B discusses the public presenta-
tion of a group’s work, including how to organize presentations so the information is
presented smoothly and seamlessly.
 Preface xv

New Edition Changes

This 16th edition of Effective Group Discussion retains the reorganization of the latest
editions, which fits the way many instructors have told us they prefer to teach.
■ We have retained our research base, have consolidated conceptual information
where possible, removed material and examples that seemed redundant or out-of-
date, and added current theoretical information.
■ Related to current examples, we have incorporated discussions of how the
COVID-19 pandemic is likely to change group communication.
■ We have continued to sharpen our focus on communication to emphasize its
­centrality to groups, as members mutually negotiate shared meaning. To assist
with this emphasis, we have highlighted and expanded the communication
­competence model (effectiveness + appropriateness) throughout this edition.
■ We have edited content throughout this edition to include more inclusive
­language, particularly as it relates to gender, identity, and references to individuals
from historically marginalized groups.
■ We have continued to develop our discussion of technological issues, grounding
our discussions on the idea of a continuum of technological use, from purely
­face-to-face to purely virtual.
■ At the request of reviewers and many instructors, we have reincorporated
­information about Tuckman’s Model of Group Development, which can be found
in Chapter 9.
■ Information about leadership and problem solving/decision making can be
­overwhelming. We kept the companion chapters devoted to each topic from the
previous edition. The first provides theoretical and conceptual information and
the second provides more practical information, techniques, and tips.
■ As always, we have updated this edition with the most current research ­available.
To allow for easier referencing, we have combined bibliography and notes
­sections at the end of each chapter.

Features

■ Case Studies: Each chapter begins with a case study illustrating that chapter’s
main points. These are real-life stories designed to help students retain key
­concepts and understand how that chapter’s information is relevant to the real
world. We link these case studies explicitly to information presented throughout
the chapter.
■ Recap Boxes: We have placed Recap boxes—internal summaries—throughout each
chapter. They provide logical “breathing places” for students to review what they
have learned.
xvi Preface

■ Emphasis on Diversity: The importance of diversity and intercultural communi-

cation cannot be overemphasized! In addition to a chapter devoted to this topic,
relevant information about diversity and equity is distributed throughout the text,
and we have provided a more global perspective that reflects our changing world.
In this edition, that perspective includes refined language use for references to
individuals from historically marginalized groups and for distinguishing between
sex and gender. It also includes an added discussion of Generation Z as an
important co-cultural group.
■ Learning Aids: Each chapter includes learning objectives and margin key terms,
which are boldfaced in the text. The end-of-chapter material includes Questions
for Review and a Notes section that provides references. The Glossary at the end of
the text provides definitions of all key terms.
■ Connect provides online activities for students that supplement the topics in
the chapter. Tools and activities include interactive quizzes and lecture slides.
Videos covering Nonverbal Messages, Defensive/Supportive Communication,
Aggressive/Assertive Communication, The Employment Interview, Small Group
Communication, and Presentation are also available.

Resources for Instructors

■ Connect provides the instructor’s manual (containing sample syllabi, lecture

notes, additional exercises, writing assignments, and up-to-date web links), a test
bank of objective and essay questions, and PowerPoint slides.
Instructors
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Acknowledgments

W
e would like to thank all of the instructors and students who have used
Effective Group Discussion. We welcome your written reactions to its
content and composition. You can send your comments to us via the
Department of Communication, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri; or
the Department of Communication, California State University, Fresno, California.
May all your groups be enjoyable and satisfying!
Numerous people contributed to this book; we can name only a few. First, we
acknowledge our debt to instructors and writers Freed Bales, Ernest Bormann, Elton
S. Carter, B. Aubrey Fisher, Larry Frey, Kenneth Hance, Randy Hirokawa, Sidney J.
Parnes, J. Donald Phillips, M. Scott Poole, Linda Putnam, Marvin Shaw, Victor Wall,
and W. Woodford Zimmerman.
Finally, we want to acknowledge the vision and contributions of Jack Brilhart,
who died in 2005. Jack wrote the first version of this text in the late 1960s as one
monograph in a communication series. For many years, Jack shared his expertise,
his passion for understanding and working with small groups, and his vast experience
working with a variety of groups. We enjoyed working with him, appreciated his gen-
erosity, and greatly miss him.
The following instructors were exceptionally helpful in supplying thoughtful,
carefully considered suggestions:
Suzanne Atkin, Janet Jacobsen,
Workplace Harmony Arizona State University
Ewan Tristan Booth, Chris Kasch,
Arizona State University Bradley University
Aileen Buslig, Melissa Leembruggin,
Concordia College Sinclair College
Jessica Delk-McCall, Peter Miraldi,
University of North Carolina Pennsylvania State
Greensboro UniversityPreface
The Foundations
of Communicating
in Groups
T he three chapters in Part I provide the focus to your study of small group communi-
cation. Chapter 1 introduces important terms and concepts used throughout the text.
Chapter 2 lays the groundwork for understanding the communicative dynamics of small
group interaction. Chapter 3 presents systems theory as a framework for studying and
understanding small groups.

P A R T

I
Tinpixels/Getty Images
 The Small
Groups in
Everyone’s Life
stockbroker/123RF

C H A P T E R 1

S T U DY O B J E C T I V E S CENTRAL MESSAGE
As a result of studying Chapter 1, you should be able to: If you want to succeed in
1. Explain the need for understanding small group communication
and for participating productively in small group discussions. modern organizational
2. Be familiar with some of the ways technology can help a group and social life, you must
be more productive.
understand how to be a
3. Correctly distinguish the terms presented in this chapter,
particularly group, small group, small group discussion, and productive group member
ethics.
and act accordingly, including
4. Describe the difference between primary and secondary groups.
5. Consciously and intentionally become a participant–observer knowing how technology can
during group discussions.
benefit a group’s work.
6. Describe the six ethical principles most relevant to small group
communication.
4 Chapter 1

S
pringfield, Missouri, which is home to a few members of our authorship team,
has a two-day art festival each May, attended by 15,000 to 20,000 people.
Artsfest also offers music and dance performers of all kinds, food vendors, and
hands-on activities for children. This combination art show and community festival
requires the efforts of hundreds of people. Artsfest is organized by a committee of
volunteers working with representatives of the Springfield Regional Arts Council and
the Urban Districts Alliance. The large committee of 15 includes LaShonda, an artist
whose contacts extend throughout the region. She is mainly responsible for artist
recruitment and correspondence. Raj is a technology guru who manages Artsfest’s
social media campaigns on Facebook and Twitter. Pam is a long-time community
volunteer who knows everyone and is a lot of fun to work with. Her extensive lists
of contacts provide the core of volunteers who work at the event, handling artist
check-in, managing registration, taking gate receipts, selling T-shirts and souvenirs,
providing security, and so forth. In addition, Pam encourages a warm and relaxed
atmosphere in group meetings—she usually brings cookies. Jerry and Selena, the event
coordinators, are both well-organized individuals who are not thrown by the level of
detail that must be handled. Selena maintains spreadsheets with detailed records
of prior festivals at her fingertips. She knows exactly how many T-shirts were ordered
in prior years, how many artists were new to the festival, and how much money was
made in soft-drink sales. Jerry’s list of corporate sponsors is extensive; if one sponsor
decides to drop out, he has three possibilities lined up to replace that sponsor.
The committee meets every other week from January through March and weekly
in April, with committee members keeping in touch with one another via technology
between meetings. For example, committee members use Dropbox to view and make
suggestions for wording on artist recruitment letters and other documents. When an
issue arose between meetings that needed a quick answer, members voted by e-mail.
The committee’s normal meeting location was unexpectedly unavailable at one
meeting; members were notified by text message of the temporary location. Jerry had
to be out of town during one important meeting just before the event; the commit-
tee used Zoom so he could participate. Members frequently call or text one another
between meetings as they think of things that need to be handled.
This example illustrates an important point: one person alone does not have
what it takes to accomplish a complex task liking hosting Artsfest. Working together,
however, individuals in a group can achieve far more than individuals working alone.
And with the emergence of easy-to-use technologies, group members can make their
participation in groups even more effective.
Small groups are the basic building blocks of our society.1 Lawrence Frey,
a leading scholar of small group communication, believes as we do that the small
group is the most important social formation:
Every segment of our society—from the largest multinational organization to the polit-
ical workings of federal, state, city, and local governments to the smallest commu-
nity action group to friendship groups to the nuclear and extended family—relies on
groups to make important decisions, socialize members, satisfy needs, and the like.2
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 5

We spend a tremendous amount of time in groups. In the United States, for exam-
ple, the typical professional attends at least eight meetings a week, while executives
attend more than double that amount on average.3 And the time we spend in meetings
only increases over time!4 When you also consider the amount of time we spend infor-
mally in groups outside of work, you begin to appreciate how pervasive groups are
in our lives. However, poorly managed meetings hurt the very organizations they are
supposed to support, wasting valuable time and resources and losing as much as
$37 billion in the United States, alone each year.5 Moreover, the ability to commu-
nicate effectively in group interactions requires skills that must be understood and
practiced. In a national survey, over 70 percent of respondents from 750 leading
U.S. companies ranked the “ability to work in teams” as a more essential skill for
MBA graduates than knowledge of statistical techniques.6 Learning to be a good team
member is essential to our personal, professional, and social lives.
To start off, we want you to consider three important ideas about groups.
First, the formation of groups is natural to humans. Why? Groups are a fundamen-
tal way humans meet important social needs. Schutz explained that we use groups
to belong and identify with others (inclusion), to find and experience openness
(formerly called affection), and to exercise power over others and our environment
(control).7 Notice that each of these three needs requires the participation of others
and is so significant to us that we often relinquish our own resources, such as time
and energy, to participate in groups and satisfy our basic human needs. For example,
the Artsfest Planning Committee we described above works hard to host the festival
every year because they feel connected to the art community, have built friendships
and strong professional relationships through their work, and take pride in the
positive influence they have on the local community. They understand the festival
could not happen without their collective efforts.
David Brooks, a national political and cultural commentator, speculated that
humans are wired to cooperate and collaborate, just as much as they are to compete.
Groups provide a vehicle by which we can engage in these interactions.8 Stop for a
moment and think about all the groups you have participated in this past week, includ-
ing family and peer groups. We have found that most college students average about
8 to 10, and sometimes list as many as 24 groups. For example, one student listed the
following: family, Bible study, sorority, executive committee of sorority, study group
in small group class, project group in marketing class, intramural volleyball team,
carpool, and sales team in the clothing department at work.
Does this seem like a lot of groups? Consider this: Reliance on groups is increas-
ing in every aspect of our society, but particularly in the workplace. Managers in the
United States recognize the value of participative decision making now more than
ever before, primarily because the small group is one important tool for encour-
aging employee participation and improving the quality of corporate decisions.9
Given this increased use of work teams, Monster.com, a popular employment
website, lists collaboration as one of the most appealing skills for hiring managers
in all industries.10
6 Chapter 1

Why is group work so popular? In the long run, groups are usually better problem
solvers than individuals because they have access to more information than individ-
uals do, can spot flaws and biases in each others’ thinking, and can think of issues
an individual may have failed to consider. Moreover, if people participate in planning
the work of solving the problem, they are more likely to work harder and better at
carrying out the solution. Thus, participation in problem solving and decision making
helps guarantee continued commitment to decisions and solutions (see Chapter 9).
Second, just because we participate in groups often, we cannot assume we partici-
pate effectively. Many of us likely have several examples of group work going poorly.
However, unless we know something about why a group is unproductive or ineffective,
Grouphate we won’t be able to help the group improve. Grouphate is a concept that captures a
The feeling of relatively common negative attitude toward groups that may get in the way of effective
antipathy and hostility group participation.11 In spite of recognizing the central role of groups in our lives, we
many people have often have mixed feelings about them, due in large measure to the tradeoffs involved.
about working in a In return for meeting our needs, we give up autonomy and the ability to do whatever
group, fostered by we want, whenever we want. For instance, students often complain that group grades
the many ineffective, do not reflect their superior individual performance. Some people may even loathe
time-wasting groups being a member of a group.12 Interestingly, grouphate is partly caused by a lack
that exist.
of training in how to communicate effectively and appropriately as a group member.
A group communication course may be an important first step at addressing any
grouphate you may experience. It is also in your best interest to work at eliminating
feelings of grouphate because students with negative attitudes about participating in
groups have been less successful academically than those with more constructive and
positive orientations toward group work.13
Third, groups provide the vehicle by which the individual can make a contribution
to the organization and society as a whole. Larkin postulated that humans have a
motivation to give. The basic ingredient cementing social cohesion is not the
satisfaction of needs, but rather the availability for contribution. It may be that
individuals join groups not only to meet their own needs but also to have oppor-
tunities to contribute to something bigger than themselves.14 Lawson found that
people who give of their time, money, energy, and other resources live healthier,
happier, and more fulfilled lives; they report that their lives are more meaningful
than those who do not give.15 This finding is confirmed in research by Strubler and
York, who report that members of a team felt a greater sense of participation
and believed their work within the organization was more meaningful and worth-
while than non-team members.16
To help you understand these ideas about groups, our focus is on the commu-
nicative dynamics of group members—what people say and do in groups. While we
will draw upon findings from other disciplines, we will concentrate on the process of
communication among members and how group members can influence this process.
The groups we examine will cover a range of contexts: educational, religious, political,
corporate, entertainment, health, community, and social services. As you study the
central concepts we will be using throughout this text, remember that the complexity
of small group interaction among members cannot be reduced to a cookie-cutter set
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 7

of prescriptions. Each element of group interaction influences every other element

in the group (see Chapter 3). So, while we give you guidelines and suggestions to
consider, you have to take into account the group’s entire and unique situation as you
enact these guidelines.
In the remainder of this chapter, we present definitions of key terms we use
throughout the book to reduce the possibility of misunderstanding. We also present
information about the types of groups you will encounter in many different kinds of
settings. We end with a discussion of ethical behavior important to effective group
functioning and centered around a participant–observer perspective.

What Is Small Group Discussion?

Before we define how we view small group communication, we will begin with a big
picture, then move to specifics. The first term requiring definition is group. What Group
differentiates a collection of people from a group of people? Don’t worry if you have a Three or more
hard time putting your own definition into words; no single definition of group exists people with an
among those who study groups for a living. Among the variety of definitions for interdependent goal
group, we prefer Marvin Shaw’s: a group consists of “persons who are interacting with who interact and
one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each influence each other.
other person.”17 Shaw argued that, of all the characteristics of groups, none were
more important than interaction and mutual influence.
The Artsfest Planning Committee simply collected in one place does not neces-
sarily constitute a group unless there is reciprocal awareness and influence among
members. If, for example, LaShonda, Jerry, and Pam each write separate letters
to recruit an artist to apply, Shaw would argue that no group exists yet because
Jerry and Pam did not influence LaShonda in recruiting particular artists.
However, once the members begin to interact with each other and talk about how
to combine their efforts to recruit artists, then we see a group emerging out of their
interaction. Interaction assumes coordination of behaviors.18 More fundamentally,
interaction “requires mutual influence.”19
The Artsfest committee members also share a key feature of a group: an interde-
pendent goal. Interdependence exists when all group members succeed or fail together Interdependent Goal
in the accomplishment of the group’s purpose—in this case, having a successful festi- An objective shared
val can be attained only if they coordinate their efforts. In addition, committee mem- by members of a
bers coordinated their actions so that artists, food vendors, and volunteers all showed small group in such
up at the right times on the right days. This logic extends to group members scattered a way that one
geographically and relying on technology for their coordination. If members interact member cannot
and mutually influence each other by way of phone calls, online social networking achieve the goal
platforms, or group messaging, they still constitute a group. The Artsfest committee, without the other
members also
although not geographically scattered, influenced each other via their e-mail, phone,
achieving it.
text, Skype, and Dropbox correspondence.
The study of groups may include large groupings (e.g., whole societies or organi-
zations) or small ones; our focus is on small groups. The notion that “each person
8 Chapter 1

influences and is influenced by each other” implies that members are aware of each
other, and from this mutual awareness we ground our definition of small on percep-
Small Group tual awareness. A small group, therefore, is a group small enough that each member is
A group of at least aware of and able to recall each other group member, know who is and is not in the
three but few enough group, and recognize what role each is taking. Attempts to define small on the basis
members for each to of the number of members have never worked well. Practically, however, small groups
perceive all others are usually comprised of three to seven members with five being the most effective.20
as individuals, share No doubt you have heard and used the word team and might wonder whether
some identity or there is a difference between a small group and a team. Some scholars see teams as
common purpose, highly functioning groups with a strong group identity and highly structured with
and share standards
very explicit rules and clearly defined member responsibilities.21 Others reserve
for governing
their activities as
team for groups in which leadership is shared, such as the case with self-managed
members. work groups.22 In a comprehensive review of the research into team dynamics,
Salas, Sims, and Burke discovered a recurring theme in all the different definitions
of team: the recognition of interdependence between members as they strive toward
Small Group a group goal.23 Thus, we do not differentiate the two terms—group and team—and use
Discussion them interchangeably. A small group may be called a team (e.g., top management
A small group of team), yet function no better than other groups of its kind. Like LaFasto and Larson,
people communicating we are interested in groups that function well, no matter what they are called.24
with each other Interaction, mutual influence, and interdependence are all central features of
to achieve some a group. Coordinating behavior requires the exchange of messages; thus, the most
interdependent goal, central feature of human groups is their communication. Verbal and nonverbal
such as increased
exchange among group members is where the work of the group gets accomplished.
understanding,
coordination of activity,
This exchange may be face-to-face or may use technology. For our purposes,
or solution to a shared small group discussion (see Table 1.1) refers to a small group of people talking with
problem. each other in order to achieve some interdependent goal, such as increasing shared
understanding, coordinating activity, or solving a problem.

TABLE 1.1
Small group 1. Small enough (typically between three and seven) for each member to be
discussion aware of and have some reaction to each other.
characteristics 2. A mutually interdependent purpose, making the success of any one member
contingent upon the success of all.
3. A sense of belonging to the group felt by each member.
4. The give and take of impromptu communication, involving both verbal and
nonverbal messages, as group members respond to and adapt their actions
to each other.
5. A sense of cooperation between members, even in disagreements and
conflict, where they perceive that they are pursuing a group outcome that will
be satisfactory to everyone.
6. Interaction that occurs on a continuum from purely face-to-face to virtual.
Most groups today use some form of technology in conjunction with their
face-to-face group work, and even if their interaction is totally virtual, all the
characteristics mentioned here still apply.
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 9

Recap: A Quick Review

H uman beings are social creatures and form groups naturally. Groups are so
pervasive in our lives that we may overlook their importance. Even though
negative experiences working in groups can turn many people away from group work,
the fact of the matter is that effective small group interaction has profound practical
consequences in our personal and professional lives.

1. People use groups to meet inclusion, control, and openness needs. Group
participation allows people to make significant contributions to each other and society.
2. Being a group participant does not guarantee effective group behavior; group
members have to work to coordinate their actions toward a shared goal.
3. Groups are not merely collections of individuals, but they involve interaction,
interdependence, and mutual influence.
4. Small groups are not defined by the number of people in a group but by their limits
of perceptual awareness.
5. Small group discussion highlights the key role communication plays in defining
a collection of people as a small group with a sense of belonging, purpose, and
collaboration.

Types of Small Groups

There are two major categories of small groups, primary and secondary. Each category
meets different human needs.
Primary groups exist chiefly to satisfy primary needs—needs for inclusion (affilia- Primary Group
tion, belonging) and openness. They are usually long term. Examples include a family, A group whose main
roommates, several friends who meet daily around a table in the student center, and purpose is to meet
co-workers who regularly share coffee breaks. Although such groups may tackle members’ needs
particular tasks, they exist mainly to provide personal attention and support for the for inclusion and
members. Members’ talk, which appears spontaneous and informal, is the end in openness.
itself. More than any other forces in our lives, primary groups socialize and mold us
into the people we become; their importance is tremendous. For most of us, the
family is our first group, where we learn communication patterns, both functional
and dysfunctional, that can last generations and affect all aspects of our lives.25
Primary groups are not the main focus of this book; typically, primary groups are Secondary Group
studied in interpersonal and family communication, sociology, and psychology A group whose
courses. However, the interpersonal relationships at the heart of primary groups are major purpose is
very important to understanding small groups in general. to complete a task,
Secondary groups, like our Artsfest committee in the opening story of this such as making a
decision, solving
chapter, focus on task accomplishment and are formed for the purpose of doing work—
a problem, writing a
completing a project, solving a problem, or making a decision. Secondary groups, such report, or providing
as most work teams and problem-solving groups, meet secondary needs for control and recommendations to
achievement. Such groups enable members to exert power over their environment and a parent organization.
others. For example, in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, countless organizations
10 Chapter 1

such as school districts and local governments put together task forces and response
teams for the purpose of designing and implementing pandemic response measures.
These groups were secondary groups with specific performance objectives to be
attained, and members had to coordinate their efforts in order to achieve their goals.
As you may have discerned by this point, there are no pure primary or secondary
groups. Although groups are classified as primary or secondary according to their
major function, primary groups also engage in work and secondary groups also pro-
vide openness and belonging to their members. In fact, Anderson and Martin demon-
strated that secondary group members are motivated by a number of factors that
are more primary than secondary, including desires for enjoyment and emotional
escape. Such factors strongly influence secondary group members’ communication
behaviors, their feelings of loneliness, and their satisfaction with the group.26 
Research is clear: working on a task must be supported with good social skills helping
members feel included, appreciated, and even loved.27
In addition to the two major classifications just described, there are many other
ways to categorize groups. The four categories described next exhibit both primary
and secondary characteristics in varying degrees, with the fourth more purely
secondary than the first three.
Activity Group
A group formed
Activity Groups
primarily for members Activity groups enable members to participate in an activity, both for the sake of
to participate in doing the activity and for the affiliation provided by doing the activity with others.
an activity such as The following are examples: book clubs, running clubs, recreational vehicle clubs,
bridge, bowling, hunting groups, video gaming clubs, and numerous other interest groups. Members of
hunting, and so forth. such groups solve problems and make choices—when and where to meet, how to
pay for their activities, how group membership is determined—but enjoyment of the
activity and fellowship with others whose interests are similar are the main purposes.
Personal Growth Group
A group of people
who come together Personal Growth Groups
to develop personal Therapy and support groups are called personal growth groups. They are composed of
insights, overcome people who come together to develop personal insights, help themselves and others
personality problems, with personal problems, and grow as individuals from the feedback and support
and grow personally
of others. Goal interdependence is low because no purely group goal is sought; rather,
through feedback
and support of others.
members meet their individual needs for personal learning, awareness, and support in
the context of the group. Examples include Alcoholics Anonymous, grief support
groups, LGBTQ or women’s rights groups, etc.
Learning Group
A group discussing Educational Groups
for the purpose
Small groups occur in educational contexts for a variety of purposes. Common
of learning about
learning groups, often called study groups, form so that members can understand a
and understanding
a subject more subject better by pooling their knowledge, perceptions, and beliefs. These tend to be
completely. voluntary and coordinated by interested students. Others, including cohorts, coopera-
tive learning groups, and collaborative learning groups, are used by educators and
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 11

often are not voluntary.28 Cohorts, sometimes referred to as learning communities,

are used by universities to group selected students around a program of study.
Students often take a set of courses together and share study spaces. Cooperative
learning groups are composed of students selected by teachers to work on a class
assignment or topic. The group’s output, often a report and presentation, is evaluated
at the group level. Such assignments characterize a major component of many small
group communication courses. Collaborative learning groups, similar to cooperative Problem-Solving Group
ones, are used to enhance individual achievement. For example, students may be A group whose
grouped to work on course papers where they tutor each other in an effort to improve purpose is finding
their individual writing skills. In addition to learning about the specific subject matter, ways to solve a
members of such groups also learn skills of effective speaking, listening, critical problem or address a
thinking, and effective interpersonal communication. particular condition.

Problem-Solving Groups Committee

Problem-solving groups formed to address some issue or problem vary widely in their A small group of
composition and functioning. Examples we have already mentioned include the people given an
Artsfest Planning Committee and the various COVID-19 response teams imple- assigned task or
mented after the start of the pandemic. There are many ways of describing subtypes responsibility by a
of problem-solving groups. In this book, we deal with major subtypes prevalent in larger group (parent
our modern organizational and social life: committees, quality control circles, organization) or
person with authority.
self-managed work groups, and top management teams.
Committees are problem-solving groups that have been assigned a task by a
parent organization or person with authority in an organization. Committees may Ad Hoc Committee
be formed to investigate and report findings, recommend a course of action for the
A group that goes
parent group, formulate policies, or plan, and carry out some action.
out of existence after
Committees can be classified as either ad hoc (which means “for this” in Latin) its specific task has
or standing. An ad hoc committee, established to perform a specific task, normally been completed.
ceases to exist when that task has been completed. Ad hoc committees address all
FS Productions/Getty Images

A committee discusses the

content of a report.
12 Chapter 1

kinds of problems, such as evaluating credentials of job applicants, drafting bylaws,

hearing grievances, planning social events, conducting investigations, devising plans
to solve work-related problems, advising legislators on what to do about statewide
problems, and evaluating programs and institutions. A task force is a type of ad hoc
committee with members appointed from various departments of an organization or
political body and usually charged with investigating a broad issue. For example, the
president of California State University, Fresno, appointed a task force of faculty,
students, staff, and community members to study how the university manages its ath-
letic finances and to make recommendations for improving the management of those
finances. Once the task force reported its action or recommendations, it disbanded.
Standing Committee Standing committees are ongoing committees established through the constitu-
A group given an tion or bylaws of an organization to deal with recurring types of problems or to
area of responsibility perform specific organizational functions on a regular basis. The most important
that includes many standing committee of most organizations is called the executive committee, board,
tasks and continues or steering committee. Usually, this group is charged with overall management of the
indefinitely. organization and can function for the entire organization when general membership
meetings are not feasible. Other common standing committees have names such
as membership committee, personnel committee, parking and traffic committee,
program committee, bylaws committee, and so forth. These groups continue
indefinitely, even though the membership changes.

Quality Control Circles

Quality Control Circle A quality control circle consists of workers (usually five to seven) in a company
A group of who either volunteer or are selected to meet regularly on company time to discuss
employees who meet work-related problems. Sometimes called continuous improvement teams, cycle time
on company time reduction groups, or just plain quality circles, their purpose is to improve some aspect
to investigate work- of work life—efficiency, quality of finished products, worker safety, and so forth.
related problems
and to make
recommendations Self-Managed Work Groups
for solving these Self-managed work groups, also called autonomous work groups or peer-led work teams,
problems (also called are groups of workers given a defined area of freedom to manage their productive work
a quality circle). within certain preset limits established by the organization. For example, an automobile
assembly team may be responsible for assembling a car from start to finish. Members
may be given a deadline by which the car must be fully assembled, but within that limit,
Self-Managed Work
Group
the team members are free to elect their own leaders, plan their work procedures, and
schedule individual assignments for the members. Members of self-managed work
A small group of
groups are often cross-trained, so each member can perform several jobs competently.
peers who determine
within prescribed
This cross-training permits human and other resources to be allocated efficiently and
limits their own effectively, gives workers the chance to develop a variety of skills, and reduces boredom
work schedules and while increasing employee satisfaction. It has been estimated that 81 percent of manu-
procedures. facturing organizations and 79 percent of Fortune 1000 companies use self-managed
teams.29 While many scholars once thought the trend of self-managed work groups
would fade over time, we are beginning to understand the lasting popularity of these
highly adaptable teams. As organizations are experiencing an increased demand for
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 13

flexibility in response to environmental concerns, global pandemics, and changing

employee motivations, scholars have noted that self-managed work groups offer
organizations a unique tool in agility that a typical rigid hierarchy does not provide.30

Top Management Teams (TMTs)

Top management teams (TMTs), compared to self-managed work groups, encompass Top Management Team
the upper echelon of management.31 Their goal is not to deliver goods or services but (TMT)
to lead an organization. Many of today’s organizations are so diversified and complex A team composed
that they cannot succeed using the typical model of managing with a chief executive of top officers of an
officer (CEO) and a chief operating officer (COO). Instead, a team is formed organization charged
(sometimes called the C-suite) because members’ pooled talent exceeds that of the with making complex
CEO and the COO. In other cases, a CEO may not want to select a COO and instead strategic decisions.
forms a team of managers to do the job of operating a company. TMTs have substan-
tial power because they comprise some of the most influential members of the larger
organization. They make highly complex strategic decisions with far-reaching conse-
quences for the entire organization and themselves. For example, the Caterpillar
TMT’s decision to provide the U.S. government with heavy equipment during World
War II resulted in the development of a worldwide distribution network that even
today is central to Caterpillar’s corporate success.32
In the same way that no group is purely primary or secondary, most small groups
you encounter will combine elements of all four group types just described—activity,
personal growth, learning, and problem solving. Consider, for example, a city council
establishing an ad hoc task force to investigate and recommend solutions to the city’s
solid waste disposal problem. Members of the task force would have to educate them-
selves about solid waste, various disposal options, and the pros and cons of the options
before making their recommendations to the city council. They would also need to
manage their own resources of time and information and be concerned with the com-
prehensive quality of life in their city. Thus, a group like this would include elements of
a learning group, problem-solving group, quality circle, and self-managed work group.

Recap: A Quick Review

G roups are pervasive in our everyday lives. They can be classified

by purpose.

1. Primary groups, like family and friends, help us meet our needs for belonging and
openness.
2. Secondary groups, those commonly referred to as task groups, help us meet our
needs for control and achievement.
3. Subtypes of primary and secondary groups often mix the purposes of both.
These may include activity, personal growth, educational, and problem-solving
groups such as committees, quality control circles, self-managed work groups,
and top management teams.
14 Chapter 1

Ethical Behavior of Group Members

We have learned that groups are a necessary and natural part of our lives. Effective
and rewarding group experiences require knowledge of group dynamics and the
ability to behave in ways that facilitate, not thwart, group efforts. Groups do not just
happen because people are thrown together! Nor will groups be effective if they are
Social Loafer composed of people who are members in name only. These social loafers only watch
A person who and contribute little to the group, letting others carry the load. Central to everything
makes a minimal we discuss in this text is a willingness by every group member to be a participant–
contribution to the observer: someone who both actively participates and critically reflects on group
group and assumes interaction in order to make the adaptations necessary for success. The ability to
the other members participate, observe, and think rests at the heart of ethical group interaction.
will take up the slack. Ideally, everyone wants to be someone others can trust to do their part.
Groups require collaborative, cohesive behavior from their members, not social loaf-
ing. Thus, you need to know the kind of behavior that is expected from responsi-
Participant-Observer
ble and ethical members. Ethics refers to the “rules or standards for right conduct
An active participant or practice.”33 In describing principles of ethical behavior for group members, we
in a small group
are guided by appropriate standards of behavior from our general culture and the
who at the same
time observes
code of ethics provided by our professional association, the National Communication
and evaluates its Association. This code stems from several key values, five of which we believe are
processes and directly relevant to small group members: integrity, professional/social responsi-
procedures. bility, equality of opportunity, honesty/openness, and respect for self and others.34 
These values—involving the treatment of people, speech, and information—underpin the
following six ethical principles for group members. Each principle requires you to con-
Ethics sider how you choose to participate as a group member and asks you to reflect on the
The rules or consequences of your choices. Learning effective communication in groups is about not
standards that a only what you can do in groups but what you should do. You cannot answer the should
person or group part unless you observe and reflect.35 The following principles will guide you:
uses to determine
whether conduct or 1. Members should be willing to speak. Groups work because several heads
behavior is right and perform better than one. However, this advantage is sabotaged when members
appropriate. won’t speak up. Your first obligation as a group member is to speak up and
share your perspective. Communication has a long and distinguished tradition,
dating from Aristotle, that supports the value of free speech.36 For a group to
be effective, members’ unique perspectives must be shared.
2. Members must contribute their fair share to the group’s effort. Along with
speaking up, you need to contribute your fair share of work. Social loafers 
drag everybody down and hurt the group’s product. They also represent the
main reason many of our students hate group work: they do not want their
grades and assignments to depend on people who fail to contribute to the
group. As an ethical group member, you must do your share. If you find you
cannot, you should either leave the group or negotiate with the other members
how you can contribute enough, so they do not resent your presence.
3. Group members should embrace and work with diversity within the group.
Member diversity should be encouraged and supported. Diversity stems
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 15

from various factors that include, but are not limited to, race, ethnicity, age,
religion, gender identity, and sexual orientation.37 These factors contribute
to differences in members’ perspectives—the very differences that have the
potential to enrich and enhance a group’s performance. Groupings such as
race, ethnicity, and gender form what Orbe calls co-cultures, smaller groups
that exist “simultaneously within, as well as apart from, other cultures”38
in the United States. However, group members from such co-cultures run
the risk of being marginalized, with their perspectives and opinions ignored
by members of the dominant culture. Orbe argues that co-culture members
have to work harder to be included and have their opinions considered than
do members of the dominant culture. The challenge to group members,
particularly those representing the dominant culture, is to make it possible for
all members—regardless of co-culture—to contribute equally. Members who
marginalize fellow group members both behave unethically and defeat the
purpose of the group.
4. Group members must conduct themselves with honesty and integrity.
Honesty and integrity take various forms. First, and most obviously, group
members should not intentionally deceive one another or manufacture
information or evidence to persuade other members to their points of
view. Members must not falsify data and must document the sources of
information they share with the group. Integrity implies that members
should support group decisions, which may present challenges for
the individual member. Sometimes you may be asked to do something
for a group that violates your own personal values, beliefs, morals, or
principles. For example, what if a group to which you belong decides to
suppress information that is contrary to a decision the group wishes to
make and pressures you to go along? What will you do? Only you can
answer that question. You may try your best to persuade the group to see
things your way; you may decide to leave the group. But if you choose to
stay with the group, make sure you can support, or at least live with, the
group’s actions and decisions. Integrity also suggests that you are willing
to place the good of the group ahead of your own individual goals. A team
orientation is a core component of successful teams.39 Focusing on the
team involves being willing to hear alternatives offered by other members
and assessing those in an effort to determine which one is best for the
team. It also involves willingness among members to offer feedback about
each other’s actions and to accept suggestions from one another about 
how to behave better for the good of the group. Individuals unwilling or
unable to adopt a team orientation make poor team members, and the
group is better off without them.
5. Group members should always treat one another with respect. They should not
disconfirm, belittle, or ridicule other members and should make sure they
understand other members before agreeing or disagreeing with them. As we
interact with others, our first goal should be to strive to understand others
16 Chapter 1

to their satisfaction. If this mutual understanding happens, we will confirm

and support each other’s self-concept and identity, even when we disagree
strongly. Google’s Project “Aristotle” was designed to find out the secrets of
the perfect team.40 All the data collection and analysis that followed revealed a
simple truth: how members treat each other matters the most. Members who
listen to each other and respect each other’s feelings create the best teams.
Additionally, when disagreements do occur, members who trust and respect
each other will interpret those disagreements more constructively than if they
do not trust each other.41
6. Group members should be thorough in gathering information and diligent in
evaluating it. Members should make a conscientious effort to find and 
present to the group all information and points of view relevant to the
group’s work. They should also set aside personal biases and prejudices
when evaluating that information and refrain from doing anything that
short-circuits this process. Many consequential decisions are made in
groups, from how best to get children to read to what kind of health care
system the United States should adopt. These decisions will be only as good
as the information on which they are based and the reasoning that members
use to assess the information. It is absolutely crucial that group members
consider all relevant information in an open-minded, unbiased way by
employing the best critical thinking skills they can; to do otherwise can 
lead to costly, even tragic, errors.
Group members who choose to be both effective participants in group inter-
action and thoughtful observers of everyone’s behaviors, including their own, are
competent, ethical communicators and have extensive knowledge about groups.
Broome and Fulbright found that in real-life groups, among other things, members
wanted stronger guidance about group methods, procedures, and techniques as
well as fellow members skilled in the communication process.42 To be an all-around
valuable member of the group, you need both a participant–observer focus and
information and expertise essential to completing the group’s task. This is what
Effective Group Discussion is designed to teach you.

Recap: A Quick Review

1. Effective group members remember they not only behave in groups but also must
observe the group processes and make any changes necessary to ensure the
success of the group.
2. Successful groups depend on members acting ethically and understanding that
how they choose to act and speak has consequences for themselves and others.
3. Ethical members treat speech, information, and others honestly, respectfully,
carefully, and open-mindedly.
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 17

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

The Artsfest Planning Committee reinforces a critical 4. Does this group meet the requirements to be
theme of this text: Small groups provide people with an defined as a “small” group?
invaluable way to solve complex problems. Reviewing the 5. How might this initial secondary group evolve into
story, we learn that well-coordinated individual skills can a primary one?
produce amazing results. 6. Select one of the members mentioned. How 
might the member have behaved as a participant–
1. What individual needs are likely being met by being
observer in this group?
a member of this group of volunteers?
7. Which ethical principles of group membership 
2. What do these members gain by devising a plan
are most evident in this story?
together, as opposed to separately?
3. How are the unique features of a group evident in
this story? Which features are not as evident?

KEY TERMS
Test your knowledge of these key terms in this chapter. Definitions can be found in the Glossary.

Activity group Interdependent goal Secondary group

Committee Learning group Self-managed work group
Ad hoc committee Participant–observer Small group
Standing committee Personal growth group Small group discussion
Ethics Primary group Social loafer
Group Problem-solving group Top management team (TMT)
Grouphate Quality control circle

NOTES
1. Kurt W. Back, “The Small Group: Tightrope 4. Sayed M. Elsayed-Elkhouly, Harold Lazarus, and
between Sociology and Personality,” Journal of Volville Forsythe, “Why Is a Third of Your Time
Applied Behavioral Science, 15 (1979): 283–94. Wasted in Meetings?,” Journal of Management
2. Lawrence W. Frey, “Applied Communication Development, 16 (1997): 672–76.
Research on Group Facilitation in Natural 5. Ibid.
Settings,” in Innovations in Group Facilitation: 6. Charles C. DuBois, “Portrait of the Ideal MBA,”
Applications in Natural Settings, ed. Lawrence The Penn Stater (September/October 1992): 31.
R. Frey (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1995): 7. Will Schutz, The Human Element: Productivity,
1–26. Self-Esteem, and the Bottom Line (San Francisco,
3. Jack Flynn, “27 Incredible Meeting Statistics CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994).
[2022]: Virtual, Zoom, In-Person Meetings and 8. David Brooks, “Nice Guys Finish First,” The New
Productivity,” Zippia.com, January 31, 2022. York Times, The Opinion Pages, May 16, 2011.
Retrieved April 26, 2022 at https:// Retrieved May 16, 2011, at http://topics.nytimes.
www.zippia.com/advice/meeting-statistics/ com/top/opinoin/editorialsandoped/oped/
#Meeting_Trends_and_Predictions. columnists/davidbrooks/index.html?inline=nyt-per.
18 Chapter 1

9. Eduardo Salas, Dana E. Sims, and C. Shawn Burke, 23. Salas, Sims, and Burke, 559–62.
“Is There a ‘Big Five’ in Teamwork?,” Small Group 24. Frank M. J. Lafasto and Carl E. Larson. When
Research, 36 (2005): 555–99. Teams Work Best: 6,000 Team Members and
10. Sally Buffalo, “These Are the 9 Skills That Would Leaders Tell What It Takes to Succeed. Thousand
Make Any Hiring Manager Happy.” Retrieved Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001.
April 25, 2022, at https://www.monster.com/ 25. Thomas J. Socha, “Communication in Family
career-advice/article/skills-hiring-manager-wants. Units: Studying the ‘First’ Group,” in The Hand-
11. Susan Sorensen, “Grouphate: A Negative book of Group Communication Theory and Research,
Reaction to Group Work.” Paper presented at ed. Lawrence R. Frey (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
the International Communication Association, 1999): 475–92.
Minneapolis, May 1981. 26. Carolyn M. Anderson and Matthew M. Martin,
12. Joann Keyton and Lawrence R. Frey, “The State  “The Effects of Communication Motives,
of Traits: Predispositions and Group Interaction Involvement, and Loneliness on
Communication,” in New Directions in Group Satisfaction: A Model of Small Groups,” Small
Communication, ed. Lawrence R. Frey  Group Research, 26 (February 1995): 118–37.  
(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002): 109. 27. Joann Keyton and Stephensen J. Beck, “The
13. K. A. Freeman, “Attitudes Toward Work in Project Influential Role of Relational Messages in Group
Groups as Predictors of Group Performance,” Interaction,” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research,
Small Group Research, 27 (1996): 265–82. and Practice, 13 (2009): 14–30.
14. T. J. Larkin, “Humanistic Principles for 28. Terre H. Allen and Timothy G. Plax, “Exploring
Organization Management,” Central States Consequences of Group Communication in
Speech Journal, 37 (1986): 37. the Classroom,” in New Directions in Group
15. Douglas M. Lawson, Give to Live: How Giving Communication, ed. Lawrence R. Frey 
Can Change Your Life (LaJolla, CA: ALTI (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002): 219–34.
Publishing, 1991). 29. Peg Thoms, Jeffrey K. Pinto, Diane H. Parente, 
16. David C. Strubler and Kenneth M. York, “An and Vanessa U. Druskat, “Adaptation to Self-
Exploratory Study of the Team Characteristics Managing Work Teams,” Small Group Research, 
Model Using Organizational Teams,” Small 33 (2002): 3–31.
Group Research, 38 (2007): 670–95.   30. Maria Doblinger, “Individual Competencies for
17. Marvin E. Shaw, Group Dynamics: The Psychology Self-Managing Team Performance: A Systematic
of Small Group Behavior, 3rd ed. (New York: Literature Review,” Small Group Research, 53
McGraw-Hill, 1980): 8. (2022): 128–80.
18. Donald G. Ellis and B. Aubrey Fisher, Small 31. Zorn and Thompson, “Communication in Top,”
Group Decision Making: Communication and the 254–56.
Group Process, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 32. J. Barney, “Looking Inside for Competitive
1994): 5. Advantage,” Academy of Management Review, 
19. Shaw, Group Dynamics, p. 8. 9 (1995): 49–61.
20. Susan A. Wheelan, “Group Size, Group 33. The Random House Dictionary of the English
Development, and Group Productivity,” Small Language, 2nd ed. unabridged (New York: 
Group Research, 40 (2009): 247–62. Random House, 1987): 665.
21. Gay Lumsden and Donald Lumsden, 34. National Communication Association Code
Communicating in Groups and Teams: Sharing of Professional Ethics for the Communication
Leadership (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1993): Scholar/Teacher. Retrieved May 16, 2011, at 
13–15; Steven Beebe and John Masterson, www.natcom.org/Default.aspx?id=135&terms=
Communicating in Small Groups, 7th ed. (Boston, Code%20of%20Ethics.
MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2003), 6–9. 35. See Rob Anderson and Veronica Ross, Questions
22. Thomas E. Harris and John C. Sherblom, Small of Communication: A Practical Introduction to
Group and Team Communication (Boston: Allyn  Theory, 2nd ed. (Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s,
and Bacon, 1999): 123–31. 1998), Chapter 10.
 The Small Groups in Everyone’s Life 19

36. Ronald C. Arnett, “The Practical Philosophy 40. Charles Duhigg, “What Google Learned from 
of Communication Ethics and Free Speech as Its Quest to Build a Perfect Team,” The New
the Foundation for Speech Communication,” York Times, February 25, 2016. Retrieved at 
Communication Quarterly, 38 (Summer 1990): http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/28/magazine/
208–17. what-google-learned-from-its-quest-to-build-the-
37. Brenda J. Allen, “‘Diversity’ and Organizational perfect-team.html?smid=nytcore-ipad-share&
Communication,” Journal of Applied smprod=nytcore-ipad.
Communication Research, 23 (1995): 143–55. 41. Salas, Sims, and Burke, 568–70.
38. Mark P. Orbe, “From the Standpoint(s) of 42. Benjamin J. Broome and Luann Fulbright, 
Traditionally Muted Groups: Explicating a “A Multistage Influence Model of Barriers to 
Co-cultural Communication Theoretical Model,” Group Problem Solving: A Participant-Generated
Communication Theory, 8 (February 1998): 2. Agenda for Small Group Research,” Small Group
39. Salas, Sims, and Burke, 584–87. Research, 26 (February 1995): 25–55.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
tamer of the steed, of the race of Neptune, plucks
down the palisade, and calls for ladders to the
battlement. 10

Vouchsafe, Calliope and thy heavenly sisterhood, to aid

me while I sing, what slaughter, what deaths were dealt
that day in that place by Turnus’ sword, what foes each
warrior sent down to the grave, and help me to unfold the
length and breadth of the mighty war. 15

A tower there was, vast to look on from below, with

lofty bridges, placed on a vantage-ground, which all the
Italians, with utmost force and utmost strain of might,
were essaying to storm, while the Trojans, on their side,
were defending it with stones, and hurling showers of 20
darts through its narrow eyelets. Turnus the first flung
a blazing torch and fastened fire on its side; fanned by
the wind, the flame seized the planks and lodged in the
consuming doors. The inmates are all in confusion, and
in vain seek to escape the mischief. While they huddle 25
together and retire upon the part which the plague has
spared, in an instant the tower falls heavily down, and the
firmament thunders with the crash. Half dead they come
to the ground, the huge fabric following on their backs,
pierced by their own weapons, their breasts impaled by the 30
cruel wood. Barely two escaped, Helenor and Lycus—Helenor
in prime of youth, whom Licymnia the slave had
borne secretly to the Mæonian king, and had sent to Troy
in forbidden arms, with the light accoutrement of a
naked sword, and a shield uncharged by an escutcheon. 35
Soon as he saw himself with Turnus’ thousands round him,
the armies of Latium standing on this side and on that,
like a beast that, hemmed in by the hunters’ close-set ring,
vents her rage on the darts and flings herself deliberately
on death, and springs from high on the line of spears, even
thus the doomed youth rushes on the midst of the foe,
making for where he sees the darts are thickest. But
Lycus, far swifter of foot, winds among ranks of foes and 5
showers of steel and gains the wall, and strives to clutch
the fabric’s summit and reach the hands of his friends.
Whom Turnus, following him at once with foot and javelin,
taunts in victorious tone: “Dreamed you, poor fool, that
you could escape my hands?” and with that he seizes him 10
as he hangs in air, and pulls him down with a great fragment
of the wall; just as the bearer of Jove’s thunder
trusses in his hooked talons a hare or a snow-white swan
and soars into the sky, or one of Mars’ wolves snatches
from the fold a lamb which its mother’s bleatings reclaim 15
in vain. On all sides rises the war-shout. They rush on
the trenches and fill them with shattered earthworks,
while others fling brazen firebrands to the roofs. Ilioneus
with a rock, broken from a mighty mountain, brings
down Lucetius as he assails the gates and waves his torch. 20
Liger kills Emathion, Asilas Corynæus, one skilled with the
javelin, one with the arrow that surprises from a distance.
Cæneus slays Ortygius, Turnus the conqueror Cæneus,
Turnus Itys and Clonius, Dioxippus and Promolus, and
Sagaris, and Idas, who was standing on the turret’s top. 25
Capys kills Privernus: Themilla’s flying spear had grazed
him first; he, poor fool, dropped his buckler and clapped
his hand to the wound, so the arrow came on stealthy
wing, and the hand was pinned to the left side, and the
inmost seat of breath is rent asunder by the deadly wound. 30
There stood the son of Arcens in conspicuous armour,
his scarf embroidered with needlework, in the glory of
Hiberian purple, fair of form, sent to war by his father
Arcens, who had reared him in his mother’s grove by the
streams of Symæthus, where stands Palicus’ rich and 35
gracious altar: flinging his spears aside, Mezentius
whirled the strained thong of the whizzing sling thrice
round his head, and with the molten bullet burst in twain
the forehead of the fronting foe, and stretched him at
full length on the expanse of sand.
Then first, they say, Ascanius levelled in war his winged
arrow, used till then to terrify the beasts of chase, and
laid low by strength of hand the brave Numanus, Remulus 5
by surname, who had lately won and wedded Turnus’
younger sister. He was stalking in front of the host,
vaunting aloud things meet and unmeet to tell, in the
insolence of new-blown royalty, and venting his pride in
clamorous tones: “Are ye not ashamed to be imprisoned 10
yet again in leaguer and rampart, twice-captured Phrygians,
and to put your walls between you and death? Lo, these
are the men who demand our wives at the sword’s edge!
What god, what madness, has driven you to Italy? You
will not find the Atridæ here, nor Ulysses the forger of 15
speech. A hardy race even from the stock, we bring our
sons soon as born to the river’s side, and harden them with
the water’s cruel cold. Our boys spend long days in the
chase, and weary out the forest; their sport is to rein the
steed, and level shafts from the bow. Our youth, strong 20
to labour and schooled by want, subdues the earth with
the rake, or shakes the city’s walls with battle. All our
life we ply the steel; with the butt of our spears we belabour
our cattle; old age, which dulls all else, impairs
not the force of our hearts or changes our fresh vigour; 25
the hoary head is clasped by the helmet; our constant
joy is to bring home new booty and live by rapine. Yours
are embroidered garments of saffron and gleaming purple;
sauntering and sloth are your delight; your pleasure is to
indulge the dance; your tunics have sleeves and your turbans 30
strings. Phrygian dames in sooth—for Phrygian
men ye are not—get you to the heights of Dindymus,
where the pipe utters its two-doored note to your accustomed
ears. The Idæan mother’s cymbals, the Berecyntian
flute, are calling you to the revel; leave arms to 35
men, and meddle no more with steel.”

Such boasting and such ill-omened talk Ascanius could

bear no longer; setting his breast to the bow-string of
horsehair he levelled his dart, and drawing his arms wide
apart he stood, having first invoked Jove thus in suppliant
prayer: “Jove Almighty, smile on my bold essay; with
my own hand I will bring to thy temple yearly offerings,
and will set before thine altar a bullock with gilded brow, 5
snowy white, rearing his head to the height of his mother’s,
fit to butt with the horn and spurn up sand with the hoof.”
The father heard and from a cloudless quarter of the sky
thundered on the left; at the same instant twanged the
deadly bow. Forth flies the arrow from the string, whizzing 10
fearfully, passes through the head of Remulus, and cleaves
with its point his hollow temples. “Go, make valour the
sport of your boasting; the twice-captured Phrygians
answer the Rutulians thus.” So far Ascanius: the Teucrians
second him with a cry, shout for joy, and mount 15
heavenward in their exultation. It chanced that then
in the realm of sky long-haired Apollo was surveying the
armies of Ausonia and the city, seated on a cloud; and
thus addressed Iulus in the moment of triumph: “Rejoice,
brave youth, in your new-won laurels; ’tis thus 20
men climb the stars; son of gods that are, sire of gods that
shall be! Well has Fate ordered that beneath the house
of Assaracus the wars of the future shall find their end;
nor can Troy contain your prowess.” So saying he shoots
down from heaven, parts before him the breathing gales, 25
and makes for Ascanius. He changes his features to those
of ancient Butes, who had once been armour-bearer to
Dardanian Anchises and trusty watcher at the gate;
thence Ascanius’ sire made him his son’s guardian. Apollo
moved along, in all things like the aged veteran, the voice, 30
the colour, the white locks, the fiercely clanking armour;
and thus he spoke to Iulus’ glowing heart: “Suffice it,
child of Æneas, that Numanus has met from your darts an
unrequited death: this your maiden glory great Apollo
vouchsafes you freely, nor looks with jealousy on weapons 35
like his own; for the rest abstain from war, as stripling
should.” So Apollo began, and ere his speech was well
done parted from mortal eyes, and vanished from sight
into unsubstantial air. The Dardan chiefs knew the god
and his divine artillery, and heard his quiver hurtle as he
fled. So now at Phœbus’ present instance they check
Ascanius’ ardour for battle; themselves take their place
in the combat once more, and fling their lives into the 5
jaws of danger. All over the walls passes the shout from
rampart to rampart; they bend their sharp-springing
bows and hurl their lashed javelins—the ground is all
strewn with darts; shields and hollow helms ring with
blow on blow; a savage combat is aroused; fierce as the 10
rain coming from the west at the setting of the showery
kid-stars[268] scourges the earth, plenteous as the hail which
the stormclouds discharge into the sea, when Jove in the
sullenness of southern blasts whirls the watery tempest and
bursts the misty chambers of the sky. 15

Pandarus and Bitias, sons of Idæan Alcanor, brought up

by Iæra the wood-nymph in the grove of Jupiter, youths
tall as the pines and peaks of their birthplace, throw open
the gate, which the general’s order placed in their charge,
relying on their good steel, and invite the foe to enter the 20
town. Themselves within right and left stand before the
bulwarks, sheathed in iron, the crest waving on their lofty
heads: even as high in air beside the flowing streams,
on Padus’[269] banks it may be or by pleasant Athesis,[270] uptower
two oaks, raising to heaven their unshorn summits 25
and nodding their lofty crowns. In rush the Rutulians
when they see the entry clear. In a moment Quercens and
Aquicolus in his brilliant armour and headlong Tmarus
and Hæmon, scion of Mars, with all their followers, are
routed and turned to flight, or on the threshold of the gate 30
have resigned their lives. At this the wrath of the combatants
flames yet higher, and the Trojans rally and muster
in one spot and venture to engage hand to hand and to
advance farther into the plain.
Turnus, the chief, while venting his rage elsewhere and 35
scattering ranks of warriors, hears tidings that the foe,
fevered by the taste of blood, has thrown the gates open.
He leaves the work he had begun, and stirred with giant
fury hastens to the Dardan gate and the two haughty
brethren. Hurling his dart, he first slays Antiphates, who
happened first to meet him, bastard son of great Sarpedon
by a Theban mother; the shaft of Italian cornel flies
through the yielding air, and lodging in the throat goes 5
deep down into the chest; the wound’s dark pit spouts
forth a foaming torrent, and the cold steel grows warm
in the lungs it pierces. Then with strong hand he slays
Merops and Erymas and then Aphidnus, then Bitias
with his blazing eyes and his boiling valour—not with a 10
dart, for to a dart he would not have surrendered his life—no;
it was a whirled phalaric lance that came hurtling
fiercely, shot like a thunderbolt, which neither two bulls’
hides nor a trusty corselet with double golden plait could
withstand: the massive limbs sink and fall: earth groans, 15
and the vast buckler thunders on the body. Even thus
sometimes on Baiæ’s Eubœan coast falls a pile of stone,
which men compact with mighty blocks and then fling
into the sea; thus it comes down with protracted headlong
ruin, and dashing on the shallows settles into its 20
place; the sea is all disturbed, and the murky sand rises
to the surface; the crash shakes Prochyta[271] to her depths,
and Inarime’s[272] rugged bed, laid by Jove’s command upon
Typhœus.

Now Mars, the lord of arms, inspires the Latians with 25

strength and courage, and plants his stings deep in their
bosoms, while among the Teucrians, he sends Flight and
grisly Terror. They flock from this side and from that,
now that scope for battle is given, and the warrior-god
comes down on their souls. When Pandarus saw his 30
brother’s corpse laid low, and knew the posture of fortune
and the chance that was swaying the day, with a mighty
effort he turns the gate on its hinge, pushing with his broad
shoulders, and leaves outside many of his comrades shut out
from the camp all in the cruel battle, while others he shuts 35
in with himself, admitting them as they stream onward—madman,
to have failed to see the king of the Rutulians in
the middle of the company storming in, and to have shut
him wantonly within the walls, like monstrous tiger
among a herd of helpless cattle! On the instant a strange
light flashed from the eyes of the foe, and his arms gave a
fearful clang; on his helm quivers his crest, red as blood,
and from his shield he darts gleaming lightnings. With 5
sudden confusion the children of Æneas recognize that
hated form and those giant limbs. Then forth springs
mighty Pandarus, and with all the glow of wrath for his
brother’s death bespeaks him thus: “This is not the
bridal palace of Amata, nor is it Ardea that embraces 10
Turnus in the walls of his fathers; the enemy’s camp is
before you; all escape is barred.” To him Turnus, smiling
in quiet mood: “Begin, if you have courage, and engage in
combat. Priam shall learn from you that here too you
have found an Achilles.” Thus he: Pandarus, with the 15
full strain of his power, hurls his spear, rugged with knots
and unpeeled bark. It was launched on the air; but Saturnian
Juno turned aside the coming wound, and the
spear lodged in the gate. “But this my weapon you
shall not escape, swayed as it is by my hand’s full force; 20
he from whom wound and weapon come is too strong for
that.” So cries Turnus, and rises high upon his lifted
sword, and cleaves with the steel the forehead in twain full
between the temples, parting beardless cheek from cheek
with a ghastly wound. A crash is heard: earth is shaken 25
by the enormous weight: the unnerved limbs, the arms
splashed with gore and brain are stretched in death on the
ground; and the head, shared in equal parts, hangs right
and left from either shoulder. The routed Trojans fly
here and there in wildering terror; and had the thought at 30
once seized the conqueror, to burst the gates by main
force and give entrance to his friends, that day would have
ended a war and a nation both. But rage and mad thirst
for blood drove him in fury on the foe before him. First
he surprises Phalaris and hamstrings Gyges; plucks forth 35
spears and hurls them on the backs of the fliers; Juno
gives supplies of strength and courage. He sends Halys to
join them and Phegeus, pierced through the shield, and
cuts down others as they stand unconscious on the walls
and stir up the battle, Alcander and Halius, and Noëmon
and Prytanis. As Lynceus moved to meet him and calls
on his comrades, with a sweep of his arm from the rampart
on his right he catches him with his whirling sword; swept 5
off by a single blow hand to hand, the head with the helmet
on it lay yards away. Next falls Amycus, the ravager of
the forest brood, than who was never man more skilled
to anoint the dart and arm the steel with venom, and
Clytius, son of Æolus, and Cretheus, darling of the Muses, 10
Cretheus the Muses’ playmate, whose delight was ever in
minstrelsy and harp, and in stringing notes on the chord;
songs of chargers and warrior arms and battles were ever on
his lips.

At last the Teucrian leaders, hearing of the slaughter of 15

their men, come together to the spot, Mnestheus and keen
Serestus, when they see their comrades flying in confusion,
and the foe lodged in the camp. Out cries Mnestheus:
“Whither now, whither are ye making in flight? what
further city have ye, what walls beyond? Shall it be said 20
that a single man, and he too, my countrymen, hemmed in
on all hands by your ramparts, has spread unavenged
such havoc through your streets, has sent down to death so
many of your bravest? As ye think of your unhappy
country, your ancient gods, your great Æneas, is there no 25
pity, no shame in your sluggish hearts?” Roused by these
words they rally and halt in close array. Turnus step by
step withdraws from the fight, making for the river and
the part round which the water runs. All the more keenly
the Teucrians press on him with loud shouts and close their 30
ranks: as when a company of hunters bears down on a
savage lion javelin in hand: he, struck with fear, yet fierce
and glaring angrily, gives ground; wrath and courage
suffer him not to turn his back, nor yet may he charge,
though he fain would do so, through the huntsmen and the 35
spears. Not unlike to him Turnus in doubt retraces his
lingering footsteps, while his heart boils with rage. Even
then twice had he dashed on the thick of the foe, twice he
drives their ranks in huddled flight round the walls; but
the whole army musters in a body from the camp, nor dares
Saturnian Juno supply him with strength to oppose them;
for Jove sent down from the sky celestial Iris, with no
gentle message for his sister’s ear, if Turnus retire not from 5
the Teucrians’ lofty ramparts. So now the warrior cannot
hold his own with shield or sword; such a deluge of darts
overwhelms him. Round his hollow temples the helmet
echoes with ceaseless ringing; the solid plates of brass
give way beneath the stones; the horsehair crest is struck 10
from his head; his shield’s boss cannot stand the blows;
faster and faster they hail their spears, the Trojans and
fiery Mnestheus. Over all his frame flows the sweat and
trickles in a murky stream, while breathe he cannot; his
sinking limbs are shaken with feeble panting. At last 15
with headlong leap he plunged arms and all into the river.
Tiber with his yellow gulf received the guest, upbore him
on his buoyant waves, and washing off the stains of carnage,
restored him in joy to his friends.
 BOOK X
Meantime the palace of strong Olympus is thrown open,
and the sire of gods and monarch of men summons a
council to the starry chamber, whence, throned on high,
he looks down on the length and breadth of earth, the
camp of the Dardans and the people of Latium. They 5
take their seats in the double-gated mansion; he himself
opens the court: “Mighty denizens of heaven, wherefore
is your judgment turned backward, and whence such discord
in your unkindly souls? I had forbidden that Italy
should meet the Teucrians in the shock of war. What 10
strife is this in defiance of my law? What terror has
prompted these or those to draw the sword and provoke
the fight? There shall come a rightful time for combat—no
need for you to hasten it—when fierce Carthage one
day shall launch on the hills of Rome mighty ruin and the 15
opening of Alpine barriers. Then will your rancours be
free to contend, your hands to plunder and ravage; for the
present let be, and cheerfully ratify the peace that I have
willed.”

Thus Jupiter in brief; but not brief was the answer 20

of golden Venus: “O Father! O eternal sovereignty of
man and nature! for what else can there be which is left
us to implore? Seest thou how the Rutulians insult? how
Turnus is whirled through the battle by his haughty
coursers, borne on the floodtide of war? No longer are 25
the Teucrians safe even in the shelter of their walls; within
the gates, amidst the very mounds of the ramparts combat
is waged, and the trenches overflow with carnage. Æneas
is away in his ignorance. Wilt thou never let us have
respite from siege? Once more the enemy is stooping over 30
the walls of our infant Troy, with a second army; once
more Tydeus’ son from his Ætolian Arpi is rising against
the Teucrians. Ay, my wounds, I ween, are yet in the
future, and I, thine own offspring, am delaying the destined
course of a mortal spear. If it is without your leave and 5
despite your will that the Trojans have won their way to
Italy, let them expiate the crime and withdraw from them
thine aid: but if they have but followed those many oracles
given by powers above and powers underground, how
can any now be able to reverse thine ordinance and write 10
anew the page of fate? Why should I remind thee of our
fleet consumed on Eryx’ shore? why of the monarch of the
storms and his raving winds stirred up from Æolia, or of
Iris sent down from the clouds? Now she is even rousing
the ghosts below—that portion of the world till then was 15
untried—and on a sudden Allecto is launched on upper
air, and rages through the Italian cities. It is not for
empire that I am disquieted; for that we hoped in the past,
while our star yet shone: let them conquer whom thou
wouldst have conquer. If there is no country on earth 20
which thy relentless spouse will allow the Teucrians, I adjure
thee, father, by the smoking ruins of Troy overthrown,
let me send away Ascanius safe from the war—let my
grandson survive in life. Æneas, indeed, may be tossed
on unknown waters, and follow such course as chance may 25
give him: him let me have the power to screen and withdraw
from the horrors of battle. Amathus is mine, and
lofty Paphos, and high Cythera, and the mansion of Idalia:
there let him pass his days unwarlike and inglorious. Let
it be thy will that Carthage shall bow Ausonia beneath 30
her tyrannous sway; the Tyrian cities need fear no resistance
from him. What has it advantaged him to have
escaped the plague of war and fled through the hottest of
the Argive fires, to have drained to the dregs all those
dangers by sea and on broad earth, while the Teucrians 35
are in quest of Latium and a restored Pergamus? Give
back, great sire, to our wretched nation their Xanthus and
their Simois, and let the Teucrians enact once more the old
tragedy of Ilium.” Then outspoke queenly Juno, goaded
by fierce passion: “Why force you me to break my deep
silence, and give forth in words my buried grief? Your
Æneas—was it any man or god that compelled him to
draw the sword, and come down as a foe on the Latian 5
king? Grant that he went to Italy at the instance of fate,
at the impulse, in truth, of mad Cassandra; was it our
counsel that he should leave his camp and place his life
at the mercy of the winds? that he should trust the control
of battle and his city to a boy—should tamper with 10
Tyrrhenian loyalty and stir up a quiet nation? What
god, what cruel tyranny of ours, drove him thither to his
hurt? is there a trace of Juno here, or of Iris sent down from
the clouds? Ay, it is foul shame that the Italians should
throw a belt of flame round the infant Troy—that Turnus 15
should plant a foot on the soil of his fathers, Turnus, whose
grandsire was Pilumnus, whose mother the goddess
Venilia. How call you it for the Trojans to invade
Latium with their smoking torches, to put their yoke on a
country that is none of theirs, and harry away its plunder—to 20
choose at will those whose daughters they would wed,
and drag the plighted bride from the bosom—to bear
suppliant tokens in the hand and arm their vessels to the
teeth? You have power to withdraw Æneas from the
hands of the Greeks, and offer them clouds and thin winds 25
for the man they seek—power to turn a fleet of ships into
a bevy of Nymphs; and is it utterly monstrous for us to
give the Rutulians a measure of aid in return? Æneas
is away in ignorance, and in ignorance let him bide away.
You have your Paphos, your Idalium, your lofty Cythera: 30
why meddle with a city brimming with war and with ungentle
hearts? Is it we that are labouring to overturn
from the foundation your feeble Phrygian fortunes?
We? or the gallant who brought Greece down on the
wretched Trojans? What reason was there that Europe 35
and Asia should stand up to fight, and a league be broken
by treachery? Did I lead your Dardan leman to take
Sparta by storm? did I put weapons in his hand, or fan the
flame of war with the gales of love? Then had there been
decency in your fears for your friends; now you are rising
too late with unjust complaints, and flinging idly the language
of quarrel.”

Such was the appeal of Juno: and the whole body of immortals 5
murmured assent on this side or on that, like new-born
gales when they murmur, caught in the forest, and
roll about mysterious sounds, disclosing to the sailor a
coming storm. Then begins the almighty sire, whose is
the chief sovereignty of the universe: at opening of his 10
mouth the lofty palace of the gods grows still, and earth
shakes to her foundations; silent is the height of ether; the
Zephyrs are sunk to rest, and Ocean subdues its waves to
repose. “Take then to your hearts and engrave there
these my words: since it may not be that Ausonian and 15
Teucrian should be united by treaty, and your wranglings
brook no conclusion, be each man’s fortune to-day what
it may, be the span of each man’s hope long or short,
Trojan or Rutulian, I will show favour to neither, whether
it be by destiny that the Italian leaguer encompasses the 20
camp, or by Troy’s baneful error and the warnings of hostile
intelligence. Nor leave I the Rutulians free. Each man’s
own endeavours shall yield him the harvest of labour or
fortune. Jove, as king, is alike to all. Destiny shall find
her own way.” By the river of his Stygian brother, by the 25
banks that seethe with pitch and are washed by the
murky torrent, he nodded confirmation, and with his nod
made all Olympus tremble. So ended their debate.
Then from his golden throne rises Jove, and the immortals
gathering round him usher him to his chamber. 30

Meantime the Rutulians press round each and all of the

gates, eager to slaughter the soldiery and belt the ramparts
with flame. But Æneas’ army is hemmed within the
leaguered encampment, without hope of escape. In unavailing
wretchedness they stand guarding the turret’s 35
height, and form a thin circle round the walls. Asius son
of Imbrasus, and Hicetaon’s child Thymœtes, and the two
Assaraci, and Castor and aged Thymbris are their front
rank, by their side the two brethren of Sarpedon, Clarus
and Themon both, come from noble Lycia. There is one
carrying with the whole strain of his body a mighty rock,
no small portion of a mountain, Acmon of Lyrnessus, a
worthy peer of his father Clytius and his brother Menestheus. 5
Some repel the foe with javelins, some with stones:
they launch the firebrand, they fit the arrow to the string.
In the midst is he, Venus’ most rightful care, the royal boy
of Dardany, his beauteous head uncovered: see him shine
like a jewel islanded in yellow gold, an ornament for neck 10
or head, or as gleams ivory set by artist skill in box-wood or
Orician terebinth[273]: his flowing hair streams over a neck of
milky white and is gathered up by a ring of ductile gold.
Thou, too, Ismarus, wast seen by tribes of warriors dealing
wounds abroad and arming thy arrows with venom, gallant 15
branch of a Lydian house, from the land whose rich
soil is broken up by the husbandmen and washed by
Pactolus’ golden stream. Mnestheus, too, was there, whom
yesterday’s triumph over Turnus repulsed from the rampart
exalts to the stars, and Capys, who gives his name to 20
Campania’s mother city.

So they on this side and on that had waged all day the
conflict of stubborn war; and now at midnight Æneas
was ploughing the main. For soon as, leaving Evander,
he entered the Etruscan camp, accosted the king, and told 25
him of his name and his race, for what he sues and what
he offers, explains what arms Mezentius musters on his
side, and what the excess of Turnus’ violence, warns him
how little faith man can place in fortune, and seconds
reasoning by entreaty, without a moment’s pause Tarchon 30
combines his forces and strikes a truce; and at once, freed
from the spell of destiny, the Lydian race embarks according
to heaven’s ordinance, under the charge of a foreign
leader. First sails the vessel of Æneas, Phrygian lions
harnessed on the prow; above them Ida spreads her shade, 35
of happiest augury to exiled Troy. There sits great Æneas
brooding over the doubtful future of the war: and Pallas,
close cleaving to his left side, keeps questioning him,
now of the stars, the road-marks of the shadowy night,
and now of all that he has borne by land and by sea.

Now, ye goddesses, open wide your Helicon,[274] and stir up

the powers of song, to tell us what the army now following
Æneas from the Tuscan shores, equipping its ships for 5
adventure, and sailing over the sea.

First comes Massicus, cleaving the waters in his brass-sheathed

Tiger: in his train a band of a thousand warriors,
who have left the walls of Clusium and the city Cosæ;
their weapons a sheaf of arrows, light quivers for the 10
shoulder, and a bow of deadly aim. With him grim
Abas: his whole band ablaze with gleaming armour,
his vessel shining with a gilded Apollo. Populonia had
sent him six hundred of her sons, all versed in war: Ilva
three hundred, an island rich in the Chalybes’ unexhausted 15
mines. Third comes Asilas, the great interpreter
’tween gods and men, at whose bidding are the
victims’ entrails, the stars of the sky, the tongues of augurial
birds, and the flame of the prophetic lightning. With
him hurry a thousand in close array, bristling with spears—subjected
20
to his command by the town of Pisa, which,
sprung from Alpheus, took root on Etruscan soil. After
these is Astur, fairest of form, Astur, proud of his steed
and his glancing armour. Three hundred follow him, all
with one loyal soul, from those who dwell in Cære and in 25
the plains of Minio, in ancient Pyrgi, and Gravisca’s
tainted air.
I would not leave thee unsung, bravest chief of the Ligurians,
Cinyras, or Cupavo with scanty retinue, whose helmet
is surmounted by plumage of the swan: love was your 30
joint crime; for love you wear the cognizance of your
father’s form. For legend tells that Cycnus, all for grief
over his darling Phaethon, while in the poplar shade and
the leafage of the brotherless sisters he keeps singing and
consoling his sad passion by the Muses’ aid, drew over his 35
form the soft plumage of downy eld, mounting up from
earth and sending his voice before him to the stars. His
son, with a band of martial peers sailing at his side,
propels with his oars the enormous Centaur: the monster
stands lowering over the water, and threatens the billows
with a huge rock from his towering eminence, as he ploughs
the deep sea with the length of his keel.

Great Ocnus too is leading an army from the coasts of his 5

fathers, Ocnus, son of Manto the prophetess and the Etruscan
river, who bestowed on thee, Mantua, thy city walls
and the name of his mother, Mantua rich in ancestral
glories: but not all her sons of the same blood; three
races are there, and under each race range four nations: 10
herself the queen of the nations, her strength from Etruscan
blood. Hence, too, Mezentius draws against his life
five hundred unfriendly swords—Mincius, child of Benacus,
with his gray covering of reeds, ushers into the deep
their hostile bark. 15

On moves strong Aulestes, lashing the water as he rises

with the stroke of a hundred oars: the sea spouts foam
from its upturned surface. His bearer is a huge Triton,
whose shell strikes terror into the green billows; his
shaggy front, breasting the water, down to the side bespeaks 20
the man: the belly ends in a sea monster: under
the half bestial bosom the wave froths and roars.

So many chosen chiefs were journeying in thirty

vessels to the succour of Troy, and ploughing with brazen
beak the expanse of brine. 25

And now the day had withdrawn from the sky, and
gracious Dian was trampling over the cope of heaven with
her night-flying steeds: Æneas the while, for care refuses
slumber to his frame, is seated at his post, himself guiding
the rudder and trimming the sail—when lo! in the middle 30
of his voyage he is met by a fair bevy of comrades of his
own: the Nymphs whom gracious Cybele had invested
with the deity of the sea, and changed from ships to goddesses,
were swimming abreast and cleaving the billow,
a Nymph for each of the brazen prows that erst had 35
lined the shore. Far off they recognize their king, and
come dancing round him in state: Cymodoce, their skilfullest
in speech, swimming up behind, lays her right hand on
the stern, herself lifted breast high above the water,
while with her left she paddles in the noiseless wave.
Then thus she breaks on his wondering ear: “Wake you,
Æneas, seed of the gods? be wakeful still, and let the sail-ropes
go. We it is you see, pines of Ida from the sacred 5
summit, Sea-nymphs now, your sometime fleet. When
the false Rutulian was hot at our backs with fire and sword,
reluctantly we burst your bonds, and are now in full quest
of you over the sea. This new shape the great mother gave
us in her pity, and granted us the state of goddesses and 10
lives to lead beneath the water. Meantime young Ascanius
is hemmed in by rampart and trench, with serried
weapons all around him, and Latians bristling with battle.
Already the Arcadian horse mixed with the brave Etruscan
has gained the appointed spot: to bar their way with an 15
intervening host and cut them off from the camp is
Turnus’ fixed intent. Rise, and with the earliest approach
of dawn bid your allies be summoned to arms, and take in
hand that shield which the Fire-god himself made to
be invincible and bordered with a marge of gold. The 20
morrow’s sun, if you will but give credence to my words,
shall survey mighty heaps of Rutulian carnage.” Her
speech was done: and as she parted she gave with her
hand an impulse to the lofty stern, well knowing the due
measure of force: on it speeds over the wave, fleeter than 25
dart and wind-swift arrow both. The rest in order mend
their speed. Wondering he pauses, the great Trojan of
Anchises’ line, yet cheers his soul with the omen. Then,
looking to the vault above, he prays in brief: “Gracious
mother of the gods, lady of Ida, whose joy is in Dindymus, 30
and in turreted cities and harnessed lions at thy
bridle-rein, be thou now to me the controller of the fight,
do thou bring the presage nigh, and walk beside the
Phrygians, mighty goddess, with favouring step.” Thus
much he said: and meanwhile day was returning at speed, 35
with its light grown to full strength, and night had vanished
before it.

First he gives orders to his comrades to obey the

heavenly token, and nerve their souls for combat, and
make ready for the fight. And now at last from his
station on the tall stern he has the Teucrians and his
camp in view, when on the instant his blazing shield is
raised high on his left arm. Up goes a shout to heaven 5
from the Dardans on their ramparts; the gleam of hope
quickens wrath to fury; they hurl a shower of javelins:
even as amid dark clouds cranes from Strymon give token,
sweeping sonorously over the sky, and flying from the
southern gale with sequacious clamour. But the Rutulian 10
king and the Ausonian generals wonder at the sight, till,
looking back, they behold the stems bearing to the shore,
and the whole water floating on with vessels. There is a
blaze on that helmet’s summit, and from the crest on
high streams the flame, and the shield’s golden boss disgorges 15
mighty fires, even as when on a clear night blood-hued
comets glare with gloomy red, or as the Sirian blaze,
that harbinger of drought and sickness to weak mortality,
breaks into birth and saddens heaven with its ill-boding
rays. 20

Yet pause was none in bold Turnus’ confidence to forestall

the landing-place, and beat off the comers from the
shore. His words are ready at the moment to encourage
and upbraid: “See here the occasion you longed for, to
break through them at the sword’s point. A brave man’s 25
hand is the War-god’s chosen seat. Now let each remember
wife and home, recall the mighty deeds that made
your fathers great. Let us meet them at once at the
water’s edge, while they are in the hurry of landing, and
the foot falters in its first tread on shore. Valour has 30
Fortune for its friend:” So saying, he ponders with himself
whom to lead to the attack, and to whom he may
trust the leaguer of the walls.

Meanwhile Æneas is landing his comrades from the tall

ship-sides by help of bridges. Many of them watch for 35
the ebb of the failing sea and venture a leap among the
shallows; others resort to the oars. Tarchon, spying out
a place on the beach where the waters seethe not nor the
broken billows roar, but ocean without let glides gently
up the shore as the tide advances, suddenly turns his
prows thither, and exhorts his crew: “Now, ye chosen
band, ply your stout oars, lift the vessels and carry them
home: cleave with your beaks this land that hates you; 5
let the keel plough its own furrow. Even from shipwreck
in a roadstead like this I would not shrink, could I once
get hold of the soil.” Tarchon having thus said, his crew
rise on their oars and bear down on the Latian plains with
vessels all foam, till the beaks have gained the dry land, 10
and every keel has come scatheless to its rest. Not so
thy ship, Tarchon: for while dashed on a sandbank it
totters on the unequal ridge, poised in suspense awhile,
and buffeting the waves, its sides give way, and its men
are set down in the midst of the water: broken oars and 15
floating benches entangle them, and their feet are carried
back by the ebb of the wave.

No sluggish delay holds Turnus from his work: with

fiery speed he sweeps his whole army against the Teucrians,
and plants them in the foe’s face on the shore. The 20
clarions sound: first dashed Æneas on the rustic ranks, a
presage of the fight’s fortune, and disarrayed the Latians,
slaying Theron, who in his giant strength is assailing
Æneas: piercing through quilted brass and tunic stiff
with gold the sword devours his unguarded side. Next 25
he strikes Lycus, who was cut from the womb of his
dead mother and consecrated to thee, Apollo, because his
baby life had been suffered to scape the peril of the steel.
Hard by, as iron Cisseus and gigantic Gyas were laying
low his host with their clubs, he casts them down in 30
death: nought availed them; the weapons of Hercules or
strong hands to wield them, or Melampus their sire,
Alicides’ constant follower, long as earth found for him
those grievous tasks. See there, as Pharus is hurling
forth words without deeds, he flings at him his javelin 35
and plants it in the bawler’s mouth. Thou, too, Cydon,
while following with ill-starred quest the blooming Clytius,
thy latest joy, hadst lain stretched on the ground by the
Dardan hand, a piteous spectacle, at rest from the passions
that were ever in thy heart; but thy brethren met
the foe in close band, the progeny of Phorcus: seven their
number, seven the darts they throw; some rebound idly
from shield and helm, some as they grazed the frame were 5
turned aside by Venus’ gentle power. Quick spoke
Æneas to true Achates: “Give me store of weapons; not
one shall my hand hurl in vain against the Rutulians, of
all that have quivered in Grecian flesh on the plains of
Troy.” With that he seizes his mighty spear and launches 10
it: flying on it crashes through the brass of Mæon’s shield
and rends breastplate and breast at once. Swift comes
his brother Alcanor and props with his hand the falling
man: piercing the arm the spear flies onward and holds
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