BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

IV Semester
Course 11: Data Communication and Computer Networks
Credits -3
UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION: Network applications, network hardware, network software, reference models:
OSI, TCP/IP, Internet, Connection oriented network - X.25, frame relay.
THE PHYSICAL LAYER: Theoretical basis for communication, guided transmission media,
wireless transmission, the public switched telephone networks, mobile telephone system.
UNIT-II
THE DATA LINK LAYER: Design issues, error detection and correction, elementary data link
protocols, sliding window protocols, example data link protocols - HDLC, the data link layer on the
internet.
THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUBLAYER: Channel allocations problem, multiple access
protocols, Ethernet, Data Link Layer switching, Wireless LAN, Broadband Wireless, Bluetooth.
UNIT-III
THE NETWORK LAYER: Network layer design issues, routing algorithms, Congestion control
algorithms, Internetworking, the network layer in the internet (IPv4 and IPv6), Quality of Service.
UNIT-IV
THE TRANSPORT LAYER: Transport service, elements of transport protocol, SimpleTransport
Protocol, Internet transport layer protocols: UDP and TCP.
UNIT-V
THE APPLICATION LAYER: Domain name system, electronic mail, World Wide Web:
architectural overview, dynamic web document and http.
APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS: Simple Network Management Protocol, File Transfer
Protocol, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, Telnet.
Text Book(s)
1. S. Tanenbaum (2003), Computer Networks, 4th edition, Pearson Education/ PHI, New
Delhi, India
Reference Books
2. Behrouz A. Forouzan (2006), Data communication and Networking, 4th Edition, Mc
Graw-Hill, India.
3. Kurose, Ross (2010), Computer Networking: A top down approach, Pearson

1
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

UNIT – I

1. Introduction :
1. Uses of Computer Networks:(Network Applications)
Business Application, Home Applications, Mobile Users – Social Issues.
2. Network Hardware :
Local Area Networks – Metropolitan Area Networks – Wide Area Networks – Wireless Networks – Home
Networks – Internetworks.
3. Network Software:
Protocol Hierarchies – Design Issues for the Layers – Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services –
Service Primitives – The relationship of Services to Protocols.
4. Reference Models:
The OSI Reference Model – The TCP/IP Reference Model – A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP reference
Model –
5. Example Networks:
The Internet – Connection Oriented Networks:x.25, Frame Relay, Wireless LANs Network Standardization:

2
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

UNIT-1 :: INTRODUCTION

Q. Define Computer Networks and Discuss about applications of Computer

Networks?

• A Collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single

technology .
• Two computers are said to be interconnected if they able to exchange
information.
• In a network system user must explicitly log onto one machine explicitly
submit the jobs remotely explicitly moves files.

Uses of Computer Networks:

The traditional uses at companies and for individuals and then move on
to recent developments regarding mobile users and home networking.

1. Business Applications

• Many companies have a number of computers. For example, a company

may have separate computers to monitor production, keep track of
inventories, and do the payroll.
• Initially, each of these computers may have worked in isolation from the
others, but at some point, management may have decided to connect
them to be able to extract and correlate information about the entire
company.
The employees have simpler machines, called clients.

3
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• The client and server machines are connected by a network.
• This whole arrangement is called the client-server model.

Fig : A network with two clients and one server

2 Home Applications

The popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:

1. Access to remote information.

2. Person-to-person communication.

3. Interactive entertainment.

4. Electronic commerce.

Access to remote information

Access to remote information comes in many forms. It can be surfing the

World Wide Web for information .In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed
clients and servers.

4
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
Entertainment is a huge and growing industry .It is possible to select any movie
ever made in any country and have it displayed on your screen.

E-commerce is already happening is access to financial institutions. Many

people already pay their bills, manage their bank accounts, and handle their
investments electronically.

Mobile Users

• Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital

assistants (PDAs), are one of the fastest growing segments of the
computer industry.
• Wireless networks are also important to the military. Although wireless
networking and mobile computing are often related.

Social Issues

The widespread introduction of networking has introduced new social, ethical,

and political problems. A popular feature of many networks are newsgroups or
bulletin boards whereby people can exchange messages with like-minded
individuals.

000

2.Explain about Network Hardware characteristics?

There are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use.
They are as follows:

5
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
1. Broadcast links.

2. Point-to-point links.

1. Broadcast links.

• Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared

by all the machines on the network.
• Short messages, called packets in certain contexts, sent by any machine
are received by all the others.
• An address field within the packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon
receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field.
• If the packet is intended for the receiving machine, that machine
processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some other machine,
it is just ignored.
• Another example is an airport announcement asking all flight 644
passengers to report to gate 12 for immediate boarding.

point-to-point networks
• point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual
pairs of machines.
• To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of

6
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
network may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines.
• Often multiple routes, of different lengths, are possible, so finding good
ones is important in point-to-point networks.
• As a general rule (although there are many exceptions), smaller,
geographically localized networks tend to use broadcasting, whereas
larger networks usually are point-to-point.
• Point-to-point transmission with one sender and one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.

Types of Networks
Local area networks,

• Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned

networks within a single building or campus ofup to a few kilometers in
size.
• They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations
in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and
exchange information.
• LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3)
their topology.
• LANs are restricted in size, .LANs may use a transmission technology
consisting of a cable to which all the machines are attached, like the
telephone company party lines once used in rural areas.
• Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100Mbps.
• Various topologies are possible for broadcast LANs. Two broadcast

7
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
networks. (a) Bus. (b) Ring.
• IEEE802.3, popularly called Ethernet, for example, is a bus-based
broadcast network.

• second type of broadcast system is the ring.

• In a ring, each bit propagates around on its own, not waiting for the rest
of the packet to which it belongs.
• IEEE 802.5 (the IBM token ring), is a ring-based LAN operating at 4 and
16 Mbps. FDDI is another example of a ring network.

Ring topology

• Broadcast networks can be further divided into static and dynamic,

depending on how the channel is allocated.
• A typical static allocation would be to divide time into discrete intervals
and use a round-robin algorithm, allowing each machine to broadcast

8
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
only when its time slot comes up.
• Static allocation wastes channel capacity .
• Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are either
centralized or decentralized.
• In the centralized channel allocation method, there is a single entity, for
example, a bus arbitration unit, which determines who goes next.
• In the decentralized channel allocation method, there is no central
entity; each machine must decide for itself whether to transmit.

Metropolitan Area Networks

• A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city.

• The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television network
available in many cities.
• This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas
with poor over-the-air television reception.

• In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill
and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses.
• At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems.
• Then companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from

9
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
city governments to wire up an entire city.

Ex :IEEE802.16

3 Wide Area Networks

• A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a

country or continent.
• It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e.,
application) programs.

• We will call these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a

communication subnet, or just subnet for short.
• The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal
computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and
operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider.

The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the
telephone system carries words from speaker to listener.

10
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
Wireless Networks
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea.

To a first approximation, wireless networks can be divided into three main

categories:

1. System interconnection.

2. Wireless LANs.

3. Wireless WANs.

• System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a

computer using short-range radio.
• Almost every computer has a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer
connected to the main unit by cables.

• Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other

devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range.
• In the simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-
slave paradigm of Fig.
• The system unit is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard,
etc., as slaves.

• The master tells the slaves what addresses to use,

Home Networks

11
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Every device in the home will be capable of communicating with every

other device, and all of them will be accessible over the Internet.
• Many devices are capable of being networked. Some of the more
obvious categories (with examples) are as follows:

1. Computers (desktop PC, notebook PC, PDA, shared peripherals).

2. Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camcorder, camera, stereo, MP3).

12
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Q.Explain Network Software characterstics?

Protocol Hierarchies

• To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a

stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each
layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to network.
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers.
• Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on
another machine.
• The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively
known as the layer n protocol.
• Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating
parties on how communication is to proceed.

A five-layer network is illustrated in Fig.

• The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines

are called peers.

13
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual

communication occurs.
• In Fig, virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical
communication by solid lines.
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.
• The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower
layer makes available to the upper one.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture

14
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
Design Issues for the Layers

Some of the key design issues are

• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers.

• Another set of design decisions concerns the rules for data transfer.
• In some systems, data only travel in onedirection; (simple
communication).
• Data travel in either direction but not simultaneously(half-duplex).
• Data travel in both directions at once(full duplex communication)
• Error control here receiver must have some way of telling the sender
which messages have been correctly received and which have not.
• Flow control How to keep a fast sender from swapping a slow receiver
with data.
• Inability of processes to accept long messages this leads to mechanisms
for dis assembling ,transmitting and then reassembling messages.
• When there are multiple between source and destination a route must
be choosen.
Types of Services

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

• Layers can offer two different types of service to the layers above them:
connection-oriented and connectionless.
• Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system.
• To talk to someone, you pick up the phone, dial the number, talk, and
then hang up.
• Similarly, to use a connection-oriented network service, the service user
first establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the
connection.

15
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• In contrast, connectionless service is modeled after the postal system.

Each message (letter) carries the full destination address, and each one
is routed through the system independent of all the others.
• Normally, when two messages are sent to the same destination, the first
one sent will be the first one to arrive.
• However, it is possible that the first one sent can be delayed so that the
second one arrives first.

Service Primitives:
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available
to a user process to access the service.
• The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service
being provided.
• The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from those
of connectionless service.

16
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

The Relationship of Services to Protocols

• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the

layer above it.
• The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on
behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations
are implemented.
• A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower
layer being the service provider and the upper layer being the service
user.
• A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and
meaning of the packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer
entities within a layer.

. The relationship between a service and a protocol.

17
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

q. Explain Reference Models

The OSI Reference Model

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at
the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.

18
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

1. The Physical Layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a

communication channel.

The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1
bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a0 bit.

Typical questions here are

• How many volts should be used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0.
• How many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions.
• How the initial connection is established and how it is torn down when
both sides are finished.

19
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used
for.

The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing
interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below the
physical layer.

2.The Data Link Layer

• The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to
the network layer.
• It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data
into data frames and transmit the frames sequentially.
• Another issue that arises in the data link layer is how to keep a fast
transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
• An additional issue in the data link layer: how to control access to the
shared channel.
20
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• A special sublayer of the data link layer, the medium access control
sublayer, deals with this problem.

3. The Network Layer

• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.

• A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to
destination.
• If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will
get in one another's way, forming bottlenecks.
• The control of such congestion also belongs to the network layer.
• When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its
destination, many problems can arise.

21
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• The addressing used by the second network may be different from the
first one.
• The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large.
The protocols may differ, and so on.
• It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.

4 .The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is

o to accept data from above,

o split it up into smaller units if need be,
o pass these to the network layer,
o ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.

The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the
session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network.

22
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point

channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to
the destination

5. The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions

between them.

Sessions offer various services,

o including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to

transmit),
o Token management(preventing two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time),
o synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow them
to continue from where they were after a crash).
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

6. The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted.
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

7. The Application Layer

o The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly

needed by users.
o One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer
Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web.
o When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it
wants to the server using HTTP.

25
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Q. Explain The TCP/IP Reference Model?

The TCP/IP reference model has 4 layers

1. Internet layer
2. Transport layer
3. Application layer
4. Host to network layer

The Internet Layer

This layer, called the internet layer, is the linchpin that holds the whole
architecture together.

o Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have
them travel independently to the destination
o They may even arrive in a different order than they were sent.
o It is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is
desired.
o The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP
(Internet Protocol).
o The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are
supposed to go.
o Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion.

26
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

The Transport Layer

o The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually
called the transport layer.
o Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.
o The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable
connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on
one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the
internet.
o It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and
passes each one on to the internet layer.
o At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received
messages into the output stream. TCP also handles flow control.
o The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an
unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications

The relation of IP, TCP, and UDP is shown in fig

The Application Layer

• On top of the transport layer is the application layer.

• It contains all the higher-level protocols.
• The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and
electronic mail (SMTP), as shown in Fig.

27
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a
specialized protocol (SMTP) was developed for it.
• Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host names onto their network
addresses, NNTP, the protocol for moving USENET news articles around,
and HTTP, theprotocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and
many others.

The Host-to-Network Layer

The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens
here, except to point out that the host has to connect to the network using
some protocol so it can send IP packets to it.

The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers.

-000-

Q. Discuss A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models?

• The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common.
• Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also,
the functionality of the layers is roughly similar.
• For example, in both models the layers up through and including the
transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, transport service to
processes wishing to communicate.
• Three concepts are central to the OSI model:
o Services.
o Interfaces.
o Protocols.

28
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish between service,
interface, and protocol,.
• For example, the only real services offered by the internet layer are
SEND IP PACKET and RECEIVE IP PACKET.
• The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding
protocols were invented.
• The data link layer originally dealt only with point-to-point networks.
When broadcast networks came around, a new sublayer had to be
hacked into the model.
• With TCP/IP the reverse was true: the protocols came first, and the
model was really just a description of the existing protocols
• The OSI model has seven layers and the TCP/IP has four layers. Both
have (inter)network, transport, and application layers, but the other
layers are different.

29
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Another difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-

oriented communication.
• The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection-oriented
communication in the network layer, but only connectionoriented
communication in the transport layer, where it counts (because the
transport service is visible to the users).
• The TCP/IP model has only one mode in the network layer
(connectionless) but supports both modes in the transport layer, giving
the users a choice.

-000-
Q. write about Example Networks?

Example networks are

Internet
Connection oriented
networkEthernet
Wireless LANS 802.11

Internet:

30
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
The Internet is not a network at all, but a vast collection of different networks
that use certain common protocols and provide certain common services. The
internet had four applications

Email: The ability to compose ,send and receive electronic mail has been
popular from ARPANET.

News:

News groups forums in which users with a intrest can exchange

message.

Remote log in

Using telnet ,remote login ,programs users can any where log on to the
internet.

Architecture of the Internet

• Client calls his or her ISP over a dial-up telephone line, as shown in Fig..
• The modem is a card within the PC that converts the digital signals the
computer produces to analog signals that can pass unhindered over the
telephone system

• These signals are transferred to the ISP's POP (Point of Presence), where
they are removed from the telephone system and injected into the ISP's
regional network.
• If the ISP is the local telco, the POP will probably be located in the
telephone switching office
• If the packet is destined for a host served directly by the ISP, the packet
is delivered to the host. Otherwise, it is handed over to the ISP's
backbone operator.

31
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• To allow packets to hop between backbones all the major backbones
connect at the NAPs

32
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
CONNECTION ORIENTED NETWORKS

Connection oriented networks are

• X.25 netwotrks
• Frame relay

X.25 networks

• Our first example of a connection-oriented network is X.25, which was

the first public data network. It was deployed in the 1970s.
• To use X.25, a computer first established a connection to the remote
computer, that is, placed a telephone call.
• This connection was given a connection number to be used in data
transfer packets (because multiple connections could be open at the
same time).
• Data packets were very simple, consisting of a 3-byte header and up to
128 bytes of data.

• The header consisted of a 12-bit connection number, a packet sequence

number, an acknowledgement number.

Frame relay:

• In the 1980s, the X.25 networks were largely replaced by a new kind
of network called frame relay.
• The essence of frame relay is that it is a connection-oriented network
with no error control and no flow control.
• Because it was connection-oriented, packets were delivered in order
(if they were delivered at all).

33
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• The properties of in-order delivery, no error control, and no flow
control make frame relay akin to a wide area LAN.
• Its most important application is interconnecting LANs at multiple
company offices.
• Frame relay enjoyed a modest success and is still in use in places
today.

P.Y.KUMAR
34 M.C.A,M.Tech,M.Phil,
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

UNIT-I :: 2. Physical Layer

Q. Discuss about Guided Transmission Media

Guided Transmission Media

• The purpose of the physical layer is to transport a raw bit stream from
one machine to another.
• Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
• Media are roughly grouped into guided media, such as copper wire and
fiber optics
• unguided media, such as radio and lasers through the air.
Magnetic Media

• One of the most common ways to transport data from one

computer to another is to write them onto magnetic tape or
removable media (e.g., recordable DVDs).

• It is often more cost effective, especially for applications in which

high bandwidth or cost per bit transported is the key factor.
Twisted Pair

• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1

mm thick.
• The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA
molecule.
• Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna
• The most common application of the twisted pair is the telephone system.

P.Y.KUMAR
35 M.C.A,M.Tech,M.Phil,
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires gently twisted

together.
• Four such pairs are typically grouped in a plastic sheath to protect the
wires and keep them together.
• category 5 twisted pairs were introduced.
• They are similar to category 3 pairs.

• With more twists per centimeter, which results in less crosstalk and a
better-quality signal over longer distances, making them more suitable
for high-speed computer communication.

Coaxial Cable
• Another common transmission medium is the coaxial cable (known to its
many friends as just ''coax'' and pronounced ''co-ax'').
• It has better shielding than twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances
at higher speeds.

36
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used.
• One kind, 50-ohm cable, is commonly used when it is intended for digital
transmission from the start.
• The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is commonly used for analog transmission
and cable television
• A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by
an insulating material.
• The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor
• The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
• A cutaway view of a coaxial cable is shown in Fig.

37
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Coaxial cables used to be widely used within the telephone system

• Coax is still widely used for cable television and metropolitan area
networks.
Fibre optics
• Transmission of Light through Fiber Optical fibers are made of glass,
• Fiber Cables Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the
braid.
• Figure (a) shows a single fiber viewed from the side.

• At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates.
• The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of
refraction than the core, to keep all the light in the core.

38
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.

• Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an outer sheath.
Fiber Optic Networks

• Fiber optics can be used for LANs

• The other interface type, shown in Fig. , is the active repeater.

• The incoming light is converted to an electrical signal, regenerated
to full strength if it has been weakened, and retransmitted as
light.

39
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

UNIT-III: DATA LINK LAYER:

Data Link Layer

THE DATA LINK LAYER: Design issues, error detection and correction, elementary data link
protocols, sliding window protocols, example data link protocols - HDLC, the data link layer on the
internet.

Data Link Layer Design Issues:

Services Provided to the Network Layer – Framing – Error Control – Flow

Control.

Error Detection and Correction: Error correcting Codes – Error Detecting

Codes.

Elementary Data Link Protocols :

An unrestricted Simplex Protocol – A simplex Stop- and – wait Protocol – A

simplex Protocol for a Noisy channel.

Sliding Window Protocols:

A one-bit sliding Window Protocol – A Protocol using Go Back N – A Protocol

using selective Repeat.

Example Data Link Protocols:

HDLC – The Data Link Layer in the Internet.(PPP)

40
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Q. Discuss about Data Link Layer Design Issues:

Services Provided to the Network Layer

The data link layer has a number of specific functions it can carry out. These
functions include

• Providing a well-defined service interface to the network layer.

• Dealing with transmission errors.
• Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are not swamped by
fast senders.

The data link layer can be designed to offer various services.

Three reasonable possibilities that are commonly provided are

1. Unacknowledged connectionless service.

2. Acknowledged connectionless service.

3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service

Unacknowledged connectionless service

• It consists of having the source machine send independent frames to

the destination machine without having the destination machine
acknowledge them.

41
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• No logical connection is established beforehand or released afterward.
• If a frame is lost due to noise on the line, no attempt is made to detect
the loss or recover from it in the data link layer.
• It is also appropriate for real-time traffic, such as voice.

Acknowledged connectionless service.

• When this service is offered, there are still no logical connections used,
but each frame sent is individually acknowledged.
• In this way, the sender knows whether a frame has arrived correctly.
• If it has not arrived within a specified time interval, it can be sent again.
• This service is useful over unreliable channels, such as wireless systems.

CONNECTION ORIENTED SERVICE :

• This service undergoes 3 phases

• First phase connection is established.
• In second phase one or more frames are transmitted .
• In third phase the connection is released.

2. Framing

• To provide service to the network layer, the data link layer must use the
service provided to it by the physical layer.
• What the physical layer does is accept a raw bit stream and attempt to
deliver it to the destination.
• This bit stream is not guaranteed to be error free.

Four methods of framing are:

1. Character count.
2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
3. Starting and ending flags, with bit stuffing.
4. Physical layer coding violations.

42
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
Character Count

• The first framing method uses a field in the header to specify the
number of characters in the frame.

• This technique is shown in Fig. for four frames of sizes 5, 5, 8, and 8

characters, respectively.

The second framing method gets around the problem of resynchronization

Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and start of the next
one.

43
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
Bit Stuffing

• When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0

bit, it automatically destuffs (i.e., deletes) the 0 bit.

Error Control

• Having solved the problem of marking the start and end of each frame.
• we come to the next problem: how to make sure all frames are
eventually delivered to the network layer in the proper order.
• The usual way to get reliable delivery is to provide the sender with some
feedback about what is happening at the other end .
• The protocol calls for the receiver to send back special control frames be
positive or negative acknowledgements about the incoming frames.
• If the sender receives a positive acknowledgement about a frame, it
knows the frame has arrived safely.
• On the other hand, a negative acknowledgement means that something
has gone wrong, and the frame must be transmitted again.
• An additional complication comes from hardware troubles may cause a
frame to vanish completely (e.g., in a noise burst).
• In this case, the receiver will not react at all just waits for an
acknowledgement, positive or negative.
• We solve this problem by using timers into the data link layer.
• When the sender transmits a frame, It generally also starts a timer.
• If either the frame or the acknowledgement is lost, the timer will go off,
alerting the sender to a potential problem.
• The obvious solution is to just transmit the frame again.
• However, when frames may be transmitted multiple times there is a

44
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
problem of duplication.
• To prevent this from happening, it is generally necessary to assign
sequence numbers to outgoing frames, so that the receiver can
distinguish retransmissions from originals.

Flow Control

• Another important design issue that occurs in the data link layer (and
higher layers as well) is what to do with a sender that systematically
wants to transmit frames faster than the receiver can accept them.
• This situation can easily occur when the sender is running on a fast (or
lightly loaded) computer and the receiver is running on a slow (or heavily
loaded) machine.

Q. Discuss about ELEMENTARY DATA LINK PROTOCOLS:

• The protocols which deal with communication errors but not the
problems caused by computers crashing and rebooting.
TYPES :

• An unrestricted simplex protocol.

• A simplex stop & wait protocol.
• A simplex protocol for noisy channel.
An unrestricted simplex protocol:

• The protocol consits of two distinct procedures a sender and a receiver .

• The sender run on a datalink layer of the destination machine.
• No sequencenumber nor acknowledgement are used.
• The only event is frame_arrival.

• The sender is an infinite loop just send the data out the line as fast as it
can .
• The body of the loop consists of 3 actions 1. go fetch a packet from

45
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
network layer. 2. construct an outbound frame .3.send the frame away.

46
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

An Simplex Stop and Wait protocol

• Protocol in which sender sends one frame and then waits for an
acknowledegement before proceeding are called Stop and wait .
• As in protocol 1 the sender starts out by fetching a packet from
_the_network layer,constructs frame and sends it away.
• But in protocol 2 after delivering a packet to the networklayer
receiver2 sends an acknowledgement frame back to sender before
entering the wait loop.

A simplex protocol for a noisy channel.

Protocol in which the sender waits fro a positive acknowledgement

before advancing to next data item are often called(positive
acknowledgement with retransmission ) or Arq(automatic repeat
request).

47
 BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Q.Discuss about The sliding windowprotocols

• In the elementary data linkprotocols, data frames were transmitted

in one direction only.
• In most practical situations, there is a need for transmitting data in
both directions.
• One way of achieving full-duplex data transmission is to have two
separate communication channels and use each one for simplex
data traffic .
• In this model the data frames from A to B are intermixed with the
acknowledgement frames from A to B.
• By looking at the kind field in the header of an incoming frame, the
receiver can tell whether the frame is data or acknowledgement.
• The technique of temporarily delaying outgoing acknowledgements
48
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
so that they can be hooked onto the next outgoing data frame is
known as piggybacking.
• Sliding window protocols are bi directional protocols .
• The essence of all sliding window protocols is that sender
maintains a set of sequence numbers corresponding to frames it is
permitted to send.
• These frames are fall in which in a sending window.
• The receiver also maintains a receiving window corresponding to
the set of frames it is permitted to accept.
• The sender’s window and the receiver’s window represent frames
that have been sent or can be sent but not yet to acknowledged .
• When ever a new packet arrives from the network it is given the
next highest sequence number and upper edge of window is
advanced by one.
• When an acknowlegdement comes in the lower edge advanced by
one .

49
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Types:

1- bit sliding window protocol

Go back N protocol

Selective Repeat

1. Bit sliding window protocol

• A sliding window protocol with maximum window of 1 uses Stop and wait
protocol .
• Since the sender transmits a frame and waits for its acknowlegdement
before sending the next one.
• Next-frame-to-send tells which frame the sender is trying to send .

• Assume that A is trying to send its frame 0 to B.

• B is trying to send its frame 0 to A

50
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

2. Protocol using Go back N

• Sender will continously transmit frames for a time with out filling up the
window.
• This techniques is called piggy pipelining.
• Problems in pipelining are what happen is a frame in the middle of a long
stream is damaged or lost.
• When a damaged frame arrives at the receiver it will discarded but what
should the receiver do with all correct frames following it.
• To solve these problems in pipelining we use

GO BACK N
Here receiver simply discard all subsequent frames sending no
acknowledgement for the discard frames.

• Here maximunm of max-seq frames and not max_seq+1 frames .

• Let sequence nmbers 0,1,2…. Max_seq.

51
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• Let max_seq =7
• The sender sends frames o through 7
• A piggy backed acknowledgement for frame 7 eventually comes back to
the sender.
• The sender sends another eight frames again with sequence numbers 0
through 7
• Here maximunm of max-seq frames and not max_seq+1 frames .
• Let sequence nmbers 0,1,2…. Max_seq.
• Let max_seq =7

• The sender sends frames 0 through 7

• A piggy backed acknowledgement for frame 7 eventually comes back to
the sender.
• The sender sends another eight frames again with sequence numbers 0
through 7

Selective Repeat :

When the sender notice that some thing is goes wrong it just retransmits
the bad frame only not all its sucessors.

52
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Non sequential receive introduces certain problems .

• The trouble is
• Let 3 bit sequence number so that sender is permitted to transmit
upto seven frames
• Initially the sender and receiver window are
• Sender 0123456 7
• Receiver 0123456 7
• The sender now tranmits frames 0 through 6
• The receiver’s window allows it to accept any frames 0 with
sequence number between 0 and 6 inclusive.
• All the seven frames arrive correctly so the receiver acknowlegde
them and advances its window to allow recipt of 7,0,1,2,3,4,or 5.
• Sender 0123456 7
• Receiver 0 12345 67
• The sender eventually times out and retransmitts frame 0.see if it
53
BSC-IV Semester::: Data Communication and Computer Networks
• When this frame arrives at the receiver check to see if it is with in
the receiver window.
• Un fortunately frame 0 is with in the new window .
• So it is accepted .
• The receiver sends a piggybacked acknowledgement for frame 6
since o through 6 have been received.
• Sender 0 123 456
• Receiver 0123
456
• The sender is happy to learn that all its transmitted frames arrive
correctly.
• So its advance its window and sends frame 7,0,1,2,3,4and 5.

54
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

• Frame 7accepted by the receiver and it will be passed

directly tothe network layer.
• Receiving datalink layer checks to see if it has valid frame
0,already it is passes to network layer.
• The main reason is receiver advanced its window the new
range ofsequence no are overlapped by old ones.

0123 4 567

0123 4567

Q. Discuss about EXAMPLE OF DATA LINK PROTOCOLS

The first one, HDLC, is a classical bit-oriented protocol whose

variants havebeen in use for decades in many applications.

The second one, PPP, is the data link protocol used to connect home
computers to the Internet.

HDLC—High-Level Data Link Control

.All are bit oriented, and all use bit stuffing for data

transparency.All bit oriented protocols use the frame

structure.

55
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Control field is used for sequence

number,acknowledgements.Data field may contain any

information

Check sum in a cyclic redundancy code

The three kinds of frames - INFORMATION

56
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

FRAME

SUPERVISORY

FRAME

UN NUMBERED FRAME

POINT – TO –POINT PROTOCOL

This the protocol used by the datalink layer in the internet.

The Internet consists of individual machines (hosts and routers) and the
communication infrastructure that connects them. Within a single
building, LANs are widely used for interconnection, but most of the wide
area infrastructure is built up from point-to-point leased lines.

57
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

PPP—The Point-to-Point Protocol

The Internet needs a point-to-point protocol for a variety of purposes,

including router-to-router traffic and home user-to-ISP traffic.

This protocol is PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), which is defined in RFC

1661 and further elaborated on in several other RFCs (e.g., RFCs 1662
and 1663).

PPP handles error detection, supports multiple protocols, allows IP

addresses to be negotiated at connection time, permits authentication,
and has many other features.

58
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

PPP provides three features:

1. A framing method that unambiguously delineates the end of one

frame and the start of the next one. The frame format also handles error
detection.

2. It supports synchronous and asynchronous circuits and byte-oriented

and bit- oriented encodings.

way to negotiate network-layer options in a

way that is independent of the network layer protocol
to be used.

The method chosen is to have a different NCP (Network Control

Protocol) for each network layer supported.
UNIT – II

59
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

The Medium Access Sub Layer

THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUBLAYER: Channel allocations problem, multiple access

protocols, Ethernet, Data Link Layer switching, Wireless LAN, Broadband Wireless,
Bluetooth.

Q write about Channel allocation Problem ?

CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM:

Channel allocation to multiple users in allocated in 2 ways.

1) Static Channel Allocation

2) Dynamic Channel Allocation

STATIC CHANNEL ALLOCATON:-

Allocating a single channel to multiple users in the fallowing way . If there are N users the
bandwidth is divided into N equal portions. Each user assigned one portion. This method is called
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

FDM presents some problems. If spectrum is out up into N regions. But less then N users are
communicating a large spectrum will be wasted.

If more than N users want to communicate some of them will be denied permission for lack of band
width.
The poor performance of static FDM is let us start with the mean time delay T, for a
channel of capacity C bps with an arrival rate of λ frames/sec

The single channel is divide into N independent sub channels each with capacity C/N bps.

DYNAMIC CHANNEL ALLOCATION LANS AND MANS

1) Station Mode:- The model consists of N independent stations each with a user that
generates frames for transmission stations are called terminals.

Once a frame has been generated the station is blocked and does nothing until the frame has been
successfully transmitted.

2) Single Channel Assumption:- All stations can transmit on a single channel and can receive
from it.

60
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

3) Collision Assumption:- If two frames are transmitted simultaneously they overlap this
called collision. All stations can detect collisions. A collided frame must be transmitted
again later.

4) Continuous Time:- Frame transmission can be begin at any instant.

5) Slotted Time:- Time is divided into discrete intervals. Frame transmission begin at the start
of a slot. A slot may contain 0,1 or more frames.

6) Carrier Sense:- Stations can tell if the channel is in use before trying to use it. If the
channel is sensed as busy, no station will attempt to use.

7) No carrier Sense:- Stations cannot sense the channel before trying to use it. They just
transmit.

Q. Write about Ethernet ?

IEEE Standard 802.3 and Ethernet:-

The IEEE 802.3 is a 1-persistent CSMA/CD LAN. When a station wants to transmit it listens to the
cable. If the cable is busy the station waits until it goes idle. Otherwise it transmits immediately.
If two or more stations at a time begin transmitting on an idle cable, they will collide. All Collide
stations stop their transition , wait a random time and repeat the process.
The 802.3 has an history the real beginning was the ALOHA System constructed to allow radio
communications. Later carrier sensing was added and CSMA/CD system is formed. This system was called
Ethernet .
802.3 Cabling:-

Ethernet refers to the cable Five types of cabling are used.

a) 10 Base 5:-

Thick Ethernet resembles a yellow garden lose marking every 2.5 into to show where the taps go
connection’s are made using vampire taps.

b) 10 Base 2 or Thin Ethernet:-

61
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Connections to it are made using BNC connectors to form T junctions Detecting cable breaks, bad
taps or loose connectors can be a major problem. So a pulse shape is injected into the cable.
If Pulse hits obstacle an echo will generated and sent back. So carefully timing the interval between
sending the pulse and receiving echo. This technique is called time domain reflectometry.

c) 10 Base T:-

The problems associated with finding cable breaks have moved to a kind of wiring pattern in which
all stations have a cable running to central hub.

Cable Topologies:

a) Linear
b) Spine
c) Tree
d) Segmented

Linear:- Single cable is snaked from room to room with each station tapping onto it at the nearest point.

Spine:- A Vertical spine runs from the basement to the roof with horizontal cables on. Each floor
connected to it by special amplifiers ( repeaters)

Tree:- Network with two paths between same pair of stations would suffer from interfaces between the
two signals.

Segmented:- Multiple cables can be connected by repeaters. A repeater is a physical layer device. It

62
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

receives, amplifies and retransmits signals in both ………

MANCHESTER ENCODING:-

Two approaches are called Manchester encoding and differential Manchester encoding.

Manchester encoding each bit period is divides two equal intervals. A binary 1 bit is sent by having
the voltage set high during the first interval and low in the second one.

A binary 0 is having the voltage first low and then high.

The disadvantage of Manchester encoding is that it requires twice as much bandwidth as straight
binary encoding.

Differential Manchester encoding 1 bit is indicate by the absence of a transition at the start of the
interval. A 0-bit indicated by presence of a transition at the start of the interval.

63
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

802.3 MAC Sub layer Protocol:-

• Preamble – of 7 bytes each containing the bit pattern 10101010

• Start of frame delimiter – Denotes start of frame itself.
• Source and Destination address - It is 2 and 6 byte address.
• Length – Tells how many bytes are present in the data field from a minimum of 0 to maximum
of 1500.
• Pad – Pad field is used to fill out the frame to the maximum size.

64
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

COLLISION DETECTION:-

Frame must have a minimum length because to prevent a station from completing the
transmission of a short frame before the first bit has even reached the far end of the cable.
Where it may collide with another frame.

At time 0 station A at one end of the network sends off a frame. Let call the propagations
time for this frame to reach the other end.

Before the frame gets to the other end the station B, starts transmitting. When B detects that
it is receiving more power it knows that a collision has occurred. So it stops its transmission.

At about time 2I the sender sees the noise burst and aborts its transmission. It then wait a
random time before trying again.

If a Station tries to transmit a very short frame then collision occurs, but the transmission
completes before the noise burst get back at 2t.

The sender incorrectly conclude that frame was successfully sent. To prevent this situation
from occurring all frames must take more than 2t to send.

65
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

HE BINARY EXPONENTIAL BACKOFF ALGORITHM:-

In the above fig after a collision, time is divided up into discrete slots whose lengths is (2t).

After first collision each station waits either 0 or 1 slots time then trying again. If two
station collides again and each pick the same random number they will collide again.

After second collision each one picks either 0,1,2 or 3 and wait that number of slot times. If
third collision occurs the next time the no.of slots to wait is chosen at random from the interval 0 to
23-1 .

After same collisions system will fair.

So an algorithm called Binary Exponential Back off Algorithm was chosen dynamically
adapt to the no.of stations trying to send .

PERFORMANCE

Performance of 802.3 under conditions of heavy and constant load as follows.

66
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Assume a constant retransmission probability in each slot. If each station transmits during a
contention slot with probability P, the probability A to at some station acquires the channels in that
slot is

A= kp(1-p)k-1 ---------- > 1

Number of slots per contention is given by

ΣJ=0 α jA(1-A)j-1= 1/A -------- >2

If mean frame takes P sec to transmit when frames to send.

Channel efficiency = P/(P+(2t/A)) ---------->3

Formulate 3 equ in terms of frame length F the network bandwidth B, the cable length L the
speed of signal Propagation C, e contention slots per frame

Channel efficiency = 1/(1+(2BLe/CF)).

0000000000000

67
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

SWITCHED 802.3 LANS(Types of Ethernet)

The switched 802.3 LANS are

1. Switched Ethernet
2.
Fast Ethernet
3.
Gigabit Ethernet

1. Switched Ethernet:-

If more stations are added to Ethernet the traffic will go up. So increased load switched
Ethernet is framed.

The nearest of this system is a switch containing a high – speed back plane and room for 4
to 32 plug – in cards containing one to eight connectors. Connectors are 10 Base- T.

When a station wants to transmit an Ethernet frame it outputs a standard frame to switch.
The plug in card getting the frame check to see if it is destinated for one of the other stations
connected to the same card. If so the frame is copied there. If not the frame is sent over high speed
back plane to the destination station’s card.

What happens if two machines attached to the same plug in card transmit frames at the same
time collision occurs. So on card LAN will detected and handled the same as CSMA/CD.
68
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

2. Fast Ethernet:-

The 802.3 committee decide to go with souped-up Ethernet for 3 reasons.

1). They need to do backward compatible with existing Ethernet LANS.

2). The fear that a new protocol might have unforeseen problems.
3). The desire to get the job done before the technology changed.

The work done quickly and results is 802.3U

802.3u is fast Ethernet

THE FAST ETHERNET CABILING

Name Cable Mex.Seg Advantages

100 Base- T4 Twisted pair 100m Uses category 3UTP
100 Base – TX Twisted Pair 100m Full duplex at 100 Mb
100 Base – FX Fiber optics 2000m Full duplex at 100 Mb

Giger Bit – Ethernet:

The gigabit Ethernet was ratified by IEEE in 1998 under the name 802.3Z. The 802.3Z
committee goals are same as 802.3u. Ethernet go 10 times faster. Yet remain backward
compatible with all existing Ethernet standards.

All configurations of gigabit Ethernet are point – to – point . So they are called Classic
Ethernet.

69
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

A MULTISTATION ETHERNET

Each individual Ethernet cable has exactly 2 devices on

00000000000000000000000

Q. Write about Bluetooth?

The IEEE standards group looking at wireless personal area networks, 802.15,
adopted the Bluetooth document.

Bluetooth Architecture

• The basic unit of a Bluetooth system is a piconet, which consists of a master

node and up to seven active slave nodes within a distance of 10 meters.
• Multiple piconets can exist in the same (large) room and can even be
connected via a bridge node, as shown in Fig. 4-35. An interconnected
collection of piconets is called a scatternet.

70
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Bluetooth Applications
Most network protocols just provide channels between communicating entities.

The Bluetooth Protocol Stack

• The Bluetooth standard has many protocols grouped loosely into layers.
The layer structure does not follow the OSI model, the TCP/IP model, the
802 model, or any other known model.
• The basic Bluetooth protocol architecture as modified by the 802
committee is shown in Fig. 4-37.

71
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

The bottom layer is the physical radio layer, which corresponds fairly well to the
physical layer in the OSI and 802 models. It deals with radio transmission and
modulation.

The baseband layer is somewhat analogous to the MAC sublayer but also includes
elements of the physical layer.

The link manager handles the establishment of logical channels between

devices,.

The logical link control adaptation protocol (often called L2CAP) shields the
upper layers from the details of transmission.

The audio and control protocols deal with audio and control, respectively.

The next layer up is the middleware layer, which contains a mix of different
protocols.

The RFcomm (Radio Frequency communication) is the protocol that emulates

the standard serial port found on PCs for connecting the keyboard, mouse, and
modem, among other devices.

The telephony protocol is a real-time protocol.It also manages call setup and
termination.

The top layer is where the applications and profiles are located. They make use
of the protocols in lower layers to get their work done. Each application has its
own dedicated subset of the protocols. Specific devices, such as a headset, usually
contain only those protocols needed by that application and no others.

72
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

the Bluetooth Frame Structure

• The Address field identifies which of the eight active devices the frame is
intended for.
• The Type field identifies the frame type, the type of error correction used
in the data field, and how many slots long the frame is.
• The Flow bit is asserted by a slave when its buffer is full and cannot receive
any more data.
• The Acknowledgement bit is used to piggyback an ACK onto a frame.
• The Sequence bit is used to number the frames to detect retransmissions.
• Check sum is used to verify the data.

----0000----

73
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Q. Discuss about Data link Layer Switching?

BRIDGES
Many organizations have multiple LANS and wish to connect them. LANS Can be connected by devices
called bridges which operate in the data link layer.

Situations in which bridges are used

1) Many University have their own LANS primarily to connect their own personal computer, workstations
the goals of various departments differ from other. Sometimes there is need for interaction. So bridges
are needed.

3) The organization may be geographically spread over several buildings separated by distances. It may
be cheaper to have separate LANS in each building and connect them with bridges.
4) It may be necessary to split a single LAN into separate LANS to accommodate load.

5) A single LAN would adequate in terms of the load. But the physical distance between the most distant
machines. So partition the LAN and install between the segments.

6) On a single LAN, a defective mode that keeps outputting a continuous stream of garbage. Bridges can
be inserted at critical places.

7) LAN interfaces have a promiscuous mode in which all frames are given to the computer not just those
addressed to it.

TYPES OF BRIDGES

74
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

1) Transparent Bridges
2) Spanning tree Bridges
3) Source Routing Bridges

Transparent Bridge:- A Transparent bridges operates in promiscuous mode, accepting every frame transmitted
……… LANS to which it is attached.

Consider bridges B, is connected to LANS 1 and 2 and bridge. B2 is connected to LANS 2,3,4. A
frame arriving at bridge B1 and LAN1 destined for A can be discarded immediately.

But a frame arriving an LAN1 for C or F must be forwarded. When a frames arrives, a bridge must
decide whether to discard or forward it. The decision is mode by looking up the destination address table
inside the bridge. The table can list each possible destination and tell which output line it belongs on.
Flooding algorithm every incoming frame for an unknown destination is output on all the LANS to which
the bridge is connected except the one it arrived on.

This algorithm is used when bridges no destination transparent bridges lines backward learning.
The bridges operate in promiscuous mode. For example in the above fig. If bridge B1 sees a frame an
LAN2 coming from C. It known that C must be reachable via LAN2. So any frames to C coming in an
LAN1 will be forwarded, but frame for C coming in an LAN2 will be discarded.
The routing procedure for an incoming frame depends on the LAN it arrives on and the LAN its
destination is an as fallows.

1) If destination and source LANS are the same, discard the frame.
2) If destination and source LANS are different forwarded the frame.
3) If the destination LAN is unknown , use flooding.

To increase reliability two or more bridges in parallel between pair or LANS as showing fig.

75
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

This arrangement has some problems because it creates 100pbs in the topology. Here F is unknown
destination each bridge has normal rules for handling unknown destinations, uses flooding copy it to LAN2.
Bridge 1 sees F2 a frame with an unknown destination which it copies to LAN1
generating F3 . Similarly bridge 2 copies F1 to LAN1 generating F4. Bridge 1 now forwards
F4 and bridge 2 copies F3. This cycle goes on forever.

SPANNING TREE BRIDGES:

The solution to this difficulty is for the bridge to communicate with each other. So
connections between LANS are ignored to construct a loop – free topology.

EX:-

In the above fig. Nine LANS inter connected by 10 bridges. An arc connects any two LANS
that are connected by bridge. The graph can be reduced to spanning tree there is exactly
76
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

one path from a unique path from each source 100ps are impossible.

To build the spanning tree first the bridges have to choose one bridge to be the root
of the tree. The bridge with the lowest serial number becomes the root. Next a tree of
shortest path from the root to every bridge and LAN is constructed. This tree is the
spanning tree. If a bridge or LANS fails a new one is computed.

The result of this algorithm is that a unique path is established from every LAN to the
root and thus to every other LAN.

SOURCE ROUTING BRIDGES

The CSMA/CD and token bus people choose the transparent bridge. The ring people
preferred a scheme called source routing.

Source routing assumes that the sender of each frame knows whether or not the
destination is on its own LAN. When sending a frame to different LAN the source machine
sets higher order bit of source address to 1 , to mark it.
This path constructed as fallows . Each LAN has a unique 12 bit number and each
bridge has a 4 bit number that uniquely identifies it in the context of its LANS.

A route is a sequence of LAN, bridge , LAN etc. A source routing bridge is only
interested in those frames with higher – order bit of the destination set to 1.

For each frame it scan route by looking it no.of LAN. If this LAN number is following
by its own bridge number, the bridge forwards otherwise discards.

This algorithm leads to 3 possible implementation.

1) Software:- The bridge runs in promiscuous mode copying all frames to its
memory to ................. f they have the higher order destination bit set to 1.

2) Hybrid:- The bridges LAN interface inspects the higher order destination bit and
only accepts frames with the bit set.

3) Hardware:-The bridges LAN interface not only checks the high order destination
bit but it also scans the route.

77
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

REMOTE BRIDGES:

A common use of bridges is to connect who distant LAN for Ex:- a company might
have plants in several cities each with its own LAN. All LANS should be inter connected. So
complete system acts like a large LAN.

This goal can be achieved by putting a bridge on each LAN and connecting the
bridges with point – to – point line. A simple system with 3 LANS is as shown in fig.

Here 3 point-to-point lines as host less LANS.

--0000000000--

REPEATER, HUBS, BRIDGES, SWITCHES, ROUTERS, GATEWARY

Different devices operates in different layers

REPEATER:- Physical layer we find repeaters. These are analog devices that are connected
to two cable segments. Repeaters do not understand frames, packets, headers. They
understand volts.
78
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

HUBS:- A hub has a number of input lines that it joins electrically. Frames arriving on any
of the lines are sent out on all others. If two frames arrive at the same time they will
collide.

Hub differ from repeaters in that they do not amplify the incoming signals. Like
repeaters hubs do not examine the 802 address.

BRIDGES:- A bridge connects two or mote LANS. When a frame arrives s/w in the bridge
extracts the destination address. From the frame header and looks it up in a table to see
where to send a frame.

SWITCH:- Switches are similar to bridge in that both route on frame address. Switch often
used to connect individual computers.

ROUTERS:- When a packet comes into a router the frame header and trailer and stripped
off and packet located in the frames. Payload field is passed to the routing software
packet ( Supplied by N/W layer)

TRANSPORT GATEWAY:- Gate way connect two computer that use different connection –
oriented transport protocols. Application gateway understand the format and contents of
the data and email messages from one format to another. An email gateway translate

79
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Internet messages into SMS messages for mobile phones.

--------000000000000000-----------
Q. Discuss in Briefly Wireless LANs?

-
Wireless protocols:(Wire less LANS)
Wireless LAN might try CSMA: just listen for other transmission and only transmit if no one else is doing so.
This protocol has drawbacks when there is an interference at the receiver not at the sender.
Consider 4 wireless stations. The radio range is such that A and B are within each other’s range and can
interfere with one another. C can also interfere with both B and D but not with A.

What happen when A is transmitting to B. if c senses the medium it will not hear A because A is out of range and
falsely conclude that it can transmit to B. if c does start transmitting it will interfere at B. The problem of a station
not being able to detect a competitor for the medium because the competitor is too far away is called Hidden
Station Problem.

B transmitting to A if C senses the medium it will hear an ongoing transmission and falsely conclude that it
may not send to D. This is called exposed station problem.
To solve these problems MACA and MACAW protocols are introduced.
MACA : - Multiple Access with collision Avoidance
How A sends a frame to B. A starts by sending an RTS (Request to send) frame to B. Then B replies with a
CTS (Clear to send).

C is within the range of A but not within range of B. So it hears the RTS from A but not the CTS from B.
In contrast D is within range of B but not A. It does not hear the RTS but does hear the CTS.
Station E hears both control messages like D.
MACAW (MACA for wireless):- Without noticed that data link layer acknowledgements, lost frames were
not retransmitted. They solved this problem by introducing an acknowledge frame after each successful data frame.

802.11 Wirelesss LANS:-

Wireless LAN might try CSMA: just listen for other transmission and only transmit if no one

else is doing so. This protocol has drawbacks when there is an interference at the receiver not at the sender.

80
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

Consider 4 wireless stations. The radio range is such that A and B are within each other’s range and can interfere
with one another. C can also interfere with both B and D but not with A.

What happen when A is transmitting to B. if c senses the medium it will not hear A because A is out of range
and falsely conclude that it can transmit to B. if c does start transmitting it will interfere at B. The problem of a
station not being able to detect a competitor for the medium because the competitor is too far away is called
Hidden Station Problem.

B transmitting to A if C senses the medium it will hear an ongoing transmission and falsely conclude that it
may not send to D. This is called exposed station problem.
To solve these problems MACA and MACAW protocols are introduced.
MACA : - Multiple Access with collision Avoidance
How A sends a frame to B. A starts by sending an RTS (Request to send) frame to B. Then B replies with a
CTS (Clear to send).

C is within the range of A but not within range of B. So it hears the RTS from A but not the CTS from B.
In contrast D is within range of B but not A. It does not hear the RTS but does hear the CTS.
Station E hears both control messages like D.
MACAW (MACA for wireless):- Without noticed that data link layer acknowledgements, lost frames were not
retransmitted. They solved this problem by introducing an acknowledge frame after each successful data frame.

81
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

The 802.11 protocol stack –

Physical layer:
Five transmission techniques are used to send a MAC frame from one station to another.
Infrared – Often uses diffused
FHSS – Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
DSSS – Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
802.11a – OFDH – Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
802.11g – Approved by IEEE in November – 2001.

The 802.11 MAC sub layer protocol:

Hidden Station Problem: - Station C is transmitting to station B. If A senses the channel it will not
hear anything and falsely conclude that it may now start transmitting to B.

Exposed station problem:-

Here B wants to send to C so it listens to the channel when it hears a transmission. It falsely concludes that
82
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

it may not send to C even though A may be transmitting to D.

To deal with this problem 802.11 supports 2 modes of operation.

DCF – Distributed Coordinate Function
PCF – Point Coordination Function.
DCF – Distributed Coordination Function – does not use any kind of central control (similar to Ethernet)
PCF – Point Coordination Function – uses the base station to control all activity.
When DCF is employed, 802.11 uses a protocol called CSMA/CA (CSMA/Collision Avoidance). In this
protocol both physical channel sensing and virtual channel sensing.
When a station wants to transmit it senses the channel. If it is idle it just starts transmitting it does not
sense channel while transmitting but emits its entire frame which may be destroyed.
If the channel is busy the sender defers until it goes idle and then starts transmitting. If a collision occurs the
colliding station wait a random time using exponential back off algorithm.
The PCF mode of CSMA/CA operation is based on MACAW and uses virtual channel sensing .

For eg:-
• A decides it wants to send data to B
• It begins by sending an RTS frame to B request permission to send it a frame.
• When B receives this request it may decide to grant permission it sends a CTS frame back.
• Upon receipt of the CTS A now sends its frame and starts an acknowledgement timer.
• Upon collect receipt of data frame B responds with an acknowledgement frame.

Consider this exchange from C and D, C is within range of A. So it receive RTS frame. If it does it realizes that
someone is going to send data so it waits until exchange is completed.
So Network Allocation Vector (NAV) asserts a kind of virtual channel busy for itself can estimate how long
the sequence will take.

83
BSC::IV Semester :: Data Communication and Computer Networks

802.11 Frame Structure:

• Frame control – It itself has 11 sub fields

• Protocol version – allows two versions of the protocol
• Type – data, control, management are different classes of frames
• To DS, From DS – indicate frame is going to or coming from system
• MF – move fragment
• Retry – retransmission of a frame
• Power management – used by base station to put the receiver into sleep state
• Duration – tells how long the frame and its acknowledgement will occupy the channel.
• Sequence – allows fragments to be numbered

Services:
Association - This service is used by mobile stations to connect themselves to base station.
Disassociation – Either the station or the base station may breaks relationship.
Re association – A station may change its preferred base station using this service.
Distribution – This service determines how to route frames sent to base station.
Integration – If a frame needs to send through non 802.11 network this service handles the translation
from 802.11 format to format required by destination N/W.
0

84