1 BIOLOGY SS1

FIRST TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CLASS: SS 1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1. Recognizing Living things
2. Organisation of life
3. Classification of living things
4. The cell
5. Plant cell
6. Plant nutrition
7. Mid Term Test
8. Mode of nutrition
9. Growth
10. Reproduction

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WEEK ONE
TOPIC: RECOGNISING LIVING THINGS

Meaning of Science
Science can be defined as a systematic process of making inquiry about the living and non-living things
in our environment. Science is both an organized body of knowledge and a process of finding out
knowledge.

Meaning of Biology
Biology is the branch of science that studies living things. The word ‘biology’ is derived from two Greek
words: ‘bios’ which means life, and ‘logos’ which means study. Biology therefore means the study of
life or of living things.

Branches of Biology
Biology has several branches, these include
1. Botany (study of plants)
2. Zoology (study of animals)
3. Morphology (study of the external features of living things)
4. Anatomy (study of internal structure of living things)
5. Physiology (Study of how living things function)
6. Ecology (study of the relationships between living things and their environment),
7. Genetics (Study of how living things inherit characters from their parents)
8. Virology, Bacteriology, Microbiology, Taxonomy, Histology, Mycology, Embryology, Evolution e.t.c
The prime purpose of science is research, i.e. finding out about things, so biology involves finding out
or making inquiry about living things, their interaction with themselves and with nature.

SCIENTIFIC PROCESS OR APPROACH

The scientific approach is a process of science which involves the process of making sequence of
enquiries about an object or thing under study.
Scientific process begins with observation, followed by classification, inference, measurement,
identification, hypothesis, experiment, control or conclusion, theory law or principle.
(i) OBSERVATION: This involves the use of human senses to describe an observation by using the
characteristics and properties of material. The observation may lead to classification then to
inference and later to measurement and identification of existing problems.
(ii) HYPOTHESIS: is defined as a sensible proposal or reasonable assumption or a scientific guess
that can be subjected to verification or being tested.
(iii) EXPERIMENT: is defined as the process used for testing of hypothesis through experimentation
during which data are collected. The data collected may lead to the development of new ideas.
The process involves in experiment are as follows:
a. AIM: This is the purpose for which the experiment is carried out.
b. APPARATUS/MATERIALS: These include the materials that will be used for the experiment.

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c. METHOD or PROCEDURE: This is used to describe the details that are required step by step.
d. RESULT: This is the record of what is seen during and after the experiment.
e. CONCLUSION: This is used to finalize the outcome of the whole experiment
The end of the experiment can be used to show whether the hypothesis is true or false. If the
subsequent experiments shows that the hypothesis is false, the whole idea or concept of the matter
under investigation is then repeated or rejected. But when the hypothesis is true after several
repeated experiment it is accepted and becomes a THEORY.
(iv) THEORY: A theory is a tested hypothesis that has been confirmed to be true.
(v) LAW OR PRINCIPLE: By the time the theory is extensively tested and proven to be true, it becomes a
LAW OR PRINCIPLE

LESSON TWO
SUB-TOPIC: LIVING THINGS AND NON-LIVING THINGS
Living things are those objects that have life e.g. plant and animals.
Non-living things are those objects without life or lifeless objects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

1. MOVEMENT: is defined as the ability of a living organism to move its own body or part of its
body from one place to another. Living things move for the following reasons:
i. To look for food
ii. To run away from danger
iii. To seek mate in time of reproduction
iv. To respond to external stimuli
2. NUTRITION: is defined as the ability of living organism to feed to enable them living to be able
to carry out life functions such as growth, respiration and reproduction. Living things use two
method of nutrition
i. Autotrophic/halophytic nutrition: It is a method used by all green plants and some bacteria
which involve manufacturing of their own food from simple inorganic compound through a
process of photosynthesis.
ii. Heterotrophic/holozoic nutrition: it is a method strictly used by animals to obtain food
from the product of plant. They depend on the food produced by plant directly or indirectly
since they cannot manufacture theirs.
3. RESPIRATION: is defined as a process in which food substances within cell of living organism is
oxidized in the presence of oxygen to release energy for all life process
4. EXCRETION: This is defined as the removal of poisonous metabolic waste products from the
body or cells of living organism if not excreted will damage the body cells. Metabolism is the
sum total of the chemical processes which take place within the cells of the body of the
organisms.
5. GROWTH: is defined as a permanent increase in body and mass of an organism or increase in
body complexity as a result of cell division and cell differentiation. Good feeding will enhance
increase in body mass.

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6. IRRITABILITY/SENSITIVITY: is defined as the ability of an organism to respond to changes in

both internal and external stimuli to include: heat, light, pain, water, sound and chemical
substances to which living things respond to.
7. REPRODUCTION: This is the ability of living organisms to give rise to new offspring’s which have
the same characteristics as their parents. Reproduction ensures continuity of the species.
Types
i. Sexual reproduction: This involves two organisms of the same species to produce a new
offspring
ii. Asexual reproduction: It involves only one organism to produce another offspring of
their kind.
8. ADAPTATION: is defined as the way in which living organism get used to their various
environments in such a manner that they are comfortable in order to survive.
9. COMPETITION: This is the ability of living things to struggle for all the necessities of life in order
to survive in their various environments. Living things compete for food, light, space, water,
mates etc. in order to survive and be in continuous existence.
10. DEATH: All living things must die because they have a definite and limited period of existence.

Differences between Plants and Animals

PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Plant growth in indefinite and apical it Animal growth is definite and interacting
occurs uniformly in their body meaning

2.Plant has a slow response to external Animal shows a fast response to external
stimuli stimuli
3. Plant stores food as starch except in Animal stores food as glycogen
fungi
4. plants has a specialized sense organs Animal has specialized sense organ
5. plants has no fixed number of parts, Animal has fixed number of parts which are
always continue usually compact.
6. Gaseous exchange in plant is through the Gaseous exchange is through special organ
entire body
7. Plant cell has a rigid non living cellulose Animal cell has a flexible living cell membrane
cell wall

8. Plant cell has large vacuole sap Animal cell has small or no vacuole
9. Plant feed autotrophic ally Animal feeds heterotrophic ally
10. Plant processes no special excretory Animal possesses well developed excretory
organ system

MICROSCOPE (PARTS AND FUNCTION)

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A Microscope is an instrument used to view or magnify organisms smaller that 0.001mm which cannot
be seen by human naked eyes. A microscope is made of the following parts.

(i) Eye piece lens or ocular (x10) is used for viewing a magnified object.
(ii) Body tube: It provides attachment to eyepiece and revolving nose piece
(iii) Revolving nose piece is used for selecting objective lenses to be used and to be in line with the
eyepiece
(a). Low power objective lens(x4) is used for the lowest magnification of an object
(b) Medium power objective lens (x10) it magnifies object more than low power objective lens
(c) High power objective lens (x40). It is used for the highest magnification of object for minute
detail
(iv) Coarse focus knob: it is used for focusing an object at low power
(v) Fine adjustment knob: it is used for focusing object at medium and high power magnification
so that object is sharper at focus
(vi) Arm is used for lifting or carrying the microscope
(vii) Stage: is for displaying slide and specimens under focus
(a) Clips: are the stage for holding glass slide on the stage
(b) Hole: is present on the stage for light source to the viewing object
(viii) Condenser: it is used to regulate the amount of light rays entering the microscope and object
(ix) Mirror: it is used for collecting light rays and directing them to the condenser and object.
(x) Base of the microscope- is for balancing it on the table

DIAGRAM OF A MICROSCOPE

CLASS WORK
1. Which of the following groups embraces the rest? (a) Class (b) Kingdom (c) Phylum (d) Species
2. Which of the following characteristics is not possessed by most plants? Ability to (a) move away
from stimuli (b) respire (c) reproduce (d) adapt to the environment

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3. Carbohydrates are stored in animal cells in form of____(a) starch (b) glycogen (c) maltose (d)
plastids
4. All living organisms (a) photosynthesis (b) respire (c) move (d) transpire
THEORY
1. Define the terms
(a)Science:___________

(b) Biology: _____

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2. State five branches of biology.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. State and explain the processes involved in making inquiries in science?
2. Enumerate the steps specified in giving account of a scientific investigation.
3. State five differences between plants and animals

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: Levels of Organisation of Life
The bodies of living things are highly organized. This organization occurs in levels, with the simplest
structure occurring at the lowest levels (single cells) which interact to build up more complex
structures (multicellular organisms).
The basic levels of organization of life in organisms are; cells, tissues, organs and systems.
(i) Cell: This is the smallest unit of living organism. It is the first and simplest level of organization of life.
One celled organisms are called unicellular organisms. They include Amoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena,
Paramecium, etc.
(ii) Tissues: This is a group of similar cells which come together to perform a particular function. A
tissue consist of two or more different types of cells aggregating together to perform a specific
function e.g. the mesophyl layer in leaves, xylem tissue in stems, muscles, blood (a liquid tissue) etc.
Organisms which exist at the tissue level include the hydra, jelly fish, sponge etc.
(iii) Organ: Is a group of similar tissues which come together to perform a specific function. Examples in
plants are flowers, roots, leaves, seeds, a rhizome, a corm, an onion bulb, a tuber, etc. Examples in
animals are the skin, stomach, heart, brain, liver, eyes, ears, kidney, etc.
(iv) System: This is a group of functionally related organs which work together to perform specific
functions. Examples in plants include the shoot system and root system. Examples in animals include

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the digestive, nervous, excretory and circulatory systems. Examples in plants are the transport system,
shoot and root system.

Complexity of Organization In Higher Animals

This is the existence of a higher level of organization of life in a living organism. The higher the kevel of
organization of life in an organism, the higher the complexity of that organism. As organisms acquire
more layers of cells, they become complex in structure, thus there is an increase in complexity from
unicellular to multicellular organism.

Advantages of Complexity
1. It leads to cellular differentiation, thus groups of similar cells are differentiated to form tissues
which carry out similar functions
2. It leads to internal structural specialization in which the tissues become specialized to carry out
specific functions.
3. There is mutual interdependence between component cells i.e division of labour among the cells.
4. Complexity makes higher organisms to be more efficient in carrying out life processes.
5. Complexity leads to increase in size of organisms.
6. It makes it possible for organisms to become more resistant to adverse condition within the
environment.

Disadvantages of Complexity
1. The cells lose their independence and become increasingly dependent on one another’s activities.
2. Difficulties in acquisition of materials (such as oxygen and food materials) and removal of waste
products by the millions of cells making up a multicellular organism
3. Slower rate of diffusion of oxygen or respiratory gas to individual cells.
4. Slower rate of expulsion of waste products from cells.
5. Decrease in ability to regenerate
6. Difficulties in reproduction.
CLASS WORK
1. Mention and explain the levels of organization of life.
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ASSIGNMENT
1. State three advantages and disadvantages each, of complexity.
2. Is a virus a living thing or a non-living thing? Give reasons for your answers.
3. Describe one organism at the tissue level of organization (e.g. Hydra)
WEEK THREE
TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
Definition of Classification
To classify means to arrange or organize things into groups. Classification of living things involves
placing living things that have certain important features in common into specific groups which
distinguish them from other groups. The largest group of organisms is the kingdom. The kingdoms are
further split into a large number of smaller groups called ‘phyla’ (singular phylum) for animals and
‘division’ for plants. All members of a phylum or division have certain features in common. Each
phylum or division is broken down into classes. Classes are split into orders. Orders are split into
families. Families are split into genera (singular genus) and genera into species.
Hierarchy of Classification
The seven groups used in classification of living things in order of hierarchy are;
The species is the basic (i.e. smallest) unit in biological classification. A species is a group of individuals
which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Example, all human beings belong to one species and
all monkeys belong to a different species, thus human beings and monkeys cannot interbreed.
Kingdom

Phylum or Division

Class

Order

Family

Genius

Species

Classification Of Human Dog Lion

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Order Primate Carnivora Carnivora
Family Hominidae Canidae Felidae
Genus Homo Canis Panthera

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Species Sapiens Familiaris Leo

Binomial System of Nomenclature
A Swiss scientist, Carl Von Linne (1707 – 1778) (Latin – Carolus Linnaeus) introduced the present
system of classification of living things. He also introduced the binomial system of nomenclature in
which an organism is given two names. The first name is the generic name and always begins with a
capital letter while the second name is the specific name (species) and begins with a small letter. The
generic name is common to all the species in a genus e.g. Equus cabellus (horse), Equus asinus (the
donkey), Equus burchelli (common Zebra) are different species of the same genus.
Examples of Scientific names of some organisms
1. Man – Homo sapiens
2. Housefly – Musca domestica
3. Maize – Zea mays
4. Orange – Citrus sinensis
5. Pawpaw – Carica papaya
6. Lion – Panthera leo
7. Rat – Rattus rattus
8. Dog- Canis domestica
9. Rice- Oriza sativa
10. Cocoa- Theobroma cacao

Classification and Evolution

As a result of advances in the field of science a five-kingdom system introduced by R.H Whittaker
(1969) has been adopted by some biologists. Most biologist however, prefer to divide living things into
prokaryotids (bacteria and blue-green algae) and eukaryotids (all other organisms) based on the
complexity of cell structure and cell chemistry.
Prokaryotids – Monera: bacteria, blue-green algae
Eukaryotids – Protista: protozoa, unicellular algae
Fungi: yeasts inclusive
Plantae: multicellular plants and multicellular algae
Animalia: multicellular animals
The five kingdom classification is as follows;
1. Kingdom Monera,
2. Kingdom Protista (Protoctista),
3. Kingdom Fungi,
4. Kingdom Plantae and
5. Kingdom Animalia.

Viruses
These are not cells. They are particles made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic
acid) surrounded by a protein coat. The genetic material is composed of a few genes that code for the
proteins that form the coat and other proteins that help it reproduce.
They are very harmful parasites that enter the cells of another organism (host) in order to multiply.
They do not respond to antibiotics and are constantly changing into new strains.
A. Kingdom Monera
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1. They are unicellular

2. The cells are prokaryotic with no organized nucleus and no nuclear membrane, just a loop of
DNA within the cytoplasm.
3. They do not have complex chromosomes
4. Cells have no mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and no chloroplasts.
5. Cell wall does not contain cellulose but polysaccharides and amino acids
6. No sexual reproduction.
7. They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic
8. Examples include bacteria and blue-green algae.

B. Kingdom Protista
i. They have well organized DNA in the nucleus bounded by nuclear membrane hence they are
called eukaryotes
ii. They are single called organism or unicellular organism
iii. Some are motile while some are non-motile
iv. They live in water, damp soil, leaf litter and other terrestrial habitats that have sufficient moist.
v. All protists use mitochondrion for cellular respiration
vi. They form cyst to survive adverse condition
vii. They all reproduce both sexually and asexually Examples are Amoeba, Euglena,
Chlamydomonas, and Plasmodium.

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C. Kingdom Fungi
i. They all feed heterotrophic ally because they lack chlorophyll therefore cannot photosynthesize.
ii. They are simple multicellular organism that grow like plant but are not plant because they are
not green in colour.
iii. Their bodies are not divided into true root, stem and leaves
iv. They are mostly non-motile organisms composed of thread-like multinucleate hyphae
collectively known as mycelium
v. They reproduce by means of spores. Spores are unicellular microscopic structure that is capable
of germinating to a new organism.
vi. The fungi stores carbohydrate as glycogen just like animal not as starch as done by plant
vii. Their cell wall is made up of chitin and not cellulose like plant
Examples are Mucor, Rhizopus, Mushroom and Slime mould.

The brightly colored fly agaric mushroom is a deadly poisonous mushroom. Containing ibotenic acid
and a number of other organic poisons, the fly agaric can cause severe damage to the central nervous
system, blood vessels, kidneys, liver, and muscles. Symptoms, which may not become apparent for 8 to
12 hours or longer, include nausea, vomiting, and severe diarrhea and can lead to coma and death.
D. KINGDOM PLANTAE
i. They are multicellular and non-motile organisms
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ii. Their cells are bounded by rigid cellulose cell walls external to cell membrane
iii.They contain chlorophyll that enables them to manufacture their own food by
photosynthesis
iv. Most plants store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose.
CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE BASED ON BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
The kingdom plantae is divided into four main phyla or Division
1. Thallophyta (algae)
i. They are simple microscopic plant
ii. They have no true root, stem and leaves
iii. They are found in aquatic habitat
iv. They are autotrophic plant i.e. They can synthesize their own food
v. They reproduce both by asexual means and sexual means
vi. They have cellulose cell wall
vii. Many of them are pigmented such as red, blue, brown in addition to chlorophyll.
viii. Some are filamentous (algae) and the cells are not differentiated into tissue

2. Bryophyte (Moss and liverwort)

i. They are non-vascular multicellular plant
ii. They have chlorophyll as the only photosynthetic pigment
iii. They are terrestrial but grow in moist environment
iv. Their body is differentiated into stem-like and leaf-like structure but no true root, stem and
leaves
v. They have no vascular tissue therefore they are unable to transport food and material round
the body
vi. They reproduce asexually by means of spores while sexual reproduction by gametes and it
takes place in water
vii. They exhibit what is called alternation of generation.

3. Tracheophyta (Vascular plants)

Division Pteridophyta (ferns)
i. Their body is divided into true root, stem and leaves
ii. They have well developed vascular bundles comprising of xylem and phloem
iii. The underground stem is rhizome
iv. They reproduce by means of spores
v. They need water of sexual reproduction which is by gametes formation
vi. The plants are mostly terrestrial while few are aquatic
vii. They exhibit alternation of generation
viii. They have asexual reproductive organ called sori while the sexual reproductive organ is heart-
shaped called prothalus
Division Spermatophyta
i. They are seed bearing plant
ii. They have well-developed vascular bundles
iii. They are well-adapted to terrestrial habitat and they are the most successful land plants
iv. The Spermatophyta are divided into two:

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1. Division Gymnospermatophyta or Coniferophyta

i. They are large plant with well-developed vascular bundle with true root, stem and leaves
ii. Their leaves are green in colour, small and needle-like
iii. Their naked seeds are born in cone because there is no ovary and no fruit
2. Division Angiospermatophyta
i. They possess true flowers for sexual reproduction
ii. They have well-developed true root, stem and leaves
iii. They have well-developed vascular bundles
iv. Seeds and fruits are produced after fertilization and the seed are enclosed within the ovary
v. They are terrestrial but some are aquatic
vi. They are terrestrial but some are aquatic
The Angiospermatophyta is divided into two classes
i. Monocotylenoneae (Monocot)
ii. Dicotyledoneae (Dicot)

Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous
1. Leaves have parallel veins Leaves have network veins
2. Flowers are generally dull in colour Flowers are bright in colour
3. Embryo has one cotyledon (one Embryo has two cotyledons (two seed-
seed leaf) leaves)
4. . The size of cortex is narrow The size of the cortex is wide
5. It has fibrous root system It has tap root system
6. Cambium is absent in the stem Cambium is present in the stem
7. Vascular bundles are scattered all Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring of
over the ground tissue Example cambium Examples are Mango, Orange.
Maize, palm tree, grasses

CLASS WORK

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LESSON TWO:
SUB-TOPIC:E. KINGDOM ANIMMALIA
The Kingdom is divided into two major groups
(i) INVERBRATA: These are groups of animal without backbone
(ii) VERTEBRATA: These are groups of animal that have backbone

PHYLUM INVERTEBRATES
Types of invertebrates
P – Porifera (sponges)
C – Coelenterata(Cnidaria)
P – Plathyhelminthes (flat worms)
N – Nemathoda (round worms)
A – Annelida (segmented worms)
M – Mollusca
A – Arthropoda
E – Echinodermata
The member of phylum invertebrate
1. PORIFERA (Characteristic features)
i. These are unicellular aquatic animals that usually attached to rocks or shell of other animals in
colonies
ii. They are primitive animals that lack specialized tissue such as organs or system
iii. They have radial symmetry
iv. They have a single opening leading to internal cavity
v. Examples are the sponges which are vase-shaped with a symmetrical body.

Purple and Yellow Tube Sponge

The purple and yellow tube sponge displays one of the many different body forms typical of sponges.
Sponges, considered to be the most primitive of the multicellular animals, are represented in the
fossil record back to the Cambrian Period, at least 600 million years ago. The interior body
cavities of sponges provide shelter for a variety of small crabs, sea stars, and other marine
invertebrates.

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2. PHYLUM CNIDARIA OR COELENTERATA

The coelenterates are aquatic organisms which includes the sea anemone, jelly fish and corals which
are marine organism, but hydra is found in fresh water
Characteristics
i. They are multicellular organism
ii. They have radial symmetry
iii. They have only one body cavity called enteron
iv. They have two distinct body layers (diploblastic) ectoderm and endoderm.
v. They have soft – jelly like bodies
vi. They reproduce asexually by budding
vii. They have one opening called mouth, no anus
viii. They have tentacles and stinging cells used for capturing their preys (Nematocyst)
ix. They have specialized cells such as nerve sensory and absorptive cells.
x. Examples are Hydra, sea anemone, jelly fish.
3. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworm)
This group consists of the flatworms such as the planaria, flukes and tapeworms.

Characteristics
i. They possess soft, flat and unsegimented body
ii. They have bilateral body symmetry
iii. They have no body cavity or lumen
iv. Their bodies is made up of three layers (triploblastic) ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
v. Most flatworms are hermaphrodites and reproduce sexually
vi. Some of them are parasites in man and other animals
4. Phylum Nematoda (Round worms)
The nematodes are the hookworms, Ascaris lumbricoides and guinea worms
Characteristics
i. They have round and cylindrical bodies
ii. They lack body cavity i.e. they have pseudo- coelom body cavity
iii. They have bilateral body symmetry
iv. Some are hermaphrodites while some reproduce sexually
v. Example: Hook worm, filarial worm, thread worm, guinea worm

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Elephantiasis
The upper legs of this patient with elephantiasis show the typical sign of the disease, a hardening and
thickening of the skin. Elephantiasis results from a blockage in the lymphatic system generally caused
by a parasitic worm.
5. Phylum Annelida
The annelids are the earthworm, leeches ad tubeworms

Characteristics
i. They have a true body cavity or coelom
ii. They have internal and external segmented bodies.
iii. Some are aquatic while others are terrestrial
iv. Annelids reproduce sexually and many are hermaphrodites
v. They are triploblastic animals

6. Phylum Mollusca
The member of this phylum includes squid, mussel, periwinkles, snails, oyster, octopus and
slug.

Characteristics
i. They have soft-unregimented body
ii. They have tentacles on their heads
iii. They possess muscular foot adapted for crawling or borrowing
v. Their body is covered by soft-tissue called mantle
vi. Some of them have calcerous shells e.g snail while some are without e.g. octopus
vii. Some are aquatic while some are terrestrial
viii. They have oculiferous tentacles which are used for sensitivity

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7. Phylum Arthropoda
This is the largest group in animal kingdom they have a distinct head with complex muscular
system. The phylum is divided into four classes
a. Crustacea e.g. crab, crayfish, prawn, lobster.
b. Insectae.g. all insects grasshopper, ant, termite e.t.c.
c. Arachnida e.g. spider, scorpion, miles and tick
d. Myriapoda e.g. centipede and millipede

Characteristics
I. They have segmented bodies
II. They have hard, rigid exoskeleton made of chitin bodies
III. They have jointed appendages or jointed legs used for feeding, movement, reproduction or as
sensory organs.
IV. They exhibit moulting or ecdysis i.e. shedding their exoskeleton at interval to permit growth.
V. Their bodies are divided into two or three segments such as head, thorax and abdomen which
may be fused together in some member.
VI. They have bilateral body symmetry
VII. They are triploblastic animal
VIII. They have various means of respiration e.g. gills, trachea, lung book or body surface.

8. Phylum Echinodermata
These are the starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and bristle star
Characteristics
i. They have a radial body symmetry
ii. They are mostly marine
iii. They are triploblastic animals
iv. They have neither head nor brain
v. Their body is not segmented
vi. They have true feet which are used for movement
PHYLUM CHORDATA – VERTEBRATES
Vertebrata is a subphylum of the phylum chordate. The chordates have a notochord, a flexible rod of
tightly packed cells, a tubular nerve chord (dorsal) and gill slit at some stage in their life history. The
back bone or vertebral column replaces the notochord in vertebrates.

VERTEBRATA
This is a sub phylum of the phylum chordate. It comprises of five classes. They are:
1. Pisces (fishes)
2. Amphibia (Amphibians)
3. Reptilia (Reptiles
4. Aves (all birds)
5. Mammalia (mammals)

General Characteristics of Vertebrate

1. They possess an internal jointed skeleton made up of cartilage or bone

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2. They all have bilateral symmetry

3. The body is divided into head, trunk and tail
4. They have two pairs of limbs (pectoral and pelvic) limbs.
5. They have well- developed central nervous system with brain
6. They have a closed blood system
7. They possess skin which may be naked or have a covering of scales, feathers or hairs.

CLASS PISCES (OSTERITHY)

The Pisces include all group of fishes, they show good adaptation to aquatic life. Fishes are of two types
a. Bony fish: These are fishes with bony skeleton e.g. Tilapia, Salmon, Mackerel e.t.c.
b. Cartilagenous fish: These are fishes whose bones are soft e.g. dry fish, shark, rays e.t.c.

Characteristics
1. The body is covered by scales but few are without scales
2. They possess fins which are used for movement in water
3. They use gills for gaseous exchange
4. They are poikilothermic or cold blooded animal meaning that their body temperature varies with
that of their environment
5. They have swim bladder for buoyancy
6. They have lateral line for detection of vibration
7. They have streamlined body shape for easy movement in water
8. They are oviparous animal meaning that they lay egg which develop to adult stage outside the
body of the female.

CLASS AMPHIBIA

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They are the first vertebrates to adapt to life on land and water. The member includes toad,
frogs, salamander and newts
Characteristics
i. They are poikilothermic animal
ii. They have two pairs of limbs-fore limbs and hind-limbs.
iii. They have naked or moist glandular skin with no external scales
iv. They exhibit dual life i.e. they can live both on land and water
v. They carry out gaseous exchange with gills at tadpole stage of life and with lungs, skin and
mouth at adult stage
vi. They are oviparous using external fertilization

CLASS REPTILIA

The reptile includes all reptiles with dry skin with scales or bony plate which resist loss of water from
the body. They are the first animal to have a copulatory organ (penis) for the purpose of internal
fertilization. Examples are crocodile, lizard, wall gecko, snake e.t.c.
Characteristics
i. They are poikilothermic animals
ii. They have dry skin covered with scales
iii. They all breathe with lungs
iv. They are oviparous animal
vi. They have homodont dentition meaning having set of teeth that are the same in shape and
function.
vii. They use sexual reproduction with internal fertilization
viii. Some are aquatic animal e.g. crocodile and turtle while others are terrestrial

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CLASS AVES (Birds)

The aves include all types of birds. They are mostly adapted to aerial life by means of wing which is a
modification of the fore-limb. Examples of birds are pigeon, domestic fowls, ostrich, duck e.t.c.
Characteristics
i. They are homoeothermic or warm blooded animal meaning they have a constant body
temperature, it doesn’t change even when the temperature of its environment rises.
ii. The entire body of a bird is covered with feathers except the bird legs which are covered
with scales
iii. The mouth is extended to form the beak which is used for feeding
iv. They have rigid hollow bones with air sac which make them light during flight
v. They use internal fertilization
vi. They use lungs for respiration
vii. The fore-limbs modified to wings which are used for flight
viii. They are toothless but use beak for feeding

CLASS MAMMALIA (all mammals)

The mammals are the most advanced in the animal kingdom. They have two body cavities which is
divided into two by a muscular sheet called diaphragm
Characteristics
i. They are homoeothermic animal
ii. Their bodies are covered with hairs or furs
iii. They have heterodont dentition meaning having a set of teeth that are different in shape
and function
iv. Their thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by diaphragm
v. They use lungs for respiration
vi. They have well developed brain
vii. They have external ear called pinnae
viii. They are viviparous made of reproduction meaning they give birth to their young ones alive
ix. They have a fully developed four chamber heart
x. They all have a mammary gland which produces milk to feed their young ones
xi. They use sexual reproduction with internal fertilization

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CLASS WORK
State one characteristic each of the five classes of vertebrates and give one example each class.

WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: THE CELL

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The Cell as a Living Unit of an Organism

The cell is defined as the simplest, the smallest and basic unit of life. It is the structural and functional
unit of a living organism. The cell can carry out all life activities such as feeding, respiration, movement
etc.
Classification of Living Things Based on the Number of Cells
All living things are classified into two major groups depending on the number of cells they possess.
These groups are:
i. Unicellular or Acellular organism: Organisms which consist of only one cell e.g. Amoeba,
Paramecium, Chlamydomonas and Euglena.
ii. Multicellular Organisms: Organisms which consist of two or more cells, e.g. Hydra, Flowering
plants, Fish, Bird, Man etc.
Forms in Which Cells Exist
Living cells exist basically in four forms;
1. As single and free living organisms: These are organisms which possess only one cell and are able
to live freely on their own. The single cell carries out all life processes such as feeding. Euglena, etc.
Parts of the cell may be specialized to carry out a particular process, for example Paramecium.
Paramecium is a fresh-water protozoan. It lives in ponds and puddles and feeds mainly on bacteria.
It is often described as having a slipper shape and is about 0.25mm long. It has a stiff outer-
covering called the pellicle which gives it a fixed shape. Its cytoplasm is divided into a clear outer
layer called the ectoplasm and a granular inner layer called the endoplasm. The endoplasm
contains several food vacuoles, two contractile vacuoles and two nuclei. The larger one called the
meganucleus and the smaller one the micronucleus. It moves (swims) in the water by means of
cilia. The cilia are tiny projections of the ectoplasm through the pellicle. The oral groove and gullet
are specialized for feeding, while the contractile vacuole is specialized for water regulation.
2. As a colony: A colony consists of many similar cells which are joined together. E.g. Volvox,
Pandorina, etc. Diagram of volvox
3. As a filament: This consists of many similar or identical cells joined end to end to form unbranched
filaments. e.g. spirogyra, zygnema, oscillatoria and oedogonium.Each cell in a colony or filament
behaves as an individual. Each carries out life processes independently of its neighbours.
4. As a part of a living multicellular organism: In multicellular organism cells which perform the same
function are grouped together to form a tissue, e.g. tissues of the ileum wall, the retina, and the
blood (a tissues which perform a specific function form an organ and a group of organism working
together to perform a specific task form a system.

The Structure and Functions of the Cell

From the general point of view, cell is considered as an idea. The dictionary explains the meaning as ‘a
small room in a prison for one or more persons’ or as ‘a small number of people.’ When one commits a
crime, such a person is put in a police cell while investigation is going on. However, in Biology the term
cell is a vital subject matter and has a special definition. It is defined as the smallest, structural and
functional unit of life having a nucleus at the centre and bounded by a cell membrane. They are two
types of cells: Plant and Animal cells. See diagram below:

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Plant Cell
Plant cells contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles. These include a nucleus
that carries genetic material; mitochondria that generate energy; ribosomes and rough endoplasmic
reticulum that manufacture proteins; smooth endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures lipids used for
making membranes and storing energy; and a thin lipid membrane that surrounds the cell. Plant cells
also contain chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a single fluid-filled vacuole that stores
compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall that protects the
cell and maintains its shape.

Animal Cell
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane-bound organs, or organelles. The nucleus
directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to generation. The
mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured by ribosomes, which are bound
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float free in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus modifies,

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packages, and distributes proteins while lysosomes store enzymes for digesting food. The entire cell is
wrapped in a lipid membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of the cytoplasm.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL
Both plant cell and animal cell have the following in common: Nucleus, Golgi bodies, Mitochondria,
Cytoplasm, Chromosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Nucleolus, Ribosome, Lysosomes, Cell membrane.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
It has cellulose cell wall/rigid Lack of cellulose cell wall
It has one large central vacuole It has numerous/small vacuoles
It has chloroplasts it lack chloroplast
It contain starch granules in its cytoplasm It contain glycogen granules in its cytoplasm
Its usually larger in size Its usually smaller in sixe
It does not have lysosome It has lysosomes
It store lipid as oil It stores lipid as fat
It has regular/define cell shape It has irregular/indefinite cell shape

CLASS WORK
1. Define the term cell.___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Mention the two groups in which organisms can be placed based on the number of cells.

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LESSON TWO: THE CELL THEORY

The man who first discovered and described cell in living things is called Robert Hooke in 1665, he also
invented the microscope, but the cell theory was proposed by another man called Mathias Schleiden, a
German Botanist 1838, and Theodor Schwann, a German Zoologist, these two men postulated the
theory known as cell theory in 1839. In 1855, another German Biologist, Rudolf Virchow stated that all
cells comes originated from cells.
The cell theory states that:
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells
2. Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things;
3. Cell originates from a pre-existing cell; and
4. Cell contains hereditary materials.
Another name for cell components are cell organelles e.g of an organelle is the nucleus of a cell as
shown below.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria, minute sausage-shaped structures found in the hyaloplasm (clear cytoplasm) of the cell,
are responsible for energy production. Mitochondria contain enzymes that help convert food material
into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can be used directly by the cell as an energy source.
Mitochondria tend to be concentrated near cellular structures that require large inputs of energy, such
as the flagellum, which is responsible for movement in sperm cells and single-celled plants and
animals.
Description and Functions of Cell Components
1. Cell wall
Description: Non-living, made of cellulose, permeable to water and substance
Functions: Provides rigidity to the cell and gives it a definite shape.
2. Cell membrane
Description: Living and differentially permeable to water and substance.
Function: Allows selective movement of materials in and out of the cell.
3. Cytoplasm
Description: Semi-fluid mass enclosed within the cell membrane and contain many organelles.
Functions: The largest and liquid part of the cell in which metabolic reactions occur.

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4. Nucleus
Description: Enclosed by a nuclear membrane, and contains chromatin and nucleolus.
Functions: It stores and carries hereditary information from generation to generation. It also translates
genetic information into the kind of protein characteristic of the cell. It controls the cell’s life processes
5. Vacuoles
Description: This is the fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm.
Functions: Help in maintaining turgidity in the plant cell.
6. Mitochondria
Description: It is a double membrane system, found in all cells. It contains the enzymes for cellular
respiration.
Functions: it carries out metabolism for all life processes. Kreb’s cycle and electron transfer system
take place in the mitochondria.

THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Introduction
The topic ‘Cell and its Environment’ refers to the activities of the cell in a given environment or the
functions of the cell given a particular condition. Some conditions can be harmful to the cell while
others are helpful for proper functioning of the cell. This is why we discuss the cell and its
environment.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion can be defined as the process by which molecules of substances, such as liquid and gases
move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration until they
are evenly distributed. It is also a process by which fine particles (molecules) flow in and out of cells of
living things, and it can occur in non-living things or membrane.
Diffusion can take place in liquid and gases, but diffusion is faster in gases than in liquid,
because air and gases as a medium has more spaces to be filled.

The Importance of Diffusion

In a biological system, diffusion is essential in the following ways:
1. Gaseous exchange in lungs during external respiration.
2. The movement of carbon iv oxide and Oxygen during photosynthesis and respiration in plants.
3. Movement of digestive food from the intestine into the blood circulatory system.
4. Movement of nutrients, and other metabolic products from the mother through the placenta to
the foetus.
5. The upward movement of mineral salts and nutrients from the soil through the roots to other parts
of the plant.

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution into a more concentrated solution
through a semi-permeable membrane. Living organisms has the cell as the semi-permeable membrane.
Since the water molecules are small, the cell is somewhat limited in the amount of direct control it can
impose on their passage across the membrane. In osmosis, the stronger solution is called hypertonic
solution, while the weaker solution is called hypotonic solution. In osmosis, water molecule move from

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hypotonic to hypertonic solution, but when the concentrations are equal, the solution is said to be
isotonic.

Application of osmosis in animals

The application of osmosis in animals includes the following:
1. Re-absorption of water in kidney tubules,
2. Entry of water into the cytoplasm of unicellular animals, e.g. Amoeba and Paramecium,
3. Movement of water in and out of living animal cells,
4. Absorption of water in the large intestine.

The Application of Osmosis in Plants

The application of osmosis in plants include the following:
1. Absorption of water from the soil by the root hairs,
2. The movement of water in and out of living plant cell,
3. The movement of water from the root hairs to the cells of the cortex, and
4. Opening and closing of the stomata by the guard cells in the leaf.

The Importance of Osmosis

1. Osmosis regulates the concentrations of salt and water of the blood and other body fluid in
animals.
2. It maintains the cell shape through turgidity and plasmolysis if need be.
3. It enables the absorption of water molecules from the soil solution to the plants through the root
hair.
4. Movement of water molecules within the plant from the root to the leaves.

CLASS WORK
1. State the cell theory.

2. Who found the cell? ______________________________________

3. List three men who contributed to the discovery of the cell.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Describe the nucleus and its functions.
2. State Five (5) differences between plant and animal cell.
3. Outline four similarities between plant and animal cell.

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4. Describe and state the functions of the following cell components or organelles: (a) Endoplasmic
reticulum (b) Ribosome (c) Centrioles, and (d) Chloroplasts
5. Differentiate between hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic.
WEEK FIVE
PLANT NUTRITION
Nutrition is defined as the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food material from
external environment for metabolic activities such as respiration, growth, excretion and reproduction.
Plant Nutrition
One of the main characteristics of living things is their ability to feed. Boyh plants and animal
feed. While some are called autotrophs can manufacture their own food, other organisms called
heterotrophs cannot. In plant nutrition, we have photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make use of raw materials such as carbon (iv)
oxide and water to produce sugar and Oxygen in presence of sun light or solar energy and
chlorophyll.
Equation for Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
The Significance of Photosynthesis
1. All living things are supported by the by-products of photosynthesis. For example all animals
and non-green plants obtain their energy from green plants.
2. It brings about the purification of the atmosphere by removing excess carbon (iv) oxide (carbon
iv oxide)
Materials Necessary for Photosynthesis
These materials are divided into two basic parts: (1) External conditions and (2) Internal conditions.
External conditions: Internal conditions:
1. Water 1. Mineral salts
2. Light 2. chlorophyll
3. Carbon (iv) oxide. 3. Enzymes
Some Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:
They include;
1. Temperature,
2. Light intensity,
3. Carbon (iv) oxide,
4. Amount of soil water/moisture
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages namely the LIGHT REACTION and the DARK REACTION.
The first stage which is the light reaction is dependent on light. The light energy is absorbed by the
chlorophyll is used to break water into hydroxyl (OH -) and hydrogen (H+) ions. The process of splitting
water molecule by light energy into hydroxyl and hydrogen ions is called PHOTOLYSIS. The importance
of this stage is to transfer the light energy to chemical energy of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and
make reduced NADP (Nicotinamide Adenine dinuclestide phosphate). In the dark, this energy is
converted to chemical energy in organic compound.
Sunlight
Chlorophyll

2H20 20H- +2H+ ADP+ P I ATP

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Water hydroxyl hydrogen

Some electrons omitted from chlorophyll and which have lost their energy combine with hydrogen ions
to form hydrogen atoms.
2H+2e- 2H
The hydrogen atoms are used to reduce the hydrogen accept or NADP to become NADPH 2
2H + NADP NADPH2
The hydroxyl ion (OH ) gives an electron to the unstable chlorophyll + to make it stable. The resulting OH
-

form water and oxygen. The oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis and diffuses out into the
atmosphere
40H 2H20 + 02
The second stage which is dark reaction stage, sugars are built from hydrogen and carbohydrates
through a series of complex reactions involving enzymes.
In the dark reaction, carbon (iv) oxide combines with a five-carbon sugar (ribulose diphosphate) to give
two molecules of phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). The phosphoglyceric acid is converted to carbohydrate in
the presence of ATP and NADPH2 . Other products of photosynthesis are proteins and fats which are
made according to the need of plants
CO2+2H2O light (CH2O) + H20 + 02
Chlorophyll (sugar) (water) (oxygen)
The main product formed during photosynthesis is simple sugar. The simple sugar formed is partly
used by the plant and excess of it is converted to starch immediately for starch immediately for
storage. The starch is then transported to other part of the plant through the phloem vessel for storage
in the process of TRANSLOCATION.

Importances of Photosynthesis
i. Production of food for living things
ii. The process purifies atmosphere by making use of carbon (iv) oxide in the air
iii. It maintain oxygen balance of the atmosphere by release more
iv. It serves as a building block for other substances to be formed e.g. protein and oil

CHEMOSYNTHETIC NUTRITION
This is a process where certain bacteria which are autotrophs manufacture their own food from simple
inorganic substance such as carbon (iv) oxide, water, hydrogen sulphide by using the chemical energy
released during the process as their source of energy. The bacteria have enzyme system capable of
trapping chemical energy.
For example, the Sulphur bacteria in the soil can oxidize hydrogen sulphide around it to chemical
energy.
2H2S + O2 S + 2H2O + Chemical energy.
For example, the Sulphur bacteria in the soil can oxidize hydrogen sulphide around it to chemical
energy.
2H2S + O2 S + 2H2O + Chemical energy

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EXPERIMENTS TO TEST FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Experiment 1
Aim: To test for the presence of starch in leaf
Material Required: Fresh leaves from outdoor plant, beaker, boiling tubes, dropping tube, white tile
and iodine solution.
Method: First boil the leaf in water for 4-6 minutes so as to
(i) Kill the cell
(ii) To inactivate the enzyme
(iii) To burst starch grain present
Then dip the leaf into a test tube containing 90% alcohol to decolourise the leaf. After that the leaf is
dipped into water to soften it later pour few drops of iodine solution on the leaf in the control
experiment a leaf from a plant kept in the dark cupboard is plucked and tested for starch.
Observation: The leaf that was plucked from potted plant outside turned blue-black with iodine
solution while the other leaf control experiment remained colourless.
Conclusion: Since the leaf in the real experiment has turned blue-black with iodine solution, it shows
that photosynthesis has taken place or starch is present in the leaf.

Experiment II
Aim: To show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis
Material Required: A potted plant, strip of black, paper, clips, cupboard
Method: The potted plant is first de-starched by putting it in a dark cupboard for 1-2days. This is to
remove all the traces of starch formed in the leaves. After this, the middle of o ne of the leaves is
covered by a strip of black paper, both at the front and back with the acid of clip. The whole plant is
then placed in sunlight.
After about 3-5hours, the paper is removed, the leaf is then tested for starch.
Observation: Only the exposed parts turned blue-black with the iodine solution which shows the
presence of starch while the area that was covered with black paper will remain colourless showing
that starch is absent
Conclusion: The experiment shows that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Experiment III
Aim: To show that carbon (iv) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis
Material Required: A potted plant, Vaseline, conical flask, split cork, retort stand and caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide solution)
Method: Use a leaf attached to a potted plant. The leaf is enclosed in the conical flask contains caustic
soda solution. The solution will absorbs any traces of carbon (iv) oxide inside the flask. The flask’s
mouth is corked and smeared with Vaseline at the neck to make it air tight. The whole experiment is
now exposed to sunlight for several hours. Two leaves (one from the flask) and the other outside the
flask (control experiment) are plucked and tested for starch.
Observation: After testing the leaf inside the flask did not show blue-black colour indicating absence of
starch formation because of lack of carbon (iv) oxide inside the flask while the leaf outside has a
positive test

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Conclusion: The experiment emphasizes the importance of carbon (iv) oxide in photosynthesis to take
place
Experiment IV
Aim: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
Material Required: A variegated plant like croton, coleus or acalpha plant. A variegated plant has green
and white patches on the leaf.
Method: The potted variegated plant is exposed to sunlight for about 3-5hours after which a
variegated leaf is plucked fresh from the plant during the day time when there is sunlight. The
variegated leaf is tested for starch
Observation: It will be noticed that the green plants of the variegated leaf are stained blue black with
iodine solution while the parts remain colourless
Conclusion: The experiment shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to take place

Experiment V
Aim: To show that oxygen is give out as by-product during photosynthesis
Material Required: A water plant e.g. Elodea, glass funnel, beaker, water, test-tube, glowing splinter
Method: An elodea plant is kept in a beaker filled with water. This is followed by the filling of the test
tube with water and then inverts it over the stem of the funnel. The whole set-up is then placed in the
sunlight for several hours. Tiny bubbles of gas will start to appear on the surface of the leaves and
accumulate at the top of the test tube. The gas is tested with a glowing splinter
Observation: It will be seen that the gas formed at the top of the tube rekindles glowing splinter
showing the presence of oxygen.
Conclusion: The experiment shows that oxygen is given off a by-product during photosynthesis

CLASS WORK

ASSIGNMENT

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1a. Define Photosynthesis?

b. Describe the light reaction stage
c. Explain how photosynthesis occur in green plant
d. List five conditions necessary for photosynthesis
WEEK SIX
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Food is a complex energy-rich organic matter which living organism feed on to obtain nutrients and
substances necessary for life. Food substances are classified to six groups
1. Carbohydrate
2. Protein
3. Fat and oils
4. Mineral salts
5. Vitamins
6. Water and
7. Roughages.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They have general formula (CxH2O)y.
carbohydrate consists of simple sugar, starches, cellulose and glycogen. They are grouped into simple
sugar or monosaccharide, double sugar/disaccharides and poly saccharide. The common sources
include yam, cassava, potatoes, bread, cereals e.g. rice, maize e.t.c.
Simple sugar or Monosaccharide
These are the simplest sugar which consists of one molecule of simple sugars. They have general
formula C6H10O6. Examples are glucose, fructose and ribose (C5H10O5) or galactose
Disaccharide/Reducing sugar
These are sugars which consist of two molecules of simple sugar which formed by condensation with
the general formula C12H22O11. Examples are sucrose, maltose and lactose
Sucrose: It is a non-reducing sugar which is formed from a molecule of glucose and a molecule of
glucose is the main source
Maltose: This is obtained from the condensation of two molecules of simple sugar. It is reducing sugar
Lactose (milk-sugar): It is a reducing sugar. It is obtained from the condensation of a molecule of
glucose and a molecule of galactose
Polysaccharide
These are complex carbohydrates. Examples are starch, cellulose, chitin and inulin.
1. Starch: It has the formula C6H10O5)n where n represent a large number. It is formed from the
condensation of numerous molecules of simple sugar. Examples of the sources of starch are yam,
cereals, cassava and bread
ii. Cellulose: This is composed of several condensed unit of monosaccharides. It makes the cell
wall of plant source of cellulose include whole meal bread, cereals, fresh fruit and vegetables.
iii. Glycogen (Animal starch): This is the form which animals store their carbohydrate usually in the
muscle or liver
Importance of Carbohydrate
i. It provides energy required by animals for their daily activities
ii. It provides heat during it oxidation used in maintain the body temperature
iii. It forms certain body part of arthropods (exoskeleton)
iv. The mucus which is an important lubricant in the body is formed carbohydrate

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PROTEIN
Proteins are complex molecules and are made of smaller unit called amino acids. Proteins have to be
digested to amino acids before they are absorbed in the body of animal. The breakdown of proteins
during digestion takes place in the following
Protein Peptone Polypeptide Amino acid
Protein is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur
Sources of protein include both animal source and plant source
The animal source includes milk, egg, fish, cheese, meat and chicken while the Plant sources are
beans, groundnut, soya beans and melon.
Importance of Protein
i. Protein is needed for growth of young ones
ii. It is used for the repair of worn out tissues or cells
iii. It aids reproduction
iv. It is used for the production of enzymes
v. It is needed for the production of hormone
vi. It is needed for body building57

FATS AND OIL

Fat and oils are also called lipids. They consist of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, the
amount of oxygen in each lipid is very little e.g. tristearin, is C57H10O6. Fats are solid lipid at room
temperature. Plant sources of oil include groundnut, palm oil, soyabeans oil; coconut oil and melon oil
white animal sources of fat include butter, fish or cod oil.
Fat and oil are hydrolysed during digestion to fatty acid and glycerol
Importance of Fat and Oil
i. Fat and oil provides more energy to animal than carbohydrate
ii. Fat supplies essential fatty acid to animal
iii. Fat and oil act as solvent for fat soluble vitamins
iv. They help in the maintenance of body temperature
v. They act as insulator to animal which help them to conserve heat

MINERAL SALT
Mineral salts are food substances that are required in traces for vital body process. They are taken in
their ionic forms. Animal takes in their elements mainly by feeding on plants or their products except
a few of them such as sodium chloride (table salt). Lack of mineral salts will result in nutritional
deficiency. These mineral elements or salts include phosphorus, calcium, iodine, manganese, fluorine,
copper and cobalt.
MINERAL SOURCE FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
CALCIUM Milk, Cheese, Egg (i) Bone and teeth (i) Rickets
and Fish formation and development (ii) Osteomalacia
(ii) Needed for blood (iii) Tooth decay
clotting
(iii) Normal Functioning of
the heart, nervous system
and muscle
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PHOSPHORUS Milk, cheese, egg, (i) For strong development i) Rickets

fish and wheat of teeth and bone (ii) Osteomalacia
(ii) It forms part of DNA and (iii) Tooth decay
RNA
(iii) Needed for respiration
MAGNESSIUM Green, vegetables, (i) For muscle contraction Nervous disorder
milk, meat (ii) Needed for utilization of
iron
(iii) Needed for teeth and
bone
POTASSIUM Fruits and other (i) Needed for functioning It leads to muscle
Natural food of the muscles paralysis
(ii) For transmission of
impulses in nerves
SULPHUR Beans, fish, meat & Constituent of proteins, Poor growth
egg amino acids and vitamin B
SODIUM & Table salt, fish fruit (i) Transmission of impulses (i) Dehydration
CHLORINE (ii) Maintenance of osmotic (ii) Muscle cramp
balance of the cell

IRON Eggs, liver, kidneys, (i) Formation of Anaemia

beans, vegetables haemoglobin in red blood
cell
IODINE Sea foods (i) Required by the thyroid Goitre
gland to make thyroxine

MARGANESE Egg, Milk, Meat (i) Required for normal

growth
(ii) Acts as co-factors in
some enzymatic reactions
COPPER Green vegetables, (i) It catalyses the use of Anaemia
eggs, milk, meat iron
(ii) For proper respiration in
some aerobic organisms

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic food substances which are needed in small quantities or traces for body normal
growth and healthy development in man and other animals. Absence or insufficiency of vitamin supply
in diet may lead to deficiency diseases
Groups of Vitamins
(i) Fat Soluble Vitamins: These are vitamins that are soluble only in fat e.g. vitamins A,D, E and K
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(ii) Water Soluble Vitamins: These are vitamins that are soluble in water e.g. vitamins B-complex
and vitamin C. some members of vitamin B2(Riboflavin), B3 (Niacin), b5 (Pantothenic) B6
(Pyridoxine), B12, (cyanocobalamine), Folic acid e.t.c.
VITAMIN SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY/SYMPTOMS
VITAMIN A Liver, eggs, fish, milk, (i) Required for (i) Night blindness
(Retino) palm oil, fresh normal growth of (ii) Reduced resistance to
vegetables cells and skin diseases
(ii) For proper
vision of the eye
VITAMIN B1 Yeast, unpolished rice, (i) Required for (i) Slow growth
milk, beans, palm wine normal growth (ii) Dermatitis
(ii) Formation of co-
enzymes involved
in cellular
respiration
VITAMIN B2 Yeast, soyabeans, egg, (i) Required for (i) Slow growth
milk, green vegetables growth healthy skin (ii) Dermatitis
and proper
functioning of the
eyes
(ii) Formation or co-
enzymes involved
in cellular
respiration
VITAMIN B3 Yeast, beans, milk, Needed for cellular Pellagra ( a skin disease and
palm wine, yam, respiration digestive problem
vegetables
VITAMIN B12 Kidney, liver, fish, milkFormation of red Pernicious anaemia
blood cells
VITAMIN C Fresh fruits e.g. Orange (i) Aids wound Scurvy (characteristic by
(Ascorbic acid) and green vegetables healing bleeding gum, poor healing
(ii) Helps to resist of wood an low resistance
infection of infection)
VITAMIN D Fish, milk, egg, liver, Needed for strong Ricket, osteomalacia
Calciferol form in the skin by bone and teeth
light formation and
development
VITAMIN E Green vegetable, Promotion of Reproductive failure e.g.
(Ergo sterol) butter, liver fertility in animals sterility and pre mature
abortion
VITAMIN K Fresh green Aids blood clothing Haemorrhage
Phylloquinone vegetable/cabbage
spinach

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WATER
Water is composed of two elements hydrogen and oxygen. Source of water available to animals
include metabolic water from food, drinking water from rivers, rain, pond e.t.c.
Importance of Water
(i) It is required for metabolic activities in the body
(ii) Water is necessary for digestion of food
(iii) It can be used for maintenance of body temperature
(iv) It is served as a medium of transportation of nutrients
(v) It helps in excretion of metabolic waste products from the body e.g. urine
(vi) It is the basis of body secretion from endocrine gland
(vii) It helps in the maintenance of the osmotic content of the body

BALANCED DIET
This is a diet containing the correct proportion or the right amount of all six food substances required
by an organism. The balanced diet must contain the six food classes such as carbohydrate, proteins,
fats and oil, minerals, vitamins and water

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
An enzymes is an organic catalyst which are complex protein substances that are manufactured by
living cells. They accelerate metabolic reactions without changing their composition in the process.
Enzymes are produced by both plants and animals. Enzymes may be named according to the process in
which they are involved processes like photosynthesis, respiration and digestion and enzymatic in
nature.
Characteristics of Enzymes
i. Enzymes are specific in their actions
ii. Only small quantity of an enzyme is required to catalyse a reaction
iii. Enzymes have a specific temperature range above or below which they work become inactive
or denatured. They work best at about 370c
iv. Enzymes do not lose their chemical composition at the end of a reaction
v. Enzymes are affected by the acidity and alkalinity (PH) of a medium. An enzyme which is active
in an acidic medium e.g. pepsin become inactive in alkaline medium and vice versa.
vi. Enzymes are usually involved in reversible reaction
vii. Enzymes are produced by glands of the system that require that activities e.g. digestive
enzymes are produced by various gland of digestive system
viii. Substance called inhibitor can stop the activities of enzymes
ix. The activities of enzymes can be enhanced when they are joined to a co-enzymes e.g inorganic
subsistence such as phosphorus.
x. Enzymes are protein in nature.

CLASSES OF ENZYMES

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(i) PROTEASES- These are protein digesting enzymes. They are present in the stomach e.g Renin and
Pepsin and also in the duodenum (Trypsin) and ileum (Erepsin). They all digest protein and break
them into smaller unit.
(ii) AMYLASE- They are enzymes which digest starches and sugars and convert them to glucose.
Ptyalin or Salivary amylase is produced by salivary gland in the mouth. It can converts starch to
maltose.
Pancreatic amylase is produced in the pancreas. It converts starch to maltose, sucrose and lactose. It
also converts these double sugars to their final products. Maltose to glucose, sucrose to fructose
and glucose and lactose to galactose and glucose.
(iii) LIPASES- These are enzymes which convert and oils to fatty acid and glycerol. They are produced
in the pancreas and ileum.
Digestive enzymes and functions
Enzymes Sources Location Substrate Effect/product
acted upon
Ptyalin Salivary gland Mouth Starch Partial hydrolysis of starch
to maltose
Renin Gastric gland Stomach Proteins It coagulate or curdle milk
Pepsin Gastric gland Stomach Proteins It convert solid protein to
peptones
Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum Fat and oils It converts fat and oils to
Lipase fatty acid and glycerol
Amylase Pancreas Duodenum Starch It converts starch to
maltose
Trypsin Pancreas Duodenum Proteins or It converts proteins or
peptones peptones to polypeptide
Erepsin Succus Small Poly It converts polypeptide to
entricus intestine peptide amino acid

CLASS WORK
1. Vitamins are organic food substances required by animals in ____ quantity A. no B. small C. large D.
high
2. The following except one are fat-soluble vitamins A. vitamin A B. Vitamin B C. Vitamin K D.
Vitamin E
3. One of the following food substances is indigestible in man A. protein B. lipids
C. roughages D. carbohydrates
4. The highest source of energy is from _______ A. carbohydrate B. proteins C. lipids D.
vitamins
5. Rickets (poor bone formation) in children is a deficiency symptom of ____ A. potassium B. calcium
C. chlorine D. manganese.
THEORY
1. What is nutrition? ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. State one importance of; A. Carbohydrate________________________________________
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B. Protein_________________________________________________________________
C. Lipids._________________________________________________________________

WEEK SEVEN
MID TERM TEST

WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: MODE OF NUTRITION
1. Autotrophic Nutrition is the type of nutrition in which the organisms are able to manufacture their
own food. Organisms which can manufacture or synthesize their own food are called autotrophs.
Autotrophic nutrition is carried out by all green plants through the process of photosynthesis and
by some certain bacteria through the process of chemosynthesis.
Autotrophic nutrition is further divided into two groups. These are holophytic or photosynthetic
nutrition and chemosynthetic nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organisms cannot manufacture their own
food but depends directly on plants for their own food such organisms are called heterotrophs,
most heterotrophs are fungi, protozoa and some bacteria
There are various types of heterotrophic nutrition as follows
a. Holozoic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which solid complex food substances are
ingested and changed them into simple, soluble form during digestion. The processes involved
holozoic nutrition includes ingestion digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. These
processes are applicable to simple animals from protozoans such as Amoeba and Paramecium to
complex organisms including man.
b. Parasitic Nutrition or Parasitism: This is an association between the organisms of different
species in which the smaller organisms called parasite depend on the larger partner called host
for food and nutrients at the expense of the host i.e. causing harm and diseases to the host. For
example association between round worm and man. Parasitic nutrition is also seen in plant
where the plant parasite develops haustoriun with which it absorbs nutrient from the host
cassytha and cuscuta (dodder plant). Other are phytophtora black pod parasite of cocoa.
c. Symbiotic Nutrition or Mutualistic Nutrition: This is a type of nutrition in which two organisms of
different species live together to derive mutual benefit from their association. The partners may
be a plant to plant, animal to animal e.t.c. examples of organism that engage in symbiosis are
lichens (an association of algae and fungus partnership). The green alga manufactures food for
both organisms while the fungus protects the alga and absorbs water from the atmosphere for
the use of alga. Another example is hermit crab inhabiting on molluscian shells carry other
organisms on the skills. The organism may be a group of sea anemones which afford concealment
protection for the crab and themselves obtain transport, better oxygenation and possible
particles floating up while the crab is feeding.
d. Saprophytic Nutrition: This is a form of feeding in which the organism derives its food from the
remain of dead and decaying organic matter such as plant and animal. The organism is called
saprophyte while the process is called saprophytism. This mode of nutrition is exhibited by some
bacteria, fungi and some animals. Saprophytes secrete digestive enzyme onto the substrate (the
organic matter) on which they feed digestion take place outside the organism. This type of
digestion is called extra cellular digestion and it is the process that causes the decay. The

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extracellular enzymes the organism released to the food surface act only in the presence of
moisture and the chemical reactions are usually being speeded up by a rise in the temperature.

COMMENSALISM
Is an association between the organisms of different species in which only one partner benefit from
the relationship while the other neither gains nor suffer any harm. For example, the association
between shark and remora fish.
CARNIVOROUS PLANT
These are plants which apart from being autotrophic and photosynthetic feed on insect or small animal
to supplement their protein needs. These insectivorous plants are found in nitrogen poor habitats, and
they do trap insects as source of nitrogen. The insects are attracted by their colour, scent or sweet
secretion (nectar) of the plants. They also have enzymes with which they digest the insects before
being absorbed into their body. These plants include Venus fly trap (Dioaea), sundew plant(Drosera),
the pitcher plant(Nepenthes) and bladderwort (urtricularia).
FILTER FEEDING
Filter feeding is feeding mechanism being used by some aquatic animals to feed on tiny
microorganisms in the water called phytoplankton (plant) and zooplankton (tiny animal).These aquatic
animals have to wallow in water through sieve-like structure on their body in order to collect large
quantity in the water current. Examples of filter feeders are mosquito larva, mussels, duck, prawn,
lobster etc.
FLUID FEEDING
Fluid feeding is a method of feeding adopted by some animals which involve feeding on fluid material
from plant (nectar) or blood of animals or man. They have special mouth parts for piercing the skin of
their prey e.g. mosquito. Other insects such as aphids feed on the sap of plant whose mouth part is for
piercing and sucking. Some larger animals such as bees, butterfly and humming birds suck the nectar of
flowers.

CLASS WORK

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ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the following mode of nutrition
i. Commensalism ii. Parasitism iii. Symbiotic iv. Holozoic
2 Explain i. Fluid feeding ii. Filter feeding
WEEK NINE
TOPIC: GROWTH
LESSON ONE:
Growth is defined as an irreversible or permanent increase in volume, size, and number of parts, length
and weight of an organism. it is an organic process which takes sometimes to accomplish.
The three processes involve in growth are
1. Cell division:-is a process by which cell increases in number and is achieved by cell division called
mitosis. The synthesis of new protoplasm leading to the doubling of the chromosomes number in a
process called replication before cell actually divide into two, with each daughter cell having the
same chromosome as parent cell.
2. Cell enlargement:- This is a process after cell division in which the daughter cell absorb nutrients
from their surrounding which it uses to increase in mass and size. Part of the nutrient is used to
generate energy while the remaining is assimilated resulting in enlargement of the cells.
3. Cell differentiation- This process takes place after cell enlargement in which each cell develop into
a special type of cell by changing its shape and structure in order to carryout growth, a specialized
or particular function.

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

MITOSIS
Mitosis is a division of cell which produces two identical cells with the same number of chromosomes
and characteristics as those of the parent cell. Mitosis is a cell division that lead to growth and it occurs
in somatic cell (body cells) such as skin, bone marrow, lymph nodes and injured places and
meristimatic tissues of plant.
Mitosis occurs in five stages
1. Interphase- This is a resting stage of the cell: At this stage, the cell has normal appearance of non-
dividing cell condition. Chromosomes are not clearly visible.
2. Prophase- The chromosomes become visible as chromatin threads. The chromosomes become
shorter, thicker and clearly visible. Each chromosome now forms two district chromatids joined by
a centromeres.
Nucleolus is gradually disappearing and formation of spindle fibres commence.

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3. Metaphase- At metaphase the chromosomes (now parried) called chromatids arranged themselves
along the equator or middle of the spindle. The chromatids are attached to the spindle by
centrometre.

4. Anaphase- The chromatids of each chromosome separate. The start migrating to the poles of the
cell by elongation of the spindle axis. The chromatids eventually reach the pole.

5. Telophase (cytokinesis)- The cell starts dividing into two by line of division at the equator. The
chromosome loses their thick appearance and the nuclear material, nucleus and nuclear
membrane reformed. The spindle structure disappears and the cell split completely into two
daughter cells having the same condition as interphase. The division of the cell at telophase
into daughter cells is called cytokinesis

Importance or role of mitosis

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1. Mitosis promotes growth

2. It involves or serves as basis of asexual reproduction, e.g fission, budding, and spore formation.
3. It aids the repair of tissues within organisms.
4. It transfers the exact genetic code from parents to offspring.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a two successive cell division with only one duplication of chromosomes. Four daughter cells
are produce in meiosis. Meiosis is a reduction in cell division and the resulting four daughter cells are
haploid.
Stages of Meiosis
1. 1st meiotic division: when the parent cell splits into two
2. 2nd meiotic division: when the products the divide again giving a total of four daughter cells.
1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION OR REDUCTION DIVISION
1. Interphase: this is the resting stage of the cell. At this stage the chromosomes are not seen.
2. Prophase 1: This is divided into three phase:
a. Early prophase: at this stage the chromosome contract, becoming more clearly visible and
the nucleus shrinks
b. Mid prophase: the homologous chromosomes comes together (synapses) forming a
bivalent.
c. Late prophase: during this stage each chromosome is seen to consist of a pair of
chromatid. At prophase 1, crossing overtakes place. The points on the chromosomes
where taking over takes place are known as chiasmata. (chiasma).
3. Metaphase 1: during metaphase 1, the nucleus membrane disappear and spindle is formed. The
bivalents (chromosomes) assemble is formed. The bivalents (chromosomes) assemble at the
equatorial region of the spindle.
4. Anaphase 1: at this stage, the bivalents separate completely and each member chromosomes
moves to the opposite pole of the spindle.
5. Telophase 1: This stage produces two daughter cells with chromosome number, halved as in the
parent cells.
2ND MEIOTIC DIVISION
1. Prophase II: The two daughter cells prepare fot h second meiotic division. Hence, the centrioles
have replicated and a new spindle is forms
2. Metaphase II: The chromosome arrange themselves on the spindle in the usual way. The
chromosomes appear doubled and the centromere starts to divide in the position of the equatorial
plane
3. Anaphase II: Each chromosome finally splits into two. The actual chromosomal division takes place
at anaphase II and each one moves to opposite poles of the cells
4. Telophase II: The two cells are divided into four which is tetrad. The four haploid cells are produced
from the original diploid mother cell.
IMPORTANCE OR ROLES OF MEIOSIS
1. Its aids the formation of sperms or male gametes in animals
2. It aids the formation of oval (eggs) or female gametes in animals
3. Its aids the formation of pollen grains in anthers of flowering plants.
4. It also aids the formation of ovules in the ovary of flowering plants

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Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
1. Nucleus divides only once Nucleus divides into two
2. Crossing over never occurs Crossing over occurs/exchange of genetic
materials

3. Daughter cells is identical to parent cell Daughter cells generally different from
parent cell
4. Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in reproductive cells
5. occurs in asexual reproduction Occurs in sexual reproduction

Aspect of Growth
Growth does not occur any how in all parts of the plant. It takes place in certain tissue and places in a
plant bodies. The tissue where growth takes place plant is called meristem or meristematic tissue. A
meristem is a tissue that retains their ability to divide by mitosis and turn out new cells. Such
meristematic tissues include root apex, stem or shoot apex base or internodes and vascular cambium.
Growth which occurs in the apical stem and root meristem is called apical growth while growth which
occurs .at meristem base of internodes is called auxiliary growth

CLASS WORK
Explain (i) Cell division
(ii) Cell enlargement
(iii) Cell differentiation

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LESSON TWO
TOPIC: Regulation of growth by Hormones
Hormones or chemical or biochemical substances produced in small quantity by cell of the body of
plant and animal that has profound effect on other part of their body where they are needed for some
form of growth
Plant hormones are produced only at the growing parts such as apical meristem of shoot or root i.e.
shoot tip or root tip and transported to other part by diffusion.
Examples of plant hormones are auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, abscissic acid and florigens. Plant
hormones help plant in the following ways.
i. It promotes stem elongation
ii. It makes plant to respond to tropism
iii. It causes root and stem apical division
iv. It causes fruit growth and ripening
v. It causes flower bud and lateral root initiation
Animal Hormones
In animal, hormones are produced in ductless glands called endocrine system and release straight to
the blood stream which transport them to the target organ. Animal hormones include the following

GLANDS SITE HORMONE

1. Pituitary gland base of head Pituitrin
2. Thyroid gland Neck Thyroxine
3. Parathyroid Neck Parathormone
4. Pancreas Loop of duodenum Insulin
5. Adrenal gland Top of each kidney Adrenaline
6. Testes Testes Testosterone
7. Ovaries Ovaries Progesterone

FUNCTION OF ANIMAL HORMONE

i. It controls body metabolism
ii. It promotes growth of the animal
iii. It induces or stimulates reproduction

IRRITABILITY
Irritability is the ability of an organism to perceive and respond to changes in internal and external
environment or stimuli. Stimulus is a change in condition which produces a change in the activities of
the organism or part of its body. A stimulus can either be external or internal. External stimuli are

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those environmental factors that evoke response. Organisms respond to stimulus in three ways namely
tactic, nastic and trophic response.
Tactic Response or taxis is a directional type of response or movement in which the whole organism
moves from one place to another in response to external stimulus such as light, temperature, water or
certain chemical. The response is thus said to directional and positive if the organism moves towards
the stimulus or it is negative if it moves away from the stimulus.
- Phototaxis is the response to variation in light intensity
- Chemotaxis is the response to variation in concentration of chemical substance
Nastic Response or Nastism: This is a type of response in which a part of a plant moves in response to
non-directional stimulus such as changes in light intensity, temperature and humidity. Nastic responses
are usually described according to the stimulus evoking them.
- Nyctinasty is a response to changing in day and night condition (temperature) or light e.g. the
opening of the petals of sun flower in the light and closes in the dark
- The closing of the morning glory flower when light intensity is low
- Haptonasty is the response due to contact or touch
- The infolding of the leaflet of mimosa plant when touched.
The closing of leaflet of flamboyant tree.
Tropic response or tropism: This is a type of response in which a part of a plant moves in response to
directional stimulus.
Tropism are growth movement named according to the stimulus e.g. phototropism, hydrotropism,
chemotropism, haptotropism or thigmotropism, geotropism.
Phototropism is the growth movement in response to light, thus the direction of growth movement
depends on the direction of light. The shoot of plant is positively phototropic.
Geotropism: This is a response to gravitational force the shoot of plant is negatively geotropic while
the root is positively geotropic.
Chemotropism is the response of plant to concentration of chemical substance e.g. roots respond
positively to the presence of salt, particularly salt of calcium but negatively to alkaline or acid.
Haptrotropism /(Thigmotropism) is a response of plant to contact and is characteristic of tendrils and
other organs by which the plant secures support. Tendrils show positive response to touch by twinkling
around a support while roots on the other hand show a negative response to touch by growing away
from stones.

MOVEMENT
Movement is the ability of living organisms to move from one place to another.
Reasons for Movement
i. To search for food
ii To escape from danger
iii. To respond to stimulus either positively or negatively
iv. For the sake of reproduction

CYCLOSIS
Cyclosis or cytoplasmic streaming: This is the mass rotational streaming or movement of the
cytoplasm and its contents in cells with the vacuole. In some cases, the streaming may be restricted to

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a particular region or the cell while at times the whole cytoplasm is subjected to cyclical movement of
the cell.

S/N Organisms Organelles for Mechanism of movement

movement
1. Amoeba Pseudopodia Cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis)
2. Paramecium Cilia Beating the cilia against water
3. Euglena Flagellum Lashing movement of flagellum
4. Hydra Tentacles Swimming, swaying, hopping and
somersaulting
5. Earthworm Chaetae Crawling
6. Fishes Fins Swimming
7. Toad and frog Limbs Hopping

Class work
1. What is hormones?

2. List there examples of plant hormones

ASSIGNMET
1. In a tabular form, distinguish between tropic movements and nastic movement
2. Describe the main stage of mitotic division.

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WEEK TEN DATE :

TOPIC: REPRODUCTION

MEANING AND TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the ability of an organism to give rise to new individuals of the same species in order to
ensure continuity of life.
There are two types of reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction
a. Asexual Reproduction: is the process whereby an organism produces an offspring by itself. I.e. only
one parent is presence. No gametes involved thus there is no fusion of nuclei, but the cells that give
rise to the offspring usually divide by means of mitosis. Offspring produced are identical to the
parent in all respect and are called clones
b. Sexual Reproduction: is a type of reproduction that involves two parents and the fusion of the
male and the female gamete to form a zygote. Offspring produced show new variation. The sex
cells (gametes) are produced by meiotic cell division and after fertilization the new individual
continue to grow and produce new cells by mitosis.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Binary Fission: Fission is the simplest form and involves the division of a single organism into two
complete organisms, each identical to the other and to the parent. Fission is common among
unicellular organisms such as bacteria, many protists and some algae.
2. Budding: The parent organism develops an outgrowth which subsequently forms the new
individual organism. These buds break off from the parent without causing any injury and live an
independent life. Budding is common in yeast and hydra
3. Spore Formation: Spores are DNA-containing capsules capable of sprouting into new organisms;
unlike most seeds, spores are produced without sexual union of gametes, when dispersed, each
spore is capable of developing into a new organism. Spores are common in lower organisms
especially fungi such as rhizopus and penicillum.
4. Fragmentation: A part of the parent organism breaks up and develops into a new independent
organism. This type of reproduction is also called regeneration. Fragmentation is common in
spirogyra and coelenterates.
5. Vegetative Propagation: It occurs in higher plants. In this process, a new plant grows from any
portion of an old one other than the seeds. There are two methods of vegetative propagation, this
include natural and artificial vegetative propagations.
a. Natural vegetative propagation involves the use of vegetative parts such as stems, leaves,
roots or buds. The part involved must have a store of food and sometimes able to act as a
perennating organ i. e. enable the plant to survive from one growing season to the next.

Organs of vegetative propagation include;

1. Bulbil: Axillary buds growing from the veins of leaves e. g. Bryophyllum and Begonia.
2. Runners or stolons: Stems that creep horizontally on soil surface. Buds and adventitious roots
develop from the nodes of the parent plants e. g. sweet potato, grass.

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3. Rhizomes: Underground horizontal stem. It has scaly leaves which cover lateral buds at the nodes.
Lateral buds grow into new aerial shoots e. g. ginger, canna lily.
4. Corms: Underground stems which grow vertically in the soil. Buds develop from the axils of scale
leaves, grow upward and form leaves and flowers e. g. cocoyam.
5. Stem tubers: Underground stems which have swollen tips. Axillary buds on tubers give rise to new
aerial shoots e. g. yam, sweet potato
6. Suckers: Short underground horizontal branches e. g. banana, pineapple
7. Bulb: Underground condensed shoots with compressed stems and scaly leaves e. g. onion, garlic.

b. Artificial propagation is the use of parts of the parent plant to multiply the plants. Budding,
grafting, layering, cutting and marcotting are types of artificial propagation.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction which involves the fussion of the male gametes and
the female gametes to form a zygote which later develops to young offspring’s. In other words, in
sexual reproduction, offspring are produced by fusion of two different sex cells (gametes) which usually
comes from two differentparents.
There are two types of sexual reproduction, this include conjugation and fusion of gametes.
a. Conjugation: the simplest form of sexual reproduction, as contrasted with asexual reproduction.
This is observed in some unicellular organisms e. g. paramecium, fungi e. g. rhizopus, algae e. g.
spirogyra. Two similar organisms (conjugants) join together and exchange genetic material
contained in their nuclei. After the exchange, the organisms separate. The zygote or zygosphere
form is capable of developing into a new organism.
b. Fusion of Gametes: This occurs in higher organisms where gametes (male and female sex cells)
are produced in special structures by a process known as gametogenesis which involves meiotic
cell divisions.
Fertilization the process in which haploid male and female sex cells fuse together to producing a
single diploid cell (zygote) that develops into an adult organism occurs after gamatogenesis.

Advantages of sexual reproductions

1. It permits variability of individuals
2. It enhances survival in a new or changing environment
3. It allows for the production of hybrids for some desirable traits
4. It provides the means for the maintenance of chromosome number from generation to
generation.
5. It enhance speciation or formation of new species and allows for the continuity of the species.

CLASS WORK
1. Bacteria multiply rapidly by A. fragmentation B. binary fission C. spore formation D.
budding
2. The type of reproduction that is common to both Hydra and Yeast is A. conjugation
B. binary fission C. grafting D. budding
3. During asexual reproduction in paramecium, how many times does the zygote divide to produce
eight nuclei A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

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4. Vegetative propagation is described asexual reproduction because A. reproductive organs are

not involved B. many new plants are produced C. there is no exchange of genetic materials
D. new individuals are not formed
5. Which of these organs of vegetative propagation is not a perennating organ? A. Rhizome B.
Sucker C. Bulbil D. Bulb

THEORY
Define spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

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