Introduction

The goal of this research-through-creation project is to discover processes, creative decisions,

considerations and t e c h n i q u e s t h a t facilitate the writing of a science fiction screenplay in relation to an

existing futuristic phenomenon and the social and moral debate around it. The creative project at t h e h e a r t o f this

research is the writing of a science fiction TV series pilot screenplay that deals with the subject matter of human

enhancement: a developing technological d o m a i n t h a t d e a l s w i t h m o d i f y i n g a n d / o r a u g m e n t i n g h u m a n

capabilities and functions. s u c h a s the cognitive, physical, health-related and/or emotional abilities a n d t r a i t s o f

t h e h u m a n b e i n g . T h e r e i s a t u r h u l e n t m o r a l an d s o c i a l d e b a t e around human enhancement technology

regarding its potential t h r e a t t o ni soci et y and human nature on the one hand, and the merits and even the

necessity of such technologies to h u m a n i t y o n ( h e o t h e r (Bostrom and Savulescu, 2009).

The science fiction genre has a very important role in helping society to understand, frame and discuss how the world

can and should be in face of today's rapidly changing world and the present and f u t u r e evolvement of

technologies that can change life, society and humanity, like human enhancement. Historian and futurist Yuval

Noah Harari writes:

"At the beginning of the 21st century, the most important artistic genre is

science fiction. Few are the people who read academic articles about

Artificial Intelligence or genetic engineering. Movies like The Matrix' and

TV series like Vestworld' and 'Black Mirror' are shaping the way most

people think about the important technological, economic and social

developments of our time" ("21 lessons about the 21st Century", p. 246,

translated from Hebrew)

According to Noah Harari, this places a responsibility on the shoulders of science fiction

writers to represent the real issues and threats that technological advances present, and not

to plant the wrong ideas or steer attention to secondary issues. In his eyes most of science

fiction does not live up to this responsibility:

 "Science fiction is occupied with the possibility of war between robots and
people, w h i l e w h a t s h o u l d r e a l l y bother us is a struggle between an
algorithm-enhanced super-human elite and a lower class of weakened
'homo sapiens'." (p.247)

So, Yuval N o a h Harari thinks there ought to be science fiction stories about h u m a n e n h a n c e m e n t a n d i t s

social consequences.

T h e m a j o r c r e a t i v e product of this creation-as-research endeavor is a TV pilot screenplay called "Trans-1 I". which

tells the story of life in a time when people are b e g i n n i n g t o b e able to purchase enhanced capabilities. In fact,

there is more than one creative piece — another, earlier pilot screenplay called "California Republic" and an

intermediate series synopsis called "California Nation". The research follows the progression of the work from the first

attempt to the final one, the creative decisions made, the writing and the re-writing, the studying of the knowledge

a b o u t h u m a n e n h a n c e m e n t , science fiction theory and of other films, series and novels, and h o w t h i s n e w l y

gained knowledge has affected the writing. The insights gained from this process and t h e reflection upon it are

offered as conclusions and g u i d e l i n e s to the i n i t i a l question of how to dramatize a futuristic debate into a science

fiction screenplay. This is not a conventional academic dissertation. It uses the unorthodox yet growing use of

research-through-creation or creation-as-research ( o r practice-led research, Green, 2006). Haseman (2006) called

this "performative research". Skains ( 2 0 1 8 ) c l a i m s t h a t practice- led research has been very common in

engineering, medicine and design, and lately has started to evolve as a research method in creative w r i t i n g . She

describes the essence of practice-led research as:

"Practice related researchers push this examination [the study of art, e.b.m] into a more direct and intimate sphere,

observing and analyzing themselves as they engage in the act of creation, rather than relying solely on the dissection of

art after the fact." (Skains, 2018, p. 84)

Mayers (2016) has described how the f i e l d o f cre at iv e wr it in g research has evolved considerably in t h e

decade prior t o h i s publication, with more writers -researchers publishing articles, emergence of new d o c t o r a l

p r o g r a m s in creative writing, the foundation

of associations and dedicated journals and the publication of several books which solidified the foundations of the

field. One of those books is Jane Wcbb's "Researching Creative Writing" (2015), where she presents a

conceptualization of what can be the goal of research-through-creation:

"In the best cases, writer-researchers will deliver a fine piece of writing, an improved understanding about

some aspect of professional creative practice and a new way of seeing the world" (quoted in Hedengren,

2016)

One of the more common methodologies for conducting research-through-creation is the use of reflective

research (Green, 2006; Skains, 2018). Alvesson & Skoldberg (2000) define reflective research as

interpreting one's own suppositions and subjecting one's own assumptions to critical review. The subjects of

the reflection process could be practices. assumptions, conceptualizations, considerations and decisions. The

reflective research of the artist tries to capture the internal process of creating, which is always unique and

non- recurrent, and difficult to approach from the outside by other research methods.

There are probably over a hundred doctoral programs in creative writing today, among which are those

offered by high ranking institutions such as Cornell University, University of Southern California, King's College

of London, University of Edinburgh, University of Melbourne and more.

Creative writing dissertations are usually composed of two complementing components: a creative piece and a

critical essay. The relations between the two parts are usually decided by the logic and the rationale of the

project and the research. The critical essay should not stand on its own and must gain its meaning from its

relation to the creative work. The creative piece should, of course, have value as a work of art

regardless of any further explanations or interpretations. However, when it is part of a practice-led

research, it is valued also for the insights and the learning that can be gained through it. Hence, reading the

critical essay should also shed light on other layers of meaning that the creative piece offers, such as

evaluating creative decisions and techniques used in the writing, and understanding the work in its creative

context and in the context of the larger theoretical study that took place.
The structure and order of this dissertation is as follows:

Part 1 of the doctorate reviews the subject of human enhancement. It includes a review of the existing

technology, the types of technology that can emerge. a brief review of the history of human

enhancement and some evidence from science fiction and other sources to the interest that the subject

creates. It then finishes NA i t h a r e v i e w o f t h e m o r a l a n d o e i lt 1 questions and debate about the subject.

Part 2 studies science fiction theory. It starts with looking at the major definitions, characteristics

and impact of the genre, then covers theory and knowledge about science fiction writing and reviews some of

the more known science fiction creations that deal with human enhancement i n literature, film and TV (with a

slightly greater emphasis on film and TV, since they are the result of screenwriting and similar i n m e d i u m

t o this project) and then reviewing the current science fiction TV landscape.

Part 3 delves into the creative process. following i t m o r e o r l e s s c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y f r o m t h e emergence

of the idea to write a b o u t h u m a n e n h a n c e m e n t , t h r o u g h t o t h e wr i t i n g of the different drafts. Part

3 is written i n a multi-perspective way, combining description of decisions, thoughts and products of the

creative writing process, along with reflection on insights, self-evaluation, auto-criticism and interpretation.

It uses evaluations from o u t e r sources and offers a conceptualization about science fiction writing in

the line of this creative process.

The creative pieces are presented after the critical essay in the chronological order of their creation - w i t h

t h e f i r s t pilot screenplay going first, the intermediate series synopsis second and the f i n a l p i l o t screenplay

third.

This dissertation has a structure because it must have one. However, reading it can be done in a different order

than the one presented. It is possible to "jump over" and begin straight with the screenplays, reading the last

screenplay first or otherwise. I would recommend reading the screenplays either before reading the essay,

or stop reading the essay before part 3 (or on the points in part 3 where I suggest reading the

screenplays), then read the screenplays and only afterwards c o n t i n u e r e a d i n g p a r t 3 about the creative

process.
The order in which the doctorate is arranged is not the order it was written, and it is not the order of the actual

process. The meeting point of art creation and research is difficult to represent linearly because of the nature of

the creation. Shklovsky (cited by Bordwell, 1991) referred to the creation of art as the knight's move in chess,

which is the only piece that does not move in a linear way and can jump o v e r o t h e r pieces. If you wished to try and read

it similarly to how it took place in the entire research -through-creation process, it wo u ld go ro ugh ly lik e t h is:

1. T h e b e g i n n i n g o f p a r t 3 a b o u t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f the idea

2. Some of part 1 — to learn a l i t t l e a b o u t human enhancement

3. "California Republic" screenplay (the first pilot)

4. Review and self-evaluation of the first screenplay (part 3)

5. A little more reading about h u m a n e n h a n c e m e n t (part 1)

6. Analyzing science fiction TV shows (the end of part 2)

7. Learning about science fiction (part 2)

8. "California Nation" synopsis

9. Review and self-evaluation of the synopsis (part 3)

10. More st udy abo ut science fiction theory, and especially about writ ing (part 2)

11. Learning more about human enhancement and more about the debate (part 1)

12. Reading the part about "lateral work" in the creative process (part 3)

13. "Trans-H" screenplay

14. Review of the screenplay

15. Conclusions

So, the process of creative wr i t i n g research is very dynamic and involves a lot of moves

between w rit in g, ev a luat i ng, reflecting, studying, conceptualizing, an d all these steps

"feed" and influence each other. This will be discussed further in part 3.

Throughout the parts of the essay I try to briefly explain why every chapter was important

for the writing process or at least for the research.

E x t end ed i nt r o d u ct io n: r esea r ch

a p p r o a c h a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l framework

Th e r e s e a rch q u e st io n an d it s un d e r ly ing di sc i plin ar y a ss u m pt ion s

The main question that this work is tr■„ ing to answer is what is the creative process (creative decisions,

considerations, challenges, conceptual framework) involved in writing a science fiction TV series about a morally,

psychologically, philosophically and socially charged technological subject - in t h i s case, the technological

domain of human enhancement.

However, the question and its answers are applicable to the dramatic treatment of other emerging technologies

and can serve as insights and guidelines that can help writers and researchers of science fiction.

At its core the research question is ro ut e d i n t h e f i e ld of creative writing research (Alvesson & Skoldberg, 20(X);

Dawson, 2004; Smith & Dean, 2009; Webb, 2015; Brien, 2006; Green, 2006; Haseman, 2006; Haseman & Mate,

2009; Skains, 2018; Sullivan, 2009) a n d i t s s u b - field of the research of screenwriting (Baker, 2013,

2015; Batty et al, 2019; McAulay, 20 1 7: Ma t h ew s, 2018). H ow e v er, the assumptions underlying this question

and its potential contribution crosses the boundaries of creative writing research:

• The social role and impact of the TV series medium in current days and culture, and especially of

science fiction (which will answer why using the TV series m e d i u m f o r this research).

• The research of science fiction as a genre and as a narrative art.

• Philosophy in the narrative arts.

• Screenwriting.

This document will review the above-mentioned disciplines in relation to the research

question, describe in more detail the methodology of creative writing research (with an
emphasis on screenwriting research) and discuss the conclusions and their possible contribution to the

different disciplines t h at t h is research is related to. The discipline of screenwriting will be addressed, as part

of the chapter about creative writing research.

An important note: This research is the meeting point of several perspectives and disciplines. As

mentioned, it is primarily a research into the creative writing process, but it corresponds and draws i t s

a s s u m p t i o n s f r o m several fields of research and schools of thought.

One implication of the above-mentioned note is that the way most of the disciplines are related to the

research is by looking at them from the different perspectives that the meeting of disciplines allows. For example:

The contribution to the research of the science fiction genre is done by viewing the genre not from the

conventional perspective of analyzing the completed work, but f rom t h e persp ect ive of the process of creating

a science fiction story and how the concepts that are used to research science fiction as a work of art (such as

the "novum", Suv in, 1979) can be used to write it. The contribution to the philosophical debate about h u m a n

enhancement is not d o n e w i t h t h e u s e o f conventional philosophical t o o ls , but through expressing this

debate using dramatic and screenwriting tools and translating it to the form of a TV series screenplay.

A second implication is that this research creates its own unique combination of conceptual system or "space". not

"following" or "continuing" any one specific disciplinary discourse and research system, but rather "fuses" tools of

creative writing (screenwriting), creative writing research, science fiction, philosophy (of human

enhancement ) i n l i g h t o f the research question and the creative challenge. This is common in the relativ e l y

v o t i n g field of creative writing research, as we will see later in a ch a p t e r about the Creative Writing

Research approach.

Theoretical assumptions to the research approach

It can b e said that the approach to this research draws on assumptions from the post - structuralist view of

the art and society (Bourdieu, 1972, 1984) and from the systems theory philosophy (Laszlo, 1972), such as:
• Artifacts (such as creative works and intellectual products) are created and can be evaluated only i n a

context. In relation to this research, this assumption has two meanings: (a) The use of the science

fiction TV series medium as a creative work is and should be situated i n t h e context of the

contemporary TV series world. The contemporary science fiction world, today's culture and its relation to

technology and the l l i t u r e , audience's expectations, the eco-system of TV series production &

consumption, the current theory of science fiction and so on. (b) The research presented about the

creative process i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s a l s o a c o m p o s i t i o n created in a context (which is the

heterogenic disciplinary origins of it).

• Meanings are the result of underlying conceptual systems. This assumption is central to the entire

research into the creative process in this dissertation, since the central endeavor presented is to elicit a

system for the creation of a science fiction TV screenplay, and assuming that a story is not just a series

of events, but rather a composition that is built on a covert system of constructs (such as theme, premise,

values, genre tropes and conventions, antagonism forces and so on). This approach to storytelling and

screenwriting is evident in screenwriting teacher John Truby's work (2009).

• A system is defined by its components a n d t h e i r inter-relatedness. This notion, drawn from

systems theory (Lazslo, 1972), might be aligned with post-structuralist ideas as well. Its meaning is that

things affect each other in complex ways and the actual phenomena is the p r o d u c t o f t h e s e inter-

relations. This assumption influences this work on three levels: (a) As an approach to creative writing it

places an emphasis on the relationship between the c o m p o n e n t s t h a t a r e a t t h e basis of the s t o r y

( i . e . ) the choices of c h a r a c t e r , obstacles, genre, pace, style, symbols, l o c a t i o n s etc. form a story

through the relations between them). (b) As an approach to t h e research of c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g i t

i m p l i e s l o o k i n g a t the creative process by its relatedness to t h e d i f f e r e n t factors that influence

it (science fiction theory, t h e la n ds ca p e of TV and science fiction TV, the background and psychology

of the writer etc.). (c) As an approach to the study of film a n d T V it places an emphasis o n t h e

int er act ions between creative works, genres, audience and socio-cultural reception the ways a novel, a

film or a series is perceived, understood, interpreted

t o t h e m o r a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a l q u e s t i o n s a n d d i l e m m a s t h a t t h e advancement in human

enhancement technology can incite. (b) Stories can provide philosophy and philosophical thought a "large

scale and holistic simulation" of the philosophical inquiry. When writing a story. the writer creates a

complete system of characters, locations, motivations, events, values, institutions, ecology and so on,

and this could serve as a thought copernicium developing philosophical ideas on a systemic level. The

use of the word "holistic" means that in a story the philosophical issue is not isolated — when

dealing with a moral question, the story can (and even must) refer to the emotions, value systems,

impact on others and so on.

Here is an example from "Trans-H", the screenplay written for this research: One o f th e philosophical

issues of human enhancement is the danger of growing inequality between the enhanced and the non-

enhanced (Noah Harari, 2018). In "Trans-H", a character called Sierra Newman builds a company that

manufactures very expensive implants that can boost cognitive abilities. She claims that the results

of using the implants will provide people with better a b i lit i e s. It will induce them to develop

technologies that will benefit all t h e p e o p l e , l i k e m e d i c a l technologies, improving climate issues

etc. However, one of the consequences of the new industry is having people who cannot afford the

implants feeling they become second-rate citizens. This. in turn. leads to the evolvement of a

pirate industry of cheap implants that people take with risk. When a girl whose parents wanted her not

to be a second-rate person b o u g h t h e r s u c h a n i m p l a n t enters a state of coma — Sierra now has to face

emotions of guilt about a r e a l i t y t h a t emerged as a consequence of her actions. The same event also

raises a demand for heightened regulation over enhanced people and her company. The ability (and even

necessity) to explore all kinds of consequences, dimensions and inter-relations deriving from an issue is a

tool that storytelling, and especially the TV series medium with its wide canvas, can offer.

Fo llo w in g the second point, a more daring claim can be made — tha t un de r c er ta in co n ditio n s

the writin g of a sto ry, espe cially scien ce f ictio n, is i n i t s e l f an act o f philosophical research.

When a writer needs to connect and invent a coherent system that

incorporates events, characters, motivations, emotions, a story w o r l d b u i l t w i t h a n e c o - s y s t e m ,

institutions etc.. the creation of such a system. i f successful in being coherent and related to the theme.

d e m a n d s p h i l o s o p h i c a l reasoning (which is sonletime mscious for the writer and sometimes intuiti \ c mid hard

to explain) and can c o n t r i b u t e i t s r u l e s a n d relations to the philosophy. 'h k w h y m a n y t o r i e s become

the source of philosophical investigation.

One of the contri b u t ions of this dissertation consists in gaining insight into the process of w r i t i n g a s t o ry

th a t i s c r e a t e d w i t h t h e i n t en t i o n o f e x p r e ss in g a n d s i m u l a t i n g a philosophical issue. Derivative

questions can be: How does the study of the philosophy contributes to the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the story (if at

all)? How does the "translation" of a philosophical issue into the form of a TV series screenplay reflect on

the philosophical issue a n d helps look at it differently?

As with the prior disciplines discussed — most of the academic work l i n k i n g between philosophy and

storytelling is done in relation to the completed work of a r t , a n d the perspective of its creation is

relatively missing. Applying the methodology of the creative writing research to this subject can begin to provide

insights and concepts to this aspect.

Creative writing research

Because this research is a c r e a t i v e writing research, and because this is an atypical and relatively new

academic field, it is important to devote a chapter in this document to the development of this f i e l d and i t s

methodologies.

This chapter will refer to:

• The emergence and assumptions of creative writing research, and its academic eco-

system.

• The main research methodologies of creative writing research.

• The screenwriting as a discipline and this research potential contribution to it.

• Screenwriting within the field of creative writing research.

This chapter will provide a needed forward to the next chapter that will elaborate the

methodology of this research.

The paradigm of creative writing research

A t the beginning of th e Introduction thciv is a quote by Skains (2018) that describes the essence and the

goal of c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g research (which is a "practice-led research" approach applied to creative writing ):

"Practice related researchers push this examination [the study of art, e.b.m] into a more direct and intimate

sphere, observing and analyzing themselves as they engage in the act of creation, rather than relying solely on

the dissection of art after the fact." (Skains, 2018, p. 84)

The meaning of this claim is that while most of the academic research i n a r t is based upon the hermeneutic

tradition of interpreting the text by trying to reconstruct the meaning that was in the mind of the creator, and

assuming that the impact of art is the way this meaning is interpreted by the audience of the creation and

through this interpretation triggers a change i n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s m i n d ( S c h le i e r m a c h e r , 1 8 1 9 / 1 9 7 8;

S c h lc i e r m a c h e r i n P a l m c r , 1969; Heidegger, 1950; Gadamer, 1960; Ricoeur, 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 8 1 : B o w i e , 2 0 0 3 )

— hence views the product of art from the outside and as a completed work. tlic creative writing research

seeks to explore the space that exists between Theiler and th e \‘01 . k. In this sense, the creative writing

research aims at completing the hermeneutic tradition with praxis.

The usage of the concept of praxis has grown in the philosophical and intellectual discourse t h r o t i 2 . h t h e

work of Hannah Arendt (1958). Arendt placed a great deal of emphasis on the actions of people and on the

"theory of action" that guides them, meaning the assumptions, interpretations and understanding of the world,

which can be dynamic, that through which t h e person forms an int ention and act s upon it. Arendt, and also

Freire ( 1970), used th is term mainly for political action, referring to the process by which people reach a

perception of the political situation and decide to act upon it to achieve a change. However, the concept of

praxis can be used i n m a n ) d o m a i n s (Lanir, 2013). D r a w i n g o n the works of Arendt and

Freire, the praxis can be shared or discussed, meaning that as a knowledge it is not just a personal knowledge,

but a subject of exploration and discourse. The meaning of the praxis concept also resembles to some extent

Bourdieu's "theory of practice" (Bourdieu, 1972; liourdieu & Wacquant, 1992), by which a person can use

his "practical sense" and methods of reflection to understand the system (or the "game") in which he

operates.

Praxis is a term that combines action and reflection (Freire, 1970). Its development is based on action in

the natural and social world (Scott and Marshal, 2009) and involves a cycle of taking action, reflecting on

both the results and outcomes of the action and the assumptions and understandings that preceded it, then

changing or adjusting those assumptions if needed and using the new understanding to take the next action.

The philosophical term of praxis is very close to terms from cognitive ps .■, chology, such as schema (Piaget,

1923) and heuristics (Simon, 1947; Kahneman & Tversky, 1982). Both these terms refer to the internal

concepts a person holds, which can he explicit or implicit, that he uses to solve problems and make

decisions. The lessons from cognitive psychology suggest that the praxis can evolve in the process of acting and

reflecting ( Kolb, 1983).

Creative writing research (and the entire practice-led research domain) is a field of research that mainly deals with

the praxis of storytelling. This means that it involves action — writing a story, and reflection into the creative

process, combined with an appraisal of the work, to generate knowledge about the creative process in the

context of the creative challenge. The underlying assumption is that the knowledge created through this

methodology can be shared and contribute to other writers and researchers of the creative process. It might

also he valuable to the academic discourse about the subject matter of creation by completing the knowledge

created through the hermeneutic tradition with insights from the praxis of the art (for example: the study of

science fiction can be comprised of the study of completed works and the study of the creative process of a

science fiction story).

Another foundation for creative writing research, that might offer a more unifying approach that relates to

both hermeneutics and praxis, can he found in the Csikszentmihal i system's model of creativity (1996):
Csikszentmihalyi views creativity as occurring i n a system or a context, in which the creative person gains

knowledge of a domain, rearranges connections or concepts in that domain and transmits it back to the domain

(through the mediation of society) and hereby changes it. Applying this systemic model to creative writing research

means that the writer- researcher is not only reflecting on his own mind, but also examines and relates to the

context and the domain in which he operates as an input (how the genre, the eco -system etc. influences his

writing), and at the same time as an output (envisioning the social reception of his work and uses it as a

source in his creation). A similar idea can be found in the "cognitive process model of composition" (Flower &

Hayes, 1981), that suggests looking at the artist's creative process as made of three cognitive elements: (a) The

artist's knowledge of the topic in which he wants to create (genre, subject matter, context, audience etc.). (b)

the ta sk environment. (c) the creative process itself ( p l an n i n g, the actual work etc.). Flower's and Hayes'

model can serve as a framework for accessing the content of the creative writing research' investigation.

The methodology of creative writing research will be discussed in more detail later in the relevant chapter, a n d

i n t h e c h a p t e r d e s c r i b i n g the methodological a p p r o a c h i n t h i s research.

Creative writing research as an academic discipline Creative writing programs have existed in the academy for

a long time, however the discipline of creative writing research as a recognized institutional academic field is

rather young. In the "Creative Writing Research Benchmark Statement" published by the British
national association of writers in education (NAWA) in 2018, it is noted that the first British doctoral candidate in

the field received his doctorate in 1990. The field has grown fast with Harper estimating in 2008 that in the United

Kingdom there are 400 active doctoral students in creative writing research. On the same year Boyd identified

199 completed doctorates in creative writing research in Australia between 1993 -2008. Those numbers don't take into

account the number of doctorates done in the United Stated, which Blight be larger due to the greater number of

universities offering this option.

In mo r e t h an a d e c a d e s in c e , t h e f i e l d h as g ro w n e v e n m o r e, an d t o d a y m o s t o f th e universities in Great Britain

and Australia, many universities in the United States and some in other countries offer doctoral programs in creative writing

research.

Following is a list of a few of these universities, along with links to the descriptions of the p r o g r a m s ( T h e l i s t has

b e en s c r e e n e d t o in c l u d e m a in l y universities which' websites are

more elaborated):
In most cases the creative writing PhD is part of the literature of the language departments, and in some cases, it is linked with

programs o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n and media arts.

In the past creative writing researchers who wanted to publish a r t i c l e s t u r n e d t o j o u r n a l s about literature, culture,

communication and media (which is evident i n t h e bibliography of this work). This is still the case, but in the past decades,

established several academic and peer reviewed journals were dedicated to creative writing research:

https://www.tandfonline.com/loUrmnw20

New Writing: The International Journal for the Practice and Theory of Creative Writing

https://scholarworks.ritecluijcws/

Journal of Creative Writing Studies

https://textjournal.scholasticahq.com/

TEXT: Journal of Writing and Writing Courses

Upon completion of this research, it might find a stage for publication in either one of the above-mentioned journals (who

also cover the research of screenwriting) o r i n j o u r n a l s dedicated to the research of television, film and science fiction.

As a relatively young and emerging field, there have b een several scholars who try to portray its boundaries and

characterize it as an academic and research discipline (Webb, 2015; Donnelly, 2009; Dawson, 2004; Barbazon & Dagli, 2010;

Harper, 2007; Kroll, 2012; M ay er s, 2 0 1 6; Su ya L e e e t al, 2 0 1 6; S mi th & D ean , 2 0 0 9 ) . M u c h o f the pr in ci p a ls

developed through their collective works about the foundations of the field is summed up
in Derek Neal's "Creative writing research benchmark statement" from 2018, done in behalf of NAWA. The

benchmark statement defines the field of creative writing research and provides guidelines to its assumptions and

methodology, as well as guidelines to PhD candidates and supervisors in the field. Here are some of the points

made in the statement:

"The most common mode of Creative Writing research is creative practice.

Creative practice research can include a range of methods, approaches and

styles, including those variously labelled as practice-led research, research-

l ed p ra ct ic e, p ra ct ic e -b as e d r es e ar ch an d p ra ct ic e - as - r es e ar ch. Th e

commonality in all types of creative practice research is that the researcher

produces a creative work. The process of artistic practice and its resulting

output are perceived as contributions to knowledge.

In most higher education institutions in the UK, but not all, creative

practice research also involves the production of a critical investigation and

often a critical, reflective or analytical output. Such outputs can relate to

any aspect of the creative work or process.

Creative practice research en tails research into the process of artistic

production, often called the `creative process', though it may embrace

multiple processes. I n t h i s sense, t h e m ak i n g o f the work itself forms

research into the way that it is composed, and the way it is presented, its

content, form, craft, and technique.

R es e ar ch i s a l so manifest in investigation into contexts related to the

creative practice. This contextual investigation might be historical, cultural

or literary or involve various interdisciplinary investigations. In this way

creative p r a c t i c e r e s e a r c h — the artistic process a n d / o r t h e c r i t i c a l

reflection — can engage with a range of theoretical positions an d

disciplinary areas.

Though varieties of critical research might also be undertaken, creative

practice research primarily uses the act of writing to explore, articulate and

investigate new branches of knowledge and understanding.

Creative practice research can result in critical works, and these can be

connected to, combined with, embedded within, or stand relatively free

from, the practice that informs them. However, there is usually at least a

symbiotic link between the two; they are often in dialogue with one another

and in effect pose questions, which are reciprocally addressed.

The research is often fluid and responsive, the creative writer utilizing

emotional, intellectual or psychological stimuli to shape their work in

mutative ways that may be difficult to plan for or predict.

Creative Writing is not primarily a vehicle for what may be termed 'factual'

knowledge, but a synthesizing process that brings about both knowledge

and emotional awareness through imaginative interpretation and

representation of experience.

The actions of Creative Writing research inherently include investigations

and explorations both in and of creative practice, whereby experience is

transmuted into language."

Methodologies of creative writing research

As described before, the creative writing research attempts to create knowledge on the praxis of the
creative process. The basic modes of research are action (practice) and reflection. Around this
foundation, there could be many variations and methods.

The things that separate the creative writing research from just the practice of creative writing are
(based on Neal, 2018, and Skains, 2018):

1. It is a process that begins with a question or a problem. The question/problem can be about the

creative process itself, the genre, the rules or symbols of the art form, the situation and

circumstances of the writer, an external subject matter that becomes the subject of writing and

more.

2. Throughout the creative-research process there are deliberate actions that are directed at

expanding the knowledge around the question/problem (these might include reflection and/or auto-

documentation, studying, consulting, attending workshops or undergoing specific experiences and more).
 3. The writer-researcher evaluates and interprets data he documented or collected in the course of
the writing (thoughts, insights, intentions, decisions, actions, attempts etc.) in light of the
question/problem.

4. T h e "output" of the work conveys not just the artistic work, but also communicates in some way the
knowledge and insights gained about the question/problem. This can be done in the work itself, but
the convention of the field is the writing of an exegesis or critical essay that accompanies the
creative piece.

Creative writing research "belongs" to the methodological fami 1■, 01 qualitative research.

Flick (2007) characterizes qualitative research as follows:

"...to understand, describe and sometimes explain social phenomena "from the

inside" in a number of different ways:

• By analyzing the experiences of individuals or groups. Experiences can be related

to biographical life histories or to (every day or professional) practices; they may

be addressed by analyzing everyday knowledge, accounts and stories.

• By analyzing interactions and communications in the making. This can be based

on observing or recording practices of interacting and communicating and

analyzing this material.

• By analyzing documents (texts, images, film or music) o r si m i l a r t r a c e s o f

experiences or interactions." (Flick 2007: p. ix)

Creative writing research shares the definition of understanding the phenomena (of creative writing) "from the

inside" and operates by the first (analyzing experience) and the third (analyzing documents) categories

that Flick portrayed.

However, creative writing research is different i n n a t u r e from more traditional types of research and

contains characteristics and limitations that need to be acknowledged. One of v. Ilia i s t h a t t h e c o u r s e

o f research is influenced by the dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e practice the creative process (this is also

true in other practice -led research fields, like in engineering, design, medicine and others). The

creative process isn't linear and cannot be accurately planned at its beginning. Therefore, a research

done around it needs to have a framework that allows for the creative process to take its course,

while being loyal to the

process of generating knowledge that answers the question/problem (the question/problem itself might change

throughout the process).

Such a framework can be found in Kurt Lewin's "action research" (1946) paradigm, which is done by taking "a

spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the

action". Lewin developed this method for social sciences, yet its principles of switching between action and

research (or sense-making) apply nicely to the needs of creative writing research.

Skains (2018) have tried to combine the different elements of creative writing research discussed, along

with Csikszentmihalyi's and Flower's and Hayes' m o d e l s t o f o r m a cohesive framework for creative

writing research:

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Skains uses the term "conduct empirical research" for doing the actual practice of writing combined with

documenting contents that emerge i n t h e cognition of the writer. She advocates including auto-

ethnomethodological methods in the course of the writing - research (such as conducting a writing journal,

and documenting self-remarks), and also a step consisting in evaluating the finished work "from the outside".
A major take-away from Skains' model is its nature as a dynamic process and that even the research question

is revisited and most likely even rephrased throughout the process.

Another methodological model for creative writing re s ea rch i s proposed by Boyd (2009). Boyd also seeks to

adjust the needs of research to the erratic nature of writing. She uses the term "strange loop" proposed by

Hofstadter (1979) to organize the writing -research process. A "strange loop" means a cyclic movement

through various levels, which relate to each other in a tangled hierarchy. Moving in a "strange loop" means

that one can find himself at the starting point again throughout the process and doesn't necessarily know if

his next move is "upwards" or "downwards" and might be both in some senses. The "strange loop" differs

from a spiral by that the "up" and "down" are not clear, and by that it is made from a tangled hierarchy of

levels (for example: in creative writing all the different components from the Csikszentmihalyi's model

co u ld serve as a "level" as the writer "visits" levels of craft, subject matter, theme etc.). Every

"movement" in the loop can be viewed as a cycle that incorporates actions on different levels.

Th e w ay Boyd describes the methodology she proposes is as follows:

Experimentation

Issue! Area
Practice/ of Interest!
Workshop Problem/
Complexity

Writing Fist-
person
Reading research
Survey

Criticism

Scholarly I Creative
output

In a simpler, more linear way, Boyd suggests the following steps in a creative writing
research:
"1. Sp ecif y an area o r areas o f in tere st, pro b lem an d/o r co mplex ity, acknowledging these may

change as a result of the research process

2. State an initial intention of what will be included in the first „loop" of the research (e.g. writing,

reading genre, reading theory, experience, sketching, survey)

3. Conduct the research

4. Add or subtract items in the research " l o o p " . S t e p s 1 - 4 will spiral the

researcher toward a closer understanding of the issue

5. Restate the area or areas of interest, and

6. Reiterate and r e f i n e u n t i l t h e output is complete."

One important emphasis that Boyd suggests over Skains' methodology (which shares many features, and differ

in some aspects and points of view — for example Skains' greater emphasis on the cognitive process of

creation) — is the use of changing but planned actions that the writer takes throughout the process, such as

going to a workshop, reading theory, watching and analyzing other creations etc.

The discipline of screenwriting

A major field that this work could contribute to is the domain of screenwriting teaching and theory.

Screenwriting theory for the most is a professional discipline, not an academic one. There is an abundance of

books, theories, courses, webinars and other instructional materials, which are meant for screenwriters in all

stages of their careers. This knowledge world is targeted at the p u r p o s e o f w r i t in g go o d s c r e e n p l a y s —

w i t h g o o d " usually refers to the commercial value of the screenplay, and sometimes also to its artistic value.

The way this knowledge has been created resembles the two perspectives covered earlier regarding the

research of art and stories: (a) analyzing films and TV series for their attributes and then translating

this observation into an organized theory about how to write a good and/or commercially effective screenplay.

Most of screenwriting theorists who use this approach are not screenwriters themselves (Campbell, 1949; Field,

1979: Hauge, 2006;

Seger, 1987; Vogler, 1992; Truby, 2009). The fact that these story theorists are not screenwriters

themselves does not mean their conceptualizations are any less good than others. it only means they employed

a method of analyzing films, series and screenplays to form their theory (it is important to mention that many

of those theorists have worked extensively as consultants to screenwriters, so most likely have also gained

understanding about the creative process itself — although it is always an "outsider" point of view). (b)

creating the knowledge about storytelling from a personal experience as a writer, coming up \N i t h c o n c e p t s

t h a t t h e s c r e e i m r i f e r used and found helpful. Notable screenwriters - theorists are Snyder (2005), McKee

(1997), Russell (2018), B o r k ( 2 0 1 8 ) , Bonnet (2006).

This method o f creating kno wledge about sto rytelling k s i m i l a r to creative writin g research, only done

not under an academic framework and differs in the way it defines the goal of the work - producing

knowledge that will help writers write better and more sellable screenplays, as opposed to creative writing

research that is aimed at gaining i n s i g h t i n t o the conceptualization of the writing process in relation to

questions that deal with b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g phenomena and processes of a r t . c u l t u r e and creation.

Another rough way to categorize screenwriting theories is by their overall approach to storytelling. There are

two very general approaches: (a) "sequential" story theories that are focused in identifying and portraying the

effective sequence of events that will make the story effective to audiences. The concept of three -act

structure. greatly influenced by Aristotle's "Poetics", is probably the most famous and recognized

"sequential" story t h e o r y . O t h e r story theorists whose work can be described as belonging to this group are

McKcc, Snyder, Field, Vogler and Campbell (the last two are known f o r p r o m o t i n g the "monomyth" approach

to storytelling). (b) "systemic" story theories that are focused more on the internal structure t h a t underlies

beneath the actual step-by-step layout o f the story.

These approaches place greater emphasis on the designing of the story components, like the characters, their

relations, their motivations, the obstacles and the rivalries i n t h e s t o r y , the exploration of the theme, the use

of genre conventions and so on. The approaches of T r u b y , Burk, Russell and Bonnet can be characterized as

such.

These two roughly categorized approaches share one strong basic assumption — that there is an internal

structure to good storytelling that needs to be identified. In this sense, the

majority of the screenwriting theory world is influenced by the structuralist school of thought.

When it conies to writing a TV series the number of dedicated story theories decreases (although with the

growing popularity of this medium this gap is starting to fill up). When considering the applicability of story

approaches to TV series, the "systemic" approach seems to have a clear advantage, since most of the

"sequential" approaches are designed mainly around the length and dynamics of a feature film (or maybe a novel).

A TV series, by nature, is a much longer, more branching story (see for instance a sample of branching narrative

patterns: https://prezi.com/p/vo26wrcsa ax/interactive-storvtelling/ ), not as "tight" and "lean" like t h e f i l m .

I t i s m u c h harder to form a "sequential" approach to current TV series that stretches to seasons. The three-act

structure, for example, or Snyder's "beat sheet", might cover an episode, but the series story of today is less

and less episodical. The "systemic" approach allows for the design of dynamics and "story engines" which can

support a season or more. This could be the reason why out of the notable screenwriting teachers, two who are

also known more than others for their explicit work on TV series storytelling come from a more "systemic"

approach — Truby and Russell.

As I'm screenwriting in science fiction — very few story theorists and teachers have referred directly to writing

science f i c t i o n a n d even fewer to w r i t i n g science fiction TV series. Again, the two that appear in t h I

nich e as well are Truby and Russell.

Therefore, the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f this work to the knowledge world of screenwriting is by broadening the

scarce existing knowledge of science fiction screenwriting, and moreover of science fiction TV screenwriting. It can

also contribute by putting to use some principals of TV screenwriting (mainly by Truby and Russell), and learn about

the use of it in creating the series which is part of this work.

C23

S c r e e n w r i t i n g i n t h e a c a d e m i c c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g r e s e a r c h f i e l d Within the field of creative writing research

exists a niche that deals with screenwriting. Some of the journals of creative writing research have dedicated

issues to screenwriting research: "New Writing: The International Jo u rn al for the Practice and Theory of C r e a t iv e
Writing" (volume 13.1, 2016); "TEXT: Journal of Writing and Writing Courses (volume 19, 2013).

Batty (2016) described that many of the screenwriting research up to that point linked screenwriting to

other subject matters (for example: sociological contexts) and called for more research on the actual

screenwriting work.

Batty and McAulay (2019) define the screenwriting research practice as follows:

"a practice in which the screenwriter makes use of the intellectual space

offered by the academy and those within it to incubate and experiment with

ideas, with the intention that their processes or their screenplays — or

both — change as a result."

The 2013 issue of "TEXT" dedicated to screenwriting published several screenplays that were written as

research. Each of these screenplays was written with an intention to explore the execution of pre-defined goals

and subjects, such as memoirs (Baker, 2013), the news broadcasting m a n i p u l a t i o n t o g r o w a u d i e n c e ( B a t t y .

2 0 1 3 ) , a documentary screenplay exploring concepts of the relations between a person and a place (Davis,

2013), the use of f i c t i o n a l creenwritin`~ in referencing and complementing real events

( B e a t t i e ) , screenwriting exploration of themes associated with white inheritance (Hassal, 2013) and more.

All these screenwriting challenges d i f f e r from plain screenwriting by t h e i r commitment to explore

the creative process (decisions, techniques, the writer's learning throughout the process etc.) which is

related to a subject. It is a deliberate and reflective endeavor initiated with an intention and commitment to

produce both a work of art and ex pan d the kn o wledge o f the creative process and/or the ability of

screenwriting to represent and disseminate ideas from other domains.

The same paradigm is applied to the c r e a t iv e w r i t in g P h D' s in screenwriting. Two examples for

screenwriting doctorates are by McAuley (2017) and Mathews (2018). McAuley is a western screenwriter

who loves Japan and intenk in his creative research to write a screenplay that is "Japanese" and "transnational"

at the same time. Throughout the writing he explored the way his own perceptions and experiences in Japan

i n f l u e n c e d his writing and how he found s o l u t i o n s to use his point of view to make the screenplay be
considered as authentically "Japanese". McAuley's research is about the creative research of a screenwriter in a unique

situation and facing a specific challenge.

Mathews' research is about the professional screenwriting concept of the "character arc". He wrote a romantic comedy

and throughout the writing process tried to understand better the c o n c e p t , put to use and examination the w a y

existing screenwriting theories gave guidance to the character arc. In the writing-research he realized that the way

this concept is presented is not sufficient — and offered definitions and practices to fill this gap.

Reviewing the two doctorates shows the diversity of questions that a creative writing PhD in screenwriting can

cover — in one case a unique writing challenge related to the personal ex perience and situation of the writer, in

the other an exploration into one of the craft's concepts.

The creative challenge o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t o w r i t e a p i l o t screenplay for a science fiction TV series about

the subject of human enhancement.

As Skains (2018) and Boyd (2009) describe in their methodological proposals, there should be an initial research question

that the writer-researcher is interested in exploring which is related to the creative challenge. This question will be

revisited an d might b e refined or rephrased throughout the work.

In this study the initial question was - w h a t i s t h e creative process (creative decisions, considerations, challenges,

conceptual framework) involved ill writing a science fiction TV series about a morally, psychologically, philosophically

and socially charged technological subject.

This question is dealing with a unique writing challenge, yet in itself it is relatively broad and comprehensive (though

not dealing with the entire writing process — but defining an area of exploration within it: the "translation" of a

technological and philosophical subject

matter into a TV series). It can be divided into several sub-questions, some of which were evident at the
get-go and some unveiled throughout the writing process:

• Can a philosophical subject matter serve as an effective trigger to writing a

screenplay?

• How can the study of the technology affect the writing process? What kind of a

study of the technology should be done for the purpose of writing a screenplay?

• How should a science fiction writer treat and work on the representation of the te chn o lo gy in
the screen p la y? What di me n sion s o f the techn o lo gy should be explored and how? Which decisions
and considerations should a science fiction

writer exercise in relation to the technology?

• How can the study of the philosophy affect the writing process?

• How can a science fiction writer represent and dramatize philosophical ideas? How

can philosophy he a source material to screenwriting?

• Should a writer make his own stand on the philosophical debate or should he/she

represent the debate as it is?

• How well should a science fiction writer know the characteristics of the genre?

How does the study and usage of genre conventions, concepts and theories contribute to t h e % . %

w r i t in g ? C an the writing process help to evaluate, redefine or contribute to the theory in science fiction?

Method

T h e r e s e a r c h m e t h o d u s e d d r a w s f r o m b o t h B o y d a n d S k a i n s a n d a d h e r e s t o t h e conventions

of creative writing research. I t c o n s i s t s o f the comb ination of practice (developing and writing a

TV series concept and pilot screenplay) and deliberate steps and actions taken to elicit information or trigger

experience in a way that will help expand knowledge in light of the research question. Those steps and actions

include:

• Ke e pin g a w rit in g jo urn al/o pen tho ughts develo pm en t journ al (which by the end of t h e w o r k

w a s a c t u a l l y 5 d i f f e r e n t f i l e s - f r o m different periods of the project — totaling at nearly 200

pages in Hebrew).
• Taking a Coursera class on writing a TV series pilot screenplay.

• Progressively reading and studying about human enhancement technology and

philosophy.

• Writing a three -part article about human enhancement to an Israeli scientific

website.

• Progressively reading and studying about science fiction theory and writing

guidebooks and taking a TV science fiction writing webinar (by Peter Russell).

• Watching and analyzing several science fiction TV series and movies (the whole

series or parts of it; The series were "Westworld", "The 100", "Akta Maniskor" +
-
Humans", "Black Mirror", "Limitless", "Years and Years", "The Leftovers"; The

movies were "Limitless'', "Lucy", "Elysium", "Upgrade", "Gattaca")

• Reading s c i e n c e f i c t i o n h o o k s , novellas and stories — mainly those that deal with

human enhancement ("Beggars in Spain", 'Odd John'', "Flowers for Algernon",

"Origin" by Dan Brown).

• Taking a n umb e r 0 1 . co n su lt at io n s ab o u t t he s cr e en p l ay — t wo co n ve r sat io n s wi th

screenwriting theorist E r ik B o rk , o n e with Israeli screenwriter Eran Ben-Ya'akov,

and one presentation of a version of the series synopsis at a writers' group of the

Israeli screenwriters' guild.

• O r d e r i n g three screenplay coverages (two for the first version of the screenplay,

and one for the next to last).

• Taking part each year in the S C R I P T A c a d e m y S e s s i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y d ' E v r y P a r i s

Saclay on the Experts of one's research field, on Crisis, ...

• Partici patin g thro ugh SKY - PE in a TTM (Trilingual Transmedia Master) seminar

on Localization and B r a n c h i n g Storytelling with Jean-Luc Vettier (Zero Games),

University of Evry

• Giving a lecture about science fiction storytelling theory at the SCRIPT

A C A D E M Y ( P r of . B r i g it t e Ciauthier's doctoral seminar), University of Evry Paris

Saclay

• Having the screenplay read and receiving feedback at the SCRIPT ACADEMY.
Some of those actions were pre-planned (such as k e e p i n g a journal and studying about human

enhancement a n d science fiction) and some were decided upon t h r o u g h o u t t h e process in different

ph as es. Even the pre-planned actions weren't completely systematic — reading and studying has been done in

different phases, not knowing how the reading will c o n t r i b u t e to writing, and some of the texts were

revisited when it seemed right for the creative process.

The order in which this creative writing research has been conducted resembles the "action research" p a r a d i g m

a n d B o y d ' s u s e o f t h e "strange loops" analogy as a framework for creative writing research. This means that

the factor leading the process is the development and the writing of the creative product, with its ups and downs. A

"layer" of documentation and reflection has been added on top of the writing (for example: the writing journal), and

throughout the writing there were decisions to take actions that were perceived as potential]) h e l p f u l

t o the writing a n d t o the simultaneous understanding of the writing process (for example: sending the

screenplay drafts for professional coverage).

Section 3 of the dissertation ("The creative process") is written as chronologically as possible, following

the development of the creative process and the development of the insights, decisions and considerations

that em erg ed. The final structure of section 3 goes from the emergence of the idea, through writing a first and

unsatisfactory draft, evaluating t h i s draft, going back to ideation and conceiving of the story premise, and

writing the s e c o n d , m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y d r a f t . T h e r e a s o n s f o r d e c i d i n g w h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d

"unsatisfactory" and "satisfactory" are explained and produce the source to many of the insights and

conclusions. Those reasons relate to the entertaining and artistic values of the screenplay, but also to the way

the screenplay represents the subject matter of human enhancement and conveys the theme a r o u n d i t .

Conceptual approach in the research

Another question about the research method is what is the content of the exploration'?

What in the creative process is to be documented and researched?

The approach in this doctorate is influenced by Skains' emphasis on the cognitive process of creativity (also referring to Flower &

Hayes, 1981). This emphasis directs the research to the following questions:

• What are the main creative decisions in the process?

• What are the considerations guiding those decisions?

• What are the main problems that had to be solved and how they were framed and

handled?

• W h i c h c o n c e p t s o f s c r e e n w r i t i n g a n d s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t i n g w e r e us e d i n th e

process? How did they contribute to the work? Have these concepts received new

meaning or understanding, or turned out to have connections between them in the

process?

• How did the writer conceptualize the creative challen ge an d how did this

conceptualization grow?
Part 1— Human enhancement

Science fiction is a genre which deals with technology (Russell, 2018). The artistic and storytelling

meaning of this point will be detailed extensively in the parts of the thesis which focus on the conventions

of science fiction and the creative writing process, but it is well worth mentioning this pillar of the genre to

begin the chapter. which i s dedicated to the technology underlying this specific creative endeavor. One

statement needs to be made at this point, and it is that the author of science fiction must know his/her

technology. The extent and characteristics of this "knowing" will be elaborated upon later.

The term of "Technology" is referred to here in a broad sense which entails not only the device or devices of a

certain technological family, but also the purpose of the technology, its usage, economical echo-system, and

its moral, social, psychological and p o l i t i c a l implications because there lies its dramatic potential. For

example: A technology s u c h as touch screen cellular phones is interesting for the science fiction writer with all its

qualities, from the engineering to all the ways it impacts or could impact the human condition: inter- p e r o l i a l

r e l a t i o n sh i p , intra-personal experience, economy, governance an d r e g u l a t io n e t c. There is n o q u e s t i o n

that cellular phones changed humanit) \ et i t m i g h t h e a small and insignificant comma in human history

compared to what the emergent technologies of human enhancement possibly have in store for us.

So, with a "what if' science fiction curiosity and a h e a l t h y interest in futuristic technology, this thesis will

now begin exploring the complex concept of human enhancement.

1.1 What is human enhancement?

There are countless ways by which people try to make themselves better. Individual people work out, try to eat

healthy, undertake psychological therapy, and take c lasses o r train in g programs with the goal of expanding or

improving their skills and p e r f o r m a n c e level in all kinds of domains. Those domains are varied and can

range from performing better in

physical appearance, as potential mating partners, in school, in sports, in arts, in business or any other wake of livelihood and

even in morality and well-being.

As a collective, human societies devote considerable resources to the development of drugs, technologies and bio

technologies that enable the entire humanity (or at least their own "clan") to perform better, live longer and healthier,

experience higher standards of living and further continue the development of even more technologies which \\. ill ()1 ve

m o r e problems a n d b e t t e r t h e h u m a n e s t a t e , a c c o r d i n g t o a c c e p t a b l e social s t a n d a r d s o f what "better" means.

C a n a l l o f i t be defined as "human enhancement"? If so, then almost every technology, from the hoe, which enables man

to work his soil more effectively, eyeglasses that improve the sight of the short-sighted, jewelry or perfume, which makes us

more attractive, to the c e l l u l a r p h o n e an d th e In t e r n e t , w h ic h i m p r o v e th e s p e e d b y w h i ch w e a p p r o a c h

information, and prosthesis, which restore injured bodily functions, all of those can be considered human

enhancement. In this case there is nothing much which is special, ethically challenging or "science fiction" about

it. However, reviewing the above - mentioned list again m i g h t highlight one of the items: the prosthesis designed to

repair tla wed b o dily f un ction s. The con cept o f " P r o s t h e s i s " sign if ies bo th a t r e m e n d o u s advancement in medical

technologies which occurred in the last decades, and a promise for future technologies made from a blend of real

development reported in the media and the imagination of people.

 Image 1.1: Oscar Pistorius uses prosthetic legs to run in the London 2012 Olympic games. The use of

prosthesis was the focal point of the debate around Pistorius' participation in "regular" track competition.

What could the future development of prosthesis body parts enable u s ? A cure for disabled people and for those who suffer

from illness is already a common use in the present (prosthetic legs and arms, artificial hearts, pacemakers, brain implanted

pacemakers that regulate neurotransmitter production in people who suffer from Parkinson's disease — Weaver et al..

2012 - and m u c h m o r e ) . B u t prosthetics does not stop there. Oscar Pistorius' artificial legs did not just help him function

better in day-to-day life, they helped him run faster and become an Olympic athlete. Other prosthetic developments

might start as medical aids but end up enabling healthy people to become "better" or "more", depending on their wishes. For

example, t w o recent developments in brain prosthetic implants designed to help people who suffer from Alzheimer's

disease, have demonstrated a 15 to 30 percent increase in memory functions that are not exclusive to people who suffer from

Alzheimer's disease (Hampson et al., 2018; Ezzyat et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018). The l i n e that separates medical use

from "human enhancement" has been a benchmark for defining "human enhancement", as suggested by Juengst (1998):

" T h e t e r m ' e n h an c e m e n t' i s u su a l l y u s e d in b i o e th i c s t o ch a r a c t e r i z e

interventions designed to i m p r o v e h u m a n form or functioning beyond

what is necessary to sustain or restore good health." (p. 29 )

Even without t h e s u p p o r t o f s c i e n t i f i c data our imagination c a n r u n a n d c o m e up with visions of awesome uses for

f u t u r e prosthetics, like legs combined with jet engines that can help us hover and fly, eyes equipped with the ability to see

through walls, hands so strong, fast and accurate t h a t they can lift the car and change a flat tire i n n o time, and a stomach

which will dissolve all the extra calories we consumed. Science f i c t i o n provided quite a few of those visions of prosthetic

usage along the years, some of which have materialized, some of which are on the way.
Image 1.2: "The six-million-dollar man" is an American TV series which aired between 1974-1978 and is

about an astronaut by the name of Steve Austin, portrayed by Lee Majors, severely injured and restored

with the extensive use of prosthetics. The restoration gave him super-powers which he used to fight

crime. The series is based on the novel "Cyborg" by Martin Caidin (1972). Of course, a similar

restoration

today would probably cost a great deal more than six million dollars.

These kinds of technological possibilities move the discussion into two new areas: First, it opens possibilities for

some "cool stuff', appealing for creators of science fiction who look for technologies they can use in stories to

satisfy their readers' or audience's thirst for these kinds of novelties; And second, it raises a number of ethical

issues, such as: Is it just to use advanced prosthetics beyond the relief of suffering? Where does "relief from

suffering" end? What will be the consequences of having such technologies giving certain people an advantage over

others? We can wonder what would happen it' these technologies will be too expensive for most people, and

therefore affordable only for a few? What is the obligation that someone with - enhanced abilities" carries

for other members of society? These questions will be explored in later chapters.

The point to be made through the discussion about prosthetics is that the concept of human enhancement ranges from

things we consider banal, like hoes, phones and perfumes, to much more advanced technologies, which captivate

the science fictional imagination and raise ethical issues.

The true discussion about human enhancement relates to the latter end of the above, advanced technologies.

It is logical to assume that technologies we now perceive as ordinary were once futuristic and differentiated

people. A farmer who had a hoe must have had some sort of an advantage over his fellow farmer not in possession of

this technology, who might have witnessed his colleague with amazement using this odd thing and getting things done

much faster and more efficiently. However, two major characteristics make futuristic human enhancement

technologies a whole different story:

They hold a promise to not only "complement" humane capabilities, as prior technologies did, but to intervene

in the evolution of humane kind and create a person who is not confined to his biology or to the regular pace of

natural selection.

ii. As opposed to prior technologies, whose distribution has been accelerated for economic reasons (for

example — the phone), the validity of the same expanding mechanism could be in question when the

technology which will promise superior capabilities will be available. The developers of phones wanted everyone

to buy one. The inventor of the "superhuman" might possess a different desire which will be contrary to everybody

becoming as powerful as him.

So, when we come to talk, discuss or write about human enhancement, we refer to the chunk of it that deals

with biological, genetic, electronic or other non-natural and non- organic interventions or technologies which c a n

i m p r o v e the abilities o f t h e h u m a n c r e a t u r e well beyond what it is currently capable of.

Several definitions have been offered for this concept. One of the most common of these has been proposed by

James Hughes (2004):

"[A]ny attempt to temporarily or permanently overcome the current limitations of the human body through
natural or artificial means. It is the use of technological means to select or alter human characteristics and
capacities, whether or not the alteration results in characteristics and capacities that lie beyond the existing
human range"
1.2 Three types of human enhancement technologies

The current interventions and the research and development in the field o f h u m a n enhancement revolves

around three major categories:

i. Genetic interventions. This type of enhancement strategy includes ancient practices as the banning of

interracial marriage and mating individuals with perceived higher genetic attributes, and newer phenomena like

embryo selection, DNA editing and genetic therapy.

ii. Biochemical interventions. This type of enhancement refers to the usage of drugs and chemical

substances for the improvement of human performance and abilities.

The use of Anabolic Steroids to enhance athletic performance is one of the known p h e n o m e n a i n t h i s

category. A second common and growing "trend" is the consumption of "Nootropics", drugs that are

presumed to enhance concentration and cognitive abilities.

iii. Man-Machine interconnectedness. The last major category of human enhancement technologies

deals with connecting machines and their current and speculated advantages over the human body to people,

creating what is usually referred to as "Cyborgs". This category can be quite wide, covering all kinds of present

and future prosthetics, tDCS technology, brain implants, and in the future even the complete merging of

mind and computer.

1.2.1 Genetic enhancement

on Jul \ 1933 t h e G e r m a n N a z i g o v e r n m e n t e n a c t e d t h e l a w f o r the prevention of hereditarily

diseased offspring, which allowed the forced sterilization of anyone carrying a supposedly hereditary disease

(Proctor, 1988). This was the first among several eugenic laws and projects enacted by the Nazis, incorporating

a rigorous approach to public health and, of course, a desire for an ideal Aryan society created by

genetics and designed reproduction. In September 1935 the Nuremberg laws were enacted as well, including the

law for the protection of German blood and honor, which restricted, among other articles, marriage between Jews

and citizens of the German Reich (Freidlander, 2009; Evans, 2005).