Namaste

Basic Electrical Engineering

[BEG129EL]

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
[email protected]
 Chapter 2:
DC Circuits (6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
[email protected]
 Syllabus

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 4

 Curriculum
Chapter 2: DC Circuits(6 hrs)
2.1 Series and Parallel Combination of resistors
2.2 Kirchhoff’s Law and their applications
2.2.1 Mesh Analysis
2.2.2 Nodal Analysis

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 5

 Curriculum
Chapter 2: DC Circuits(6 hrs)
2.1 Series and Parallel Combination of resistors
2.2 Kirchhoff’s Law and their applications
2.2.1 Mesh Analysis
2.2.2 Nodal Analysis

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 6

 Series System
Current Same
Voltage Division

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 7

 Characteristics of Series System
v The same current flows through each resistance.
v The supply voltage V is the sum of the individual voltage drops across the
resistances.
V = V1 + V2 +…. + Vn
v The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
R = R1 + R2 +…. + Rn
v The equivalent resistance is the largest of all the individual resistances.
i.e R > R1 , R >R2, R > Rn
v Power are additive.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 8

 Parallel System
Current Division
Voltage Same

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 9

 Characteristics of Parallel Circuit
v The same potential difference gets across all the resistances in parallel.
v The total current gets divided into the number of paths equal to the number of
resistances in parallel. The total current is always sum of all the individual currents.
I = I1+I2 +I3+ …+In
v The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of
the reciprocal of the individual resistances.
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝑅 𝑅! 𝑅" 𝑅#
v The equivalent resistance is the smallest of all the resistances.
R < R1, R<R2 …, R<Rn
v The equivalent conductance is the arithmetic addition of the individual
conductances.
G = G1+G2 +G3+ …+Gn
v Power are additive.
3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 10
 Series Vs Parallel Circuits

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 11

 Examples
Find Equivalent Resistance Between AB.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 12

 Examples
Find Equivalent Resistance Between 12.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 13

 Examples
Find Equivalent Resistance Between 12.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 14

 Short Circuit
v When any two points in a network are joined directly to each other with a thick
metallic conducting wire, the two points are said to be short circuited.
v The resistance of such short circuit is zero.
v No voltage can exist across it because
V=IR=I*0=0.
v Current through it (called short-circuit current) is very large.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 15

 Open Circuit
v When there is no connection between the two points of a network, having some voltage
across the two points then the two points are said to be open circuited.
v Resistance between the two points is infinite.
v There is no flow of current between the two points

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 16

 Redundant Branches
v Redundant means unwanted or excessive.

Situation 1

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 17

 Redundant Branches
Situation 2: Open Circuits

BC and CD are redundant and meaningless for system.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 18

 Short Circuit in Series

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 19

 Short Circuit in Parallel

ØNot only is R3 short-circuited but both R1 and R2 are also shorted out i.e. short across
one branch means short across all branches.
ØIn second, R2 and R3 are shorted but not R1 which is protected by R4.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 20

 Open Circuit in Series

Whole of the applied voltage is felt across the ‘open’ i.e. across terminals A and B.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 21

 Open Circuit in Parallel

Breaks the circuit; there is no current flow

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 22

Voltage Division in Series Circuit of Resistance

v This Circuit is known as voltage divider circuit.

v The ratio VR1/V is also known as voltage-ratio transfer function.
3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 23
 Find Voltage drop in each resistor?

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 24

 Find Voltage drop in each resistor?

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 25

Current Divider in Parallel Circuit with Resistor

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 26

 Find Current in each resistor?

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 27

 Source transformation

Current Delivered to the load Current Delivered to the load, by current Diver Rule
𝑉 𝑅%'
𝐼$ = 𝐼$ = ∗𝐼
𝑅%& + 𝑅$ 𝑅%' + 𝑅$

Current must be same to be equivalent,

𝑉 𝑅"$
𝐼! = = ∗𝐼
𝑅"# + 𝑅! 𝑅"$ + 𝑅!
3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 28
 Source transformation
𝑉 𝑅"$
𝐼! = = ∗𝐼
𝑅"# + 𝑅! 𝑅"$ + 𝑅!

Let, Internal Resistance be same i.e. Rse = Rsh = R

𝑉 = 𝑅"$ ∗ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅

Similarly,
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 29

 Direction of Equivalent Source

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 30

 Examples

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 31

 Voltage Source in Series

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 32

 Voltage Source in Parallel

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 33

 Current Source in Series

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 34

 Current Source in Parallel

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 35

 Curriculum
Chapter 2: DC Circuits(6 hrs)
2.1 Series and Parallel Combination of resistors
2.2 Kirchhoff’s Law and their applications
2.2.1 Mesh Analysis
2.2.2 Nodal Analysis

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 36

 Kirchhoff's Law
v In 1847, a German Physicist, Kirchhoff, formulated two fundamental laws of electricity.
v Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
v Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
v These laws are of tremendous importance from network simplification point of view.

v Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) v Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

In determining the n g the

a l c u l at i
equivalent resistance For c w ing
e n t s f l o
of a complicated curr
ious
network of conductors. in the var
rs.
conducto

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 37

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law/Point Law
v Kirchhoff's Law is based on the law of conservation of charge.
v Law of conservation of charge postulates that “ Charge is neither created
nor destroyed”.
v Hence, When a charge enters a node in a network must either leave
instantaneously or stored there.
v However, it cannot be stored because the node is an infinitesimal
mathematical point, and the charge possesses a finite mass and size.
Hence, the charge which arrives at a node must leave immediately.
v In term of current, total current entering a node must be equal to total
current leaving the node.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 38

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law/Point Law
Statement
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction)
is zero. Mathematically,
*
) 𝑖( = 0
()!
Where, N is number of branches connected to the node and
ik is kth current entering or leaving the node.

Sign Convention:
v Current entering node is considered positive and leaving one is considered negative.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 39

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law/Point Law

Hence,
The total current leaving a junction is equal to the total current entering that junction.
i.e. incoming currents=outgoing currents
3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 40
 Q. No. 1
Kirchhoff’s law is applicable to
 Kirchhoff’s law is applicable to..?

A. a.c. networks B. d.c. networks

only only

C. Both ac D. passive
and dc networks only
Kirchhoff’s law is applicable to?

C. Both ac
and dc
 Q. No. 2
Kirchhoff’s current law at a junction
deals with?
 Kirchhoff’s current law at a junction
deals with?

A. conservation B. conservation
of energy of momentum

C. conservation
D. conservation
of angular of charge
momentum
Kirchhoff’s current law at a junction
deals with?

D. conservation
of charge
 Q. No. 3
What number of equations will be needed to solve
the network in nodal analysis if there are a total
of N nodes in the circuit?
 What number of equations will be needed to
solve the network in nodal analysis if there are a
total of N nodes in the circuit?

A) N B) N+1

C) N-1 D) 2N
 What number of equations will be needed to
solve the network in nodal analysis if there are a
total of N nodes in the circuit?

C) N-1
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
v Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is based on the law of conservation of energy.
v In a gravitational field, the energy level of a point 1 with respect to point 2 can be found
by moving a unit mass from point 1 to 2 and noting the energy given in the process.
v Similarly, in electrical circuits the energy level of point 1 with respect to point 2 can be
obtained by moving a charge from point 1 to 2 and noting the energy given in the
process.
v The energy one coulomb gives up as it moves from point 1 to point 2 is the same along
any path from 1 to 2.
v Since, the energy last by a coulomb in moving from point 1 to point 2 is independent of
the path, the energy from any round trip must be zero.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 50

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Statement
The algebraic sum of all voltages in any closed path (or mesh) in a network is zero.
Mathematically,
*
) 𝑉+ = 0
()!
Where, M is number of Voltages in the loop.
vp is pth Voltage in the loop.

Also,
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in
any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is
zero.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 51

 Sign Convention in Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
v Sign of Battery E.M.F. v Sign of Voltage Drop

It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across

It is important to note that the sign of the battery a resistor depends on the direction of current
e.m.f. is independent of the direction of the through that resistor but is independent of
current through that branch the polarity of any other source of e.m.f. in
the circuit under consideration.
3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 52
Sign Convention in Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Sign Convention in Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
 Steps for solving Kirchhoff's Law
Step 1 : Draw the circuit diagram from the given information and insert all the values of
sources with appropriate polarities and all the resistances.
Step 2 : Mark all the branch currents with some assumed directions using KCL at various
nodes and junction points. Kept the number of unknown currents minimum as far as possible
to limit the mathematical calculations required to solve them later on. Assumed directions
may be wrong, in such case answer of such current will be mathematically negative which
indicates the correct direction of the current.
Step 3 : Mark all the polarities of voltage drops and rises as per directions of the assumed
branch currents flowing through various branch resistances of the network. This is necessary
for application of KVL to various closed loops.
Step 4: Apply KVL to different closed paths in the network and obtain the corresponding
equations. Each equation must contain some element which is not considered in any previous
equation.
Step 5 : Solve the simultaneous equations for the unknown currents. From these currents
unknown voltages and power consumption in different resistances can be calculated.
What to do if current source exists?
v If there is current source, then the current
distribution is as per current source.
v Don't apply KVL to loop containing current
source as voltage drop across current source
is unknown.
 Example
Apply KCL and KVL
Step 1 and 2 : Draw the circuit with all the values which are same
as the given network. Mark all the branch currents starting from +ve
of any of the source, say +ve of 50 V source.
Step 3 : Mark all the polarities for different voltages across the
resistances.

Step 3 : Apply KVL in the loop

ABEFA −15𝐼! − 20𝐼" + 50 = 0
BCDEB −30(𝐼! −𝐼" ) − 100 + 20𝐼" = 0

Step 4 : On solving,
I1=0.37 A
I2=2.2 A
I1-I2=-1.85 A
Example KCL/KVL
Example KCL/KVL
 Example KCL/KVL
Find VCE and VAG
 Example KCL/KVL
Trace path CE

Trace path CE
 Application of Kirchhoff's Law
vTo Find the values of current, voltage and internal resistance in DC
Circuits.
vBy applying this law, we can find unknown resistance in the circuit.
vIt is used in Mesh and Nodal Analysis.

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 62

 Q. No. 4
What is the unit of electrical current?
 What is the unit of electrical
current?

A) Watt B) Ampere

C) Volt D) Coulomb
What is the unit of electrical
current?

B) Ampere
 Curriculum
Chapter 2: DC Circuits(6 hrs)
2.1 Series and Parallel Combination of resistors
2.2 Kirchhoff’s Law and their applications
2.2.1 Mesh Analysis
2.2.2 Nodal Analysis

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 66

 Mesh Analysis
❖ Mesh analysis is a general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the
circuit variables.
❖ We use mesh analysis to find these Mesh current.
❖ Using mesh current reduces the number of equations.

Loop: It is a closed path with no node passed more than once.

Mesh: It is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

❖ Mesh analysis is not as general as nodal analysis

because it is only applicable to a circuit that is
planar.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 67

 Planar vs Non-Planar Circuit
❖ A circuit is planar if it can be drawn on a flat surface without crossing wires. All the
schematics you have seen up to now are planar. The schematic below on the left is planar.
For planar circuits, we use the Mesh Current Method and write the equations based on
meshes. Mesh Analysis always works for planar circuits.
❖ A non-planar circuit is shown below on the right. It has to be drawn with at least one
crossing wire, meaning it cannot be drawn flat. Since there is no way to redraw the circuit
to avoid a crossing wire, the circuit on the right is non-planar. Mesh Analysis cannot be
used.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 68

 Planar vs Non-Planar Circuit
A non-planar circuit can be solved
by nodal analysis but we will not
deal in this chapter.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 69

 Mesh Analysis Condition
1. Circuit containing only voltage sources
2. Circuit containing current source + Voltage source
i. Current source transformable into voltage source
ii. Current source not transformable into voltage source
a. Current source exists only in one mesh.
b. Current source exists between two mesh

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 70

 Steps to follow for Mesh Analysis
❖ Find the possible number of mesh.
❖ Assume the smallest number of mesh currents so that at least one mesh current links
every element. As a matter of convenience, all mesh currents can be assumed to have
clockwise direction
❖ For each mesh, write KVL equation. When more than one mesh current flows through
an element the algebraic sum of currents should be used. The algebraic sum of mesh
currents may be the sum or the difference of the currents flowing through the element
depending on the direction of mesh currents.
❖ Solve the above equations and from the mesh currents find the branch currents.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 71

 Implementation: Voltage Source Only
Step 1: Identify Mesh
Step 2: Assign mesh current.
Mesh Current: The current through a
mesh is known as mesh current.
Step 3: Apply KVL to mesh.

Applying KVL in mesh 1.

Applying KVL in mesh 2.

Step 4: Solve the equation, we get i1 and i2

Branch Current: I1= i1
I3= i2
I2= i1-i2
5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 72
 Example 1

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 73

 Mesh Analysis With Current Source
Current source transformable into Voltage source

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 74

 Mesh Analysis With Current Source
Current source non-transformable into voltage source
Current source exists only in one mesh.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 75

 Example

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 76

 Mesh Analysis With Current Source
Current source non-transformable into voltage source
Current source exists between two mesh

Super mesh

❖ If the current source is common between,

the two mesh then it form a supermesh.
❖ A supermesh requires the application of
both KCL and KVL to determine the mesh
current.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 77

 Mesh Analysis With Current Source
Current source non-transformable into voltage source
Current source exists between two mesh

Apply KVL at supermesh i.e. I-III

A
Apply KCL at node A i.e common branch

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 78

 Example

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 79

 Properties of Supermesh
❖ A supermesh requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
❖ A supermesh has no current of its own.
❖ The current source inside the supermesh provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the mesh currents.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 80

 Find i2?

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 81

 Example.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 82

 Find i and v0?

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 83

 Find v1?

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 84

 Curriculum
Chapter 2: DC Circuits(6 hrs)
2.1 Series and Parallel Combination of resistors
2.2 Kirchhoff’s Law and their applications
2.2.1 Mesh Analysis
2.2.2 Nodal Analysis

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 85

 Nodal Analysis
❖ Nodal analysis gives a general technique for analyzing circuits using node voltages as
the circuit variables.
❖ We use nodal analysis to find these nodal voltages.

Nodal Analysis Conditions

1. Circuit containing only current source
2. Circuit containing voltage source in addition to
current source
i. Voltage source transformable into current source
ii. Voltage source not transformable into current source
a. Voltage source involving reference node
b. Voltage source not involving reference node

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 86

 Steps to follow for Nodal Analysis
1. Find the possible number of nodes.
2. Select one node as the reference node and assign voltages to the
remaining n-1 nodes i.e., v1, v2,….,vn-1. The voltages are referenced
with respect to the reference node.
3. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference node. Express the branch
currents in terms of node voltage by using Ohms Law.
4. Solve the system of simultaneous equation to obtain unknown voltage.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 87

 What is reference node?
❖ The second step in the nodal analysis is to select a node as reference or
datum node.
❖ The node with zero potential is known as reference node and is
commonly called ground.
❖ Chassis Ground: This type of reference node acts a common node for more
than one circuits. It is used for device where chassis, case or enclosure act as a
reference point for all circuits.
❖ Earth Ground: When earth potential is used as a reference in any circuit then
this type of reference node is called Earth Ground. It is used for power system.
❖ Signal ground/Common Ground for used for very low voltage signals within
a device.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 88

 Implementation: Current Source Only
Step 1: Identify Node
Step 2: Select reference node and assign
voltages i.e node voltage to non-reference node.
Node voltage is defined as the voltage
rise from the reference node.
Step 3: Apply KCL to non-reference node.

Applying KCL at node 1.

Applying KCL at node 2.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 89

 Implementation: Current Source Only

Converting Currents in Nodal Voltage by Ohms Law

Converting Currents in Nodal Voltage by Ohms Law

Step 4: Solve the system of simultaneous equation to obtain unknown voltage.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 90
 Example 1

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 91

 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source
Voltage source transformable into current source

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 92

 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source
Voltage source transformable into current source

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 93

 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source
Voltage source transformable into current source

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 94

 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source
Voltage source non-transformable into current source
Voltage source involving reference node.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 95

 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source
Voltage source non-transformable into current source
Voltage source not-involving reference node.

Super nodes

❖ If the voltage source is connected between

two non-reference nodes, the two nodes
form a supernode or generalized node.
❖ A supernode requires the application of
both KCL and KVL to determine the node
voltages.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 96

 Nodal Analysis With Voltage Source
Voltage source non-transformable into current source
Voltage source not-involving reference node.

Apply KCL at supernode i.e. 1-3

Apply KVL at supernode i.e. 1-3

V1-V3=Vs

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 97

 Example

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 98

 Properties of Supernode
❖ A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
❖ A supernode has no voltage of its own.
❖ The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the node voltages.

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 99

 Find v2?

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 100

 Example

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 101

 Example

5/16/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 102

 Nodal Analysis Vs Mesh Analysis
❖ Both nodal and mesh analysis provide a systematic way of analyzing a complex
network.
❖ A network that contains many series-connected elements, supermesh or voltage
sources are suitable for mesh analysis.
❖ A network that contains parallel connected elements, current sources or supernodes
are suitable for nodal analysis.
❖ A circuit with fewer nodes is suitable for nodal analysis and a circuit with fewer
meshes are suitable for mesh analysis.
❖ Hence, main idea is to select the method that results smaller number of equations.
❖ If voltages are required then nodal analysis is suitable and if branch current are
required then mesh analysis is more suitable.

5/13/2021 SK, Pulchowk Campus 103

 Exam Pattern for Chapter Two
1- Numerical of 4 marks either on mesh or nodal Analysis
2- Theory of 2 marks

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 104

 Exam Pattern for Chapter Two
1- Numerical of 3 marks either on mesh or nodal Analysis
2- Numerical of 3 marks on series and parallel reduction

1- Numerical of 4 marks either on mesh or nodal Analysis or series & Parallel

2-Theory of 2 marks on series and parallel or Mesh or nodal

3/1/23 SK, Pulchowk Campus 105

 Thank You
???
References
1. M. Karki, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, TU, IOE.
2. A. Adhikari, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, TU, IOE
3. Bakshi, Uday A. Basic electrical engineering. Technical Publications, 2020.
4. Theraja, B. L., A. K. Theraja, and S. G. Tarnekar. "Basic Electrical Engineering
(volume1)“A Textbook of Electrical technology”." Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur. Ram Nagar, New Delhi (2005).