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Concrete technology theory and practice Fifth Edition.
Edition Murari Lal Gambhir Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Murari Lal Gambhir
ISBN(s): 9781259062551, 1259062554
Edition: Fifth edition.
File Details: PDF, 27.06 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Fifth Edition
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr M L Gambhir has been Professor and Head of Civil
Engineering Department, and Dean Planning & Resource
Generation at the Thapar University, Patiala (previously
Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology, Patiala). He
obtained his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees from Univer-
sity of Roorkee (presently Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee) and PhD from Queen’s University, Kingston,
Canada.
His major research interests have been in the areas of
structural engineering particularly in structural failures and rehabilitation of struc-
tures; vibration-based health monitoring of structures; structural reliability; structur-
al stability and dynamics; high performance concrete; steel and reinforced concrete
design. He has wide experience in structural design of diverse types of structures in
structural steel and reinforced concrete.
Dr Gambhir has published over 65 technical papers in archival refereed journals
and international conferences and has authored with reputed publishers.
He has been a recipient of several prestigious awards. He is a member of Indian
Society for Technical Education and the Indian Society for Earthquake Technology.
He has also been the Chairman/Member of numerous committees.
 CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Fifth Edition

M L Gambhir
Formerly Professor and Head
Department of Civil Engineering
Dean, Planning and Resource Generation
Thapar University, Patiala
Punjab

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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 McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited,

P-24, Green Park Extention, New Delhi 110 016.

Concrete Technology, 5e
Copyright © 2013 by the McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

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 CONTENTS
Preface xi
1. Concrete as Construction Material 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of Concrete 5
1.3 Properties of Concrete 6
1.4 Grades of Concrete 6
1.5 Advantages of Concrete 7
1.6 Disadvantages of Concrete 9
1.7 Concept of Quality Control 9
1.8 Concrete Industry 10
1.9 Challenges Faced by the Concrete Industry 10
Review Questions 15
Multiple-Choice Questions 15
Answers to MCQ 16
2. Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Portland Cement 18
2.3 Types of Cements 33
2.4 International Cement Classifications 50
2.5 Storage of Cement 53
2.6 Cement Certification and Rejection 54
Review Questions 54
Multiple-Choice Questions 55
Answers to MCQ 62
3. Concrete Making Materials—II: Aggregate 63
3.1 Introduction 63
3.2 Classification of Aggregates 63
3.3 Characteristics of Aggregates 69
3.4 Deleterious Substances in Aggregates 75
3.5 Soundness of Aggregate 76
3.6 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR) 77
3.7 Thermal Properties of Aggregates 78
3.8 Fineness Modulus 79
3.9 Maximum Size of Aggregate 80
3.10 Grading and Surface Area of Aggregate 81
3.11 Testing of Aggregates 88
3.12 Aggregate Processing, Handling and Storing 90
3.13 Marine-Dredged Aggregate 91
3.14 Recycled Concrete 92
Review Questions 92
 vi Contents

Multiple-Choice Questions 93
Answers to MCQ 95
4. Concrete Making Materials—III: Water 96
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Quality of Mixing Water 96
4.3 Curing Water 100
Review Questions 100
Multiple-Choice Questions 100
Answers to MCQ 101

5. Chemical Admixtures and Mineral Additives 102

5.1 Introduction 102
5.2 Functions of Admixtures 103
5.3 Classification of Admixtures 104
5.4 Physical Requirements of Admixtures 129
5.5 Indian Standard Specifications 131
5.6 Mineral or Supplementary Additives 134
Review Questions 143
Multiple-Choice Questions 143
Answers to MCQ 144
6. Properties of Fresh Concrete 145
6.1 Introduction 145
6.2 Workability 146
6.3 Measurement of Workability 148
6.4 Factors Affecting Workability 154
6.5 Requirements of Workability 157
6.6 Estimation of Errors 160
6.7 Air Content Test 160
Review Questions 161
Multiple-Choice Questions 161
Answers to MCQ 164
7. Rheology of Concrete 165
7.1 Introduction 165
7.2 Representation of Rheological Behaviour 167
7.3 Measurement of Rheology by the Modified Slump Test 169
7.4 Factors Affecting Rheological Properties 174
7.5 Mixture Adjustments 177
Review Questions 177
Multiple-Choice Questions 177
Answers to MCQ 178
8. Properties of Hardened Concrete 179
8.1 Introduction 179
8.2 Strengths of Concrete 179
8.3 Stress and Strain Characteristics of Concrete 190
 Contents vii

8.4 Dimensional Stability— Shrinkage and Creep 194

8.5 Creep of Concrete 198
8.6 Permeability of Concrete 198
8.7 Durability of Concrete 200
8.8 Concrete in Marine Environment 206
8.9 Acid Attack 208
8.10 Efflorescence 208
8.11 Fire Resistance 208
8.12 Thermal Properties of Concrete 210
8.13 Micro-Cracking of Concrete 211
Review Questions 212
Multiple-Choice Questions 213
Answers to MCQ 216
9. Quality Control of Concrete 218
9.1 Introduction 218
9.2 Factors Causing Variations in the Quality of Concrete 219
9.3 Field Control 220
9.4 Advantages of Quality Control 221
9.5 Statistical Quality Control 221
9.6 Measure of Variability 223
9.7 Application 225
9.8 Quality Management in Concrete Construction 231
Review Questions 236
Multiple-Choice Questions 237
Answers to MCQ 238
10. Proportioning of Concrete Mixes 239
10.1 Introduction 239
10.2 Basic Considerations for Concrete Mix Design 241
10.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of Mix Proportions 241
10.4 Methods of Concrete Mix Design for Medium Strength Concretes 253
10.5 Trial and Adjustment Method of Mix Design 254
10.6 New European Standards on Concrete 255
10.7 British Doe Method of Concrete Mix Design 261
10.8 The ACI Method For Mix Proportioning 275
10.9 Concrete Mix Proportioning – Is Guidelines 283
10.10 Concrete Mix Proportioning using FlY Ash - Is Guidlines 295
10.11 Rapid Method for Mix Design 297
10.12 Concrete Mix Design Illustration 301
10.13 Comparison of Mix Proportioning Methods 307
10.14 Optimum Concrete Mix Design 309
10.15 Design of High-Strength Concrete Mixes 313
10.16 Mix Proportioning for High Performance Concrete 313
10.17 Design of High Workability Concrete Mixes 329
10.18 Trial Mixes 333
10.19 Conversion of Mix Proportions From Mass to Volume Basis 333
viii Contents

10.20 Quantities of Materials to Make Specified Volume of Concrete 334

10.21 Acceptance Criteria for Concrete 335
10.22 Field Adjustments 336
10.23 Generalized Format for Concrete Mix Design 337
Review Questions 340
Multiple-Choice Questions 343
Answers to MCQ 349
11. Production of Concrete 350
11.1 Introduction 350
11.2 Batching of Materials 350
11.3 Mixing of Concrete Materials 352
11.4 Transportation of Concrete 356
11.5 Ready-Mixed Concrete 361
11.6 Placing of Concrete 370
11.7 Compaction of Concrete 373
11.8 Finishing of Concrete 381
11.9 Curing of Concrete 385
11.10 Formwork 396
11.11 Slip-Forming Technique 401
Review Questions 403
Multiple-Choice Questions 403
Answers to MCQ 408
12. Concrete Under Extreme Environmental Conditions 409
12.1 Introduction 409
12.2 Concreting in Hot Weather 409
12.3 Cold Weather Concreting 411
12.4 Underwater Concreting 414
Review Questions 420
Multiple-Choice Questions 420
Answers to MCQ 421
13. Inspection and Testing 422
13.1 Introduction 422
13.2 Inspection Testing of Fresh Concrete 423
13.3 Non-Destructive Testing of In–Situ Fresh Concrete 430
13.4 Acceptance Testing of Hardened Concrete 434
Review Questions 458
Multiple-Choice Questions 459
Answers to MCQ 460
14. Special Concretes and Concreting Techniques 461
14.1 Introduction 461
14.2 Lightweight Concrete 463
14.3 Ultra-Lightweight Concrete 473
14.4 Vacuum Concrete 474
14.5 Mass Concrete 476
 Contents ix

14.6 Roller-Compacted Concrete 476

14.7 Waste Material-Based Concrete 482
14.8 Shotcrete or Guniting 488
14.9 Ferrocement 495
14.10 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 506
14.11 Different Types of Fibers 511
14.12 Polymer Concrete Composites (PCCS) 532
14.13 Jet (Ultra-Rapid Hardening) Cement Concrete 541
14.14 Gap-Graded Concrete 543
14.15 No-Fines Concrete 544
14.16 High Density Concrete 544
14.17 Nuclear Concrete 547
14.18 Heat Resisting and Refractory Concretes 548
Review Questions 554
Multiple-Choice Questions 554
Answers to MCQ 559
15. Deterioration of Concrete and its Prevention 560
15.1 Introduction 560
15.2 Corrosion of Concrete 560
15.3 Corrosion of Reinforcement 566
Review Questions 572
Multiple-Choice Questions 573
Answers to MCQ 573
16. High-Perfomance Concretes 574
16.1 Introduction 574
16.2 High Performance Concrete 576
16.3 Classification 576
16.4 Self-Compacting or Super-Workable Concrete 579
16.5 Lightweight Foamed or Aerated Concrete 617
16.6 Low Heat of Hydration Concrete 630
16.7 General Field Environment 630
16.8 Durability Performance Grades 633
16.9 Standard Test Procedures 637
16.10 Performance Enhancement 638
16.11 Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete 667
16.12 Applications of High- Performance Concrete 671
Review Questions 673
Multiple-Choice Questions 673
Answers to MCQ 675
17. Repair Technology for Concrete Structures 676
17.1 Introduction 676
17.2 Symptoms and Diagnosis of Distress 678
17.3 Evaluation of Cracks 686
17.4 Selection of Repair Procedure 690
 x Contents

17.5 Repair of Cracks 691

17.6 Common Types of Repairs 709
17.7 Typical Examples of Concrete Repair 715
17.8 Leak Sealing 722
17.9 Underwater Repairs 723
17.10 Distress in Fire Damaged Structures 727
17.11 Strengthening with Composite Laminates 729
17.12 Strengthening of Deficient Structures 732
Review Questions 735
Multiple-Choice Questions 735
Answers to MCQ 738

Appendix 739
Bibiliography 756
Index 763
 PREFACE

Introduction
In 2009, the fourth edition was completely rewritten, updated and enlarged in the
light of revisions in Indian Standards and global developments. Topics such as
ready-mixed concrete, pumped concrete and self-compacting concrete, nuclear con-
crete were introduced. A chapter on high performance concrete was added. In the
chapter on special concretes, methods for proportioning high performance concrete
were included. In the chapter on repair technology, state-of-the-art technologies of
strengthening with composite laminates were included.
Since the publication of fourth edition in 2009 a number of significant developments
have taken place in the field of Cement and Concrete technology. One of the major
developments has been the revision of IS 10262-2009: Concrete Mix Proportioning-
Guidelines. The revision has followed the format of ACI mix proportioning method,
a departure from the traditional similarities with British codes. Although, a common
code for European Nations has come into force from January 1, 2004, it does not have a
common concrete mix design method because it considers mix design a part of concrete
production. However, it exercises control through EN 206-1. It is immaterial whether
the concrete mix is proportioned by IS Concrete Mix Proportioning Guidelines or ACI
mix design method or British DoE method or DIN, as long as concrete satisfies the
requirements/specifications.
Although, fast development of infrastructure is taking place in the country, use
of high strength and high performance concretes (HPC) is now common practice,
but infrastructure developments in India requires adoption of new technologies. For
example more than 75 per cent of concrete used worldwide is ready-mixed concrete
which is placed by pumping. Concerns have been expressed regarding slow prog-
ress in adopting self-compacting concrete (SCC) technology in India; whereas, in
Europe, America and in some other parts of the world, it has occupied front seat.
In the modern art and science of designing and constructing the infrastructure self-
compacting concrete has carved its prominent place due to its unparalleled surface
finish and other high performance qualities. In the past four years alone seven tests
for self-compacting concrete have been standardized globally.
Keeping in view the above scenario, the book has been revised. Besides present-
ing large new information, the fifth edition is more user-friendly. New, updated and
expanded information has been added in chapter 10 on proportioning of concrete
mixes as per IS 10262-2009 guidelines, British mix design procedure is recast in
terms of Euro codes. A new section on mix design for conventional fly ash concrete is
included. The mix-design procedures have been illustrated with flow charts to enable
readers to evolve their own mix proportion calculators.
In chapter 16, the section on self-compacting concrete is completely rewritten,
updated and enlarged in the light of development of new technologies. The concept
of tailoring the properties of self-compacting concrete using fixed cement content
(minimum cement content from durability considerations) and the locally avail-
able materials to meet the demands of any particular application as a substitute of
 xii Preface

conventional concrete is introduced. The aim has been to bring it in conformity

with rapidly changing field of cement and concrete technology and to maintain a
state-of-the-art status.

New to the Edition

• Section on self-compacting concrete is completely rewritten, updated and
enlarged in the light of development of new technologies
• Updated with revised IS 10262-2009: Concrete Mix Proportioning-Guidelines
• A new section on mix design for conventional fly ash concrete is included
• The mix-design procedures have been illustrated with flow charts to enable
readers to evolve their own mix proportion calculators
• Gel-Space Ratio added
• New section on Exercise Questions added in each chapter.

Salient Features of the Book

•
Enhanced and updated discussion on Mix Design Proportioning using IS
10262-2009: Concrete Mix Proportioning-Guidelines
• Detailed discussion on Self-compacting concrete
• British mix design procedure is recast in terms of Euro codes.
• Pedagogy includes
123 Exercise Questions
678 MCQs
237 Figures
The following material can be accessed at http://www.com/gambhir/ct5
For Instructors
• PowerPoint slides
For Students
• Sample chapter
• Bibliography

Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the contributions made by many individuals and organizations
that provided valuable assistance in bringing out this edition. The feedback from the
users has been of great help and I express my deep sense of gratitude to them. I am
also grateful to my daughter, Ms. Neha Jamwal, M Tech Civil Engineering for her
useful discussions and contribution, and my wife for continued cooperation and en-
couragement in bringing out this edition.
I would like to thank the following reviewers for providing their suggestions in
improving the manuscript.

Nazrul Islam Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

Archana Bohra Gupta Mugneeram Bangur Memorial Engineering College,
Jodhpur, Rajasthan
 Preface xiii

Amlan Das National Institute of Technology, Durgapur,

West Bengal
N C Shah Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute Technology,
Surat, Gujarat
Sunil V Desale Shri Shivaji Vidya Prashashak Sanstha, Dhule,
Maharashtra
K Nagamani College of Engineering, Guindy, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
G Bhaskar Institute of Road and Transport Technology, Erode,
Tamil Nadu
A Jagannathan Pondicherry Engineering College, Puducherry
Rajesh Kumar National Institute of Technology, Warangal,
Andhra Pradesh

Feedback
It is hoped that this revised and expanded fifth edition of the book will be as accept-
able to the engineering fraternity and to all those who are interested in concrete con-
struction, as its predecessors have been. To improve and make the book more useful
in future reprints and editions, the comments from readers are welcome.
The publishers regret to inform the sad and untimely demise of Dr M. L. Gambhir on
4th January 2013. This work is dedicated to the untiring spirit of an academician par
excellence who always dreamt of a seamless dissemination of knowledge and strove
incessantly towards the same.
Dr M L Gambhir

Publisher’s Note
We look forward to receiving valuable views, comments and suggestions for
improvements from teachers and students, all of which can be sent to tmh.civilfeedback@
gmail.com, mentioning the title and author’s name on the subject line.
Report of any piracy related problems/issues would be highly appreciated.
 CONCRETE AS
1 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most widely used man-made construction material in the world, and
is second only to water as the most utilized substance on the planet. It is obtained
by mixing cementing materials, water and aggregates, and sometimes admixtures,
(shown in Fig. 1.1) in required proportions. The mixture when placed in forms and
allowed to cure, hardens into a rock-like mass known as concrete. The hardening is
caused by chemical reaction between water and cement and it continues for a long
time, and consequently the concrete grows stronger with age. The hardened concrete
may also be considered as an artificial stone in which the voids of larger particles
(coarse aggregate) are filled by the smaller particles (fine aggregate) and the voids
of fine aggregates are filled with cement. In a concrete mix, the cementing material
and water form a paste called cement–water paste which in addition to filling the
voids of fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates and binds
them together as it cures, thereby cementing the particles of the aggregates together
in a compact mass.

Fig. 1.1 Basic components of modern concrete: cement, water, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, mineral additives and admixtures

The strength, durability and other characteristics of concrete depend upon the
properties of its ingredients, on the proportions of mix, the method of compaction
and other controls during placing, compaction and curing. The popularity of the
concrete is due to the fact that from the common ingredients, it is possible to tailor the
properties of concrete to meet the demands of any particular situation. The images in
 2 Concrete Technology

Fig. 1.2 illustrate the mouldability of concrete in architectural forms. The advances
in concrete technology have paved the way to make the best use of locally available
materials by judicious mix proportioning and proper workmanship, so as to produce
concrete satisfying performance requirements.

Cathedral Epcot

Fig. 1.2 Architectural use of concrete

The key to producing a strong, durable and uniform concrete, i.e., high-performance
concrete lies in the careful control of its basic and process components. These are
the following:
1. Cement Portland cement, the most widely used cementing ingredient in
present day concrete comprises phases that consist of compounds of calcium,
silicon, aluminum, iron and oxygen.
2. Aggregate These are primarily naturally occurring, inert granular materials
such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone. However, technology is broadening to
include the use of recycled materials and synthetic products.
3. Water The water content and the minerals and chemicals dissolved in it are
crucial to achieving quality concrete.
4. Chemical admixtures These are the ingredients in concrete other than Portland
cement, water, and aggregates that are added to the mixture immediately before
or during mixing to reduce the water requirement, accelerate/retard setting or
improve specific durability characteristics.
5. Supplementary cementing materials Supplementary cementing materials,
also called mineral additives, contribute to the properties of hardened concrete
through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity. Typical examples are natural
pozzolans, fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, and silica fume. After
 Concrete as Construction Material 3

concrete is placed, these components must be cured at a satisfactory moisture

content and temperature must be carefully maintained for a sufficiently long
time to allow adequate development of the strength of the concrete.

Fig. 1.3 Image of a typical modern city with skyscrapers—looks like a concrete jungle

The factors affecting the performance of concrete are shown in Fig. 1.4. The concept
of treating concrete in its entity as a building material rather than its ingredients is
gaining popularity. The user is now interested in the concrete having the desired
properties without bothering about the ingredients. This concept is symbolized
with the progress of ready mixed concrete industry where the consumer can
specify the concrete of his needs and further in the precast concrete industry where
the consumer obtains finished structural components satisfying the performance
requirements.
The various aspects covered in the following chapters are materials, mix pro-
portioning, elements of workmanship, e.g., placing, compaction and curing, meth-
ods of testing and relevant statistical approach to quality control. The discussions
on these aspects are based on the appropriate provisions in the Indian Standard
Codes.
Concrete has high compressive strength, but its tensile strength is very low. In
situations where tensile stresses are developed, the concrete is strengthened by steel
bars or short randomly distributed fibers forming a composite construction called re-
inforced cement concrete (RCC) or fiber reinforced concrete. The concrete without
reinforcement is termed as plain cement concrete or simply as concrete. The process
of making concrete is called concreting. Sometimes the tensile stresses are taken care
of by introducing compressive stresses in the concrete so that the initial compression
neutralizes the tensile stresses. Such a construction is known as prestressed cement
concrete construction.
 CEMENT AGGREGATEA S CHEMICAL SUPPLEMENTARY WATER
A
Composition Quality Size Shape Grading Quantity Moisture ADMIXTURES CEMENTING MATERIALS
A Quantity
Properties Composition Quality

PERFORMANCE
OF
FRESH CONCRETE Mixing

Transporting
Placing
Compacting

PERFORMANCE
OF
HARDENED Curing
CONCRETE

Fig. 1.4 Factors affecting performance of concrete

 Concrete as Construction Material 5

Fig. 1.5 Typical superhighway with over passes—smooth and efficient traffic movement
saves energy

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE

As mentioned earlier, the main ingredients of concrete are cement, fine aggregate (sand)
and coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed rock). It is usual to specify a particular concrete
by the proportions (by weight) of these constituents and their characteristics, e.g., a 1:2:4
concrete refers to a particular concrete manufactured by mixing cement, sand and broken
stone in a 1:2:4 ratio (with a specified type of cement, water-cement ratio, maximum
size of aggregate, etc.). This classification specifying the proportions of constituents and
their characteristics is termed as prescriptive specifications and is based on the hope that
adherence to such prescripitive specifications will result in satisfactory performance.
Alternatively, the specifications specifying the requirements of the desirable properties
of concrete such as strength, workability, etc., are stipulated, and these are termed
as performance-oriented specifications. Based on these considerations, concrete can
be classified either as nominal mix concrete or designed mix concrete. Sometimes
concrete is classified into controlled concrete and ordinary concrete, depending upon
the levels of control exercised in the works and the method of proportioning concrete
mixes. Accordingly, a concrete with ingredient proportions fixed by designing the
concrete mixes with preliminary tests are called controlled concrete, whereas ordinary
concrete is one where nominal mixes are adopted. In IS:456–2000, there is nothing
like uncontrolled concrete: only the degree of control varies from very good to poor
or no control. In addition to mix proportioning, the quality control includes selection
of appropriate concrete materials after proper tests, proper workmanship in batching,
mixing, transportation, placing, compaction and curing, coupled with necessary checks
and tests for quality acceptance.
 6 Concrete Technology

1.3 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete making is not just a matter of mixing ingredients to produce a plastic
mass, but good concrete has to satisfy performance requirements in the plastic or
green state and also the hardened state. In the plastic state, the concrete should be
workable and free from segregation and bleeding. Segregation is the separation of
coarse aggregate and bleeding is the separation of cement paste from the main mass.
The segregation and bleeding result in a poor quality concrete. In its hardened state,
concrete should be strong, durable, and impermeable and it should have minimum
dimensional changes.

Fig. 1.6 Image of a typical concrete bridge which must be specially designed for
durability

Among the various properties of concrete, its compressive strength is considered

to be the most important and is taken as an index of its overall quality. Many other
properties of concrete appear to be generally related to its compressive strength.
These properties will be discussed in detail later in the book.

1.4 GRADES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is generally graded according to its compressive strength. The various
grades of concrete as stipulated in IS:456–2000 and IS:1343–1980 are given
in Table 1.1. In the designation of concrete mix, the letter M refers to the mix
and the number to the specified characteristic strength of 150 mm work cubes
at 28 days, expressed in MPa (N/mm2). The concrete of grades M5 and M7.5 is
suitable for lean concrete bases, simple foundations, foundations for masonry
walls and other simple or temporary reinforced concrete constructions. These need
not be designed. The concrete of grades lower than M15 is not suitable for reinforced
concrete works and grades of concrete lower than M30 are not to be used in the
prestressed concrete works.
 Concrete as Construction Material 7

Table 1.1 Grades of concrete

Group Ordinary Standard concrete High strength

concrete concrete
Grade M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
designation 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Specified
characteristic
strength at
28 days, MPa 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Fig. 1.7 Image of monorails—an enjoyable means of city transport

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

Concrete as a construction material has the following advantages:
1. Concrete is economical in the long run as compared to other engineering
materials. Except cement, it can be made from locally available coarse and
fine aggregates.
2. Concrete possesses a high compressive strength, and the corrosive and
weathering effects are minimal. When properly prepared its strength is equal
to that of a hard natural stone.
3. The green or newly mixed concrete can be easily handled and molded or formed
into virtually any shape or size according to specifications. The formwork can
be reused a number of times for similar jobs resulting in economy.
4. It is strong in compression and has unlimited structural applications in
combination with steel reinforcement. Concrete and steel have approximately
equal coefficients of thermal expansion.
5. Concrete can even be sprayed on and filled into fine cracks for repairs by the
guniting process.
6. Concrete can be pumped and hence it can be laid in difficult positions also.
7. It is durable, fire resistant and requires very little maintenance.
 8 Concrete Technology

These advantages have resulted in extensive use of concrete in the construction

of buildings, skyscrapers (Fig. 1.3), superhighways with over and under passes
(Fig. 1.5), bridges (Fig. 1.6), railways, monorails (Fig. 1.7), tunnels (Fig. 1.8),
runways of airfields (Fig. 1.9), water-retaining structures, docks and harbors, dams,
cross-drainage works (Fig. 1.10), bunkers, and silos.

Fig. 1.8 Concrete used in lining the tunnel

Fig. 1.9 A runway under construction (slip forming, a modern method for concrete paving)

Fig. 1.10 Aqueduct ferry crossing—a unique cross-drainage work with an application
 Concrete as Construction Material 9

1.6 DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

The following are the disadvantages of concrete:
1. Concrete has low tensile strength and hence cracks easily. Therefore, concrete
is to be reinforced with steel bars or meshes or fibers.
2. Fresh concrete shrinks on drying and hardened concrete expands on wetting.
Provision for construction joints has to be made to avoid the development of
cracks due to drying shrinkage and moisture movement.
3. Concrete expands and contracts with the changes in temperature. Hence,
expansion joints have to be provided to avoid the formation of cracks due to
thermal movement.
4. Concrete under sustained loading undergoes creep, resulting in the reduction
of prestress in the prestressed concrete construction.
5. Concrete is not entirely impervious to moisture and contains soluble salts
which may cause efflorescence.
6. Concrete is liable to disintegrate by alkali and sulphate attack.
7. The lack of ductility inherent in concrete as a material is disadvantageous with
respect to earthquake resistant design.

1.7 CONCEPT OF QUALITY CONTROL

Quality in general terms is totality of features and characteristics of a product or
service that bear on its ability to satisfy the stated or implied needs. The stated
or implied needs are those derived by balanced excellence and equity within the
sustainable regime and in the given socio–techno–economic scenario. The quality
management has evolved over the period through:
1. Policing quality Acceptance and rejection through inspection and
assessment by user,
2. Judging quality Confidence building through third-party judgement, and
3. Fostering quality Ensuring quality of the final product by attending to
quality at all intermediary stages such as in Certification Marking Schemes.
Concrete, generally manufactured at the site, is likely to have variability of perfor-
mance from batch to batch and also within the batch. The magnitude of this variation
depends on several factors, such as the variation in the quality of constituent materials,
variation in mix proportions due to batching process, variations in the quality of batching
and mixing equipment available, the quality of overall workmanship and supervision at
the site, and variation due to sampling and testing of concrete specimens.
The above variations are inevitable during production to varying degrees. For ex-
ample, the cements from different batches or sources may exhibit different strengths.
The grading and shape of aggregates even from the same source varies widely. Con-
siderable variations occur partly due to the quality of the plant available and partly
due to the efficiency of operation. Some of the variations in test results are due to
variations in sampling, making, curing and testing the specimen even when carried
out in terms of relevant specifications.
 10 Concrete Technology

The quality control of concrete is thus to reduce this variation and to produce
concrete of uniform quality consistent with specified minimum performance require-
ments which can be achieved by good workmanship and maintainance of the plant
at peak efficiency.
The concrete industry strives at making ‘quality’, a way of life and a way of manage-
ment through Quality Systems Approach covering all aspects of ISO 9000 series.

1.8 CONCRETE INDUSTRY

Since concrete is an affordable and reliable material, which is extensively used
throughout in the infrastructure of a nation’s construction, industrial, transportation,
defense, utility, and residential sectors, it has become a huge industry. India produces
about 170 million cubic meters of concrete annually. Slightly more than a tonne of
concrete is produced each year for every human being on earth.
In addition to cement and concrete manufacturing, the concrete construction in-
dustry includes aggregate and material suppliers, designers, haulers, constructors,
and repair and maintenance companies. Over 40 million jobs relate to the concrete
industry alone. While there is significant diversity of services within this industry, all
facets of the concrete industry share a common objective—a sincere desire to deliver
a high-quality, long-lasting, competitive, eco-friendly and sustainable product.
Sustainability Sustainable regime may be defined as that regime in which the
endeavors are towards meeting the needs of the present generation without
compromising the needs of the future generations.
So far as construction industry is concerned, it has to work within the following
strategic framework if it has to be ‘sustainable’:
1. Responsiveness to environmental regulations, i.e., environmental protection
including ecological balancing
2. Material conservation including performance maximization
3. Energy efficiency or conservation
4. Cost effectiveness or cost reduction, both initial and life-cycle costs
5. Safety assurance
6. Durability and serviceability considerations
7. Manpower development and optimization
8. Ergonomic and aesthetic concerns
9. Total quality management
10. Creation of proper interface with computer-integrated knowledge-based
systems for technology transfer

1.9 CHALLENGES FACED BY THE CONCRETE INDUSTRY

Portland cement is the most energy-intensive material produced after steel and
aluminum. More than seven per cent of world’s carbon dioxide emissions are attributed
to Portland cement. In addition to CO2 emissions, the burning of Portland cement at
high temperature (1450°C) is costly in terms of fossil fuel usage. Moreover, by some
 Concrete as Construction Material 11

estimate concrete industry is largest consumer of natural resources such as water,

sand, gravel and crushed rock. Thus for sustainable development, it is recognized
that considerable improvements are essential in productivity, product performance,
energy efficiency, and environmental performance. To achieve these objectives will
require a concerted and focused effort.
Research in new materials, processing technologies, delivery mechanisms, and
applications of information technology, could transform the industry. Greater mate-
rials improvements will enable the industry to demonstrate clearly the full spectrum
of performance benefits of concrete.
A number of government agencies—NCB, CRI, SERC, CBRI—and CRRI focus on
wide variety of concrete research topics. Programmes of several universities and techni-
cal institutions are involved in concrete related research. Sponsoring agencies include
DST, AICTE, UGC, etc. These agencies sponsor broad-spectrum concrete research—
basic and applied—to improve concrete and repair materials technologies. This research
is designed to enable cost-effective application of high-performance concrete with ex-
tended service life, and to advance concrete technology by providing a sound materials
science base. Additionally, there are numerous other state and central programmes that
strive to advance the nation’s knowledge of concrete.
To make concrete the most efficient and cost-effective material of construction, will
require processing improvements throughout the life cycle of concrete including design,
production, transportation, construction, maintenance and repair. The concrete industry
is unique in that process improvements can crosscut many other industries. Foundry sand,
fly ash, silica fume, slag, and other by-products from industries such as aluminum, metal
casting, and steel and power generation can be and are used as ingredients in the manu-
facture of cement and concrete. The concrete industry will have to commit to changes in
practices in the materials, design, and construction arenas through the use of materials
and systems that improve function, durability and sustainability.
There is no central resource for performance data and service life of current concrete
products. This limits the ability of designers and constructors to communicate life-cycle
benefits of concrete products to the user community. Computer-integrated knowledge
systems can provide a practical basis for optimizing concrete for specific applications by
taking technical, economic, and environmental factors into account. Advanced systems
models must be developed to show the prediction of performance for any mixture design
under a range of environmental conditions lasting over a long period, i.e., over decades
and even centuries. Aggregates, cement, repair and maintenance, materials transporta-
tion, life-cycle analysis and other areas can all be readily addressed under this concept.
Due to the fear of failure to meet design criteria, producers, users, and designers
are reluctant to shift from tried and proven processes and materials to adopt promis-
ing new technologies until long use histories have been substantiated. It is estimated
that it takes 15 to 20 years to get a new technology from concept to adoption. Thus the
advances in materials and process technologies needed to produce high-performance
concrete are advancing slowly, and are not entering the marketplace quickly.
Portland cement production is the most energy-intensive phase of the concrete
production chain as its production requires high process temperatures to produce
the necessary chemical transformations. Cement-manufacturing accounts for about
80 per cent of the total concrete industry’s power consumption. In addition, a large
 12 Concrete Technology

amount of energy is required to transport aggregate and other ingredients to manu-

facturing sites and to deliver finished products to market. The material transportation
costs account for 20 per cent to 50 per cent of the final cost of ready-mixed concrete,
and delays in material or concrete delivery can create significant labor downtime in
concrete construction. Both of these phases of concrete production offer significant
opportunities for improvement.
Currently, the industry operates in a prescriptive rather than performance-based
environment. Thus, the full potential of concrete is often not realized. Accordingly,
the procurement process for concrete construction and products typically favors the
low-cost bidder because no incentives are provided for improved performance. This
forces concrete companies to keep costs down and creates a disincentive to invest-
ing in research and development. Improved technology can reduce service life costs,
prevent premature repairs and also use less energy.
Process Improvements The industry can achieve significant improvements in
process over the next quarter of a century by
1. using a variety of by-products from other industries as well as recycled
concrete as constituent materials for concrete production,
2. using a geomimetic approach to tailor the mixture design to specific structural
environments,
3. achieving optimal particle size distribution of the constituent materials,
4. manufacturing the cement with less energy and fewer emissions such as
nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide, with decreased production of by-product
cement kiln dust,
5. using accepted techniques and processes to produce lighter-weight, higher-
strength products, thereby reducing volumetric requirements and making
transportation easier and less expensive,
6. using advanced systems modeling to predict the performance of concrete for
users, and
7. adopting automation as standard practice in concrete placement.

Product Performance As explained earlier concrete is one of the most durable

and cost-effective construction materials used in civil engineering. However,
more needs to be done to improve its performance, reliability and life cycle cost-
effectiveness. The diverse applications for concrete have a wide variety of performance
requirements. The industry needs critical research to produce high-performance,
cost-effective concrete.
The industry can pass on the product performance benefits of concrete to the users by
1. using effective, consistent quality assurance/quality control standards
throughout the industry,
2. making full use of non-destructive measurements, sensors, intelligent curing
techniques, and other technology advances to continuously monitor property
performance and to maintain durability,
3. producing concrete products having concrete strengths of 5 to 10 times that of
current levels leading to a reduction in the overall volume of concrete required,
 Concrete as Construction Material 13

4. having a system of shared, consolidated data such as materials, structures,

design, and performance databases and using them with computer-integrated
knowledge systems to demonstrate product quality to customers, and
5. making concrete reinforcement more durable through the use of advanced
fibers and composites, enhancing the life cycle benefits of concrete.

Fig. 1.11 A typical dam—a multipurpose project —requires use of mass concrete and
low-heat Portland cements

Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency can be improved in all stages of the concrete
life cycle. The concrete industry should aim at reducing energy consumption from
current levels by 50 per cent per unit of output during the next quarter of a century.
This can be achieved by
1. using bio-based raw materials as fuel sources in cement making,
2. using aggregates that are less energy-intensive to produce,
3. using advanced technology to improve heating process for cement making;
4. utilizing cementing materials that require less process heating and produce
fewer emissions, and
5. saving energy by making increased use of recycled waste and by-products,
from within the concrete industry and from other industries in concrete
manufacturing.
Recycled aggregates and mineral additives have been extensively used in modern
dam construction:
Environmental Performance Approximately seven per cent of the world’s
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are attributable to Portland cement. Carbon
dioxide belongs to the so-called greenhouse gases, which contribute to global
warming. Out of 450 million tonnes of fly ash that is suitable for use in cement,
only a less than eight per cent is used for cement production. Only a small fraction
of the 100 million tonnes of slag produced worldwide each year is utilized as a
cement substitute. Nearly 90 per cent of coal ash and metallurgical slag produced
 14 Concrete Technology

today end up in low-value applications or simply undergo disposal by ponding and

stockpiling.
To meet sustainable development and environmental goals, responsiveness to en-
vironmental regulations and waste management should be the part of daily opera-
tions in the concrete industry. The industry continually should seek to identify how
it can increase its use of environmentally friendly practises and processes. An impor-
tant application of this process is shotcreting as shown in Fig. 1.12. Moreover, the
concrete industry must consume a wider range of by-products from other industries
to evolve novel concretes for tailored waste isolation.

Fig. 1.12 Shotcrete—an economical means for lining the tunnels, canals, swimming
pools, repair of structures, etc. In the image it is being used for stabilization of
rock slopes.

Manpower Development Since the construction industry involves multidisci-

plinary inputs, the manpower development for such an industry is a challenging task.
It involves identification of training needs at each level and discipline, the training
methodology, preparation of instruction material, mode of training delivery system,
hands-on-experience, etc., which are of highly variable nature depending upon the
target group considered. The manpower comprises various levels of understanding
or education from top management to skilled and semi-skilled workers. Hence, a
holistic approach is required for MPD which is currently available through National
Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCB) and RTCs. The Construction
Infrastructure Development Council (CIDC) dealing with construction, lays emphasis
on training of construction craftsman through Construction Traders Training Council
(CTTC). CTTC may in turn identifies network agencies like NCB, NAC, ICI,
NICMAR, ACC-RCD, etc.
In order to achieve desired objectives of securing improved quality, productivity
and efficiency in cement and concrete construction, it is necessary to improve qual-
ity, content, nature of education and training within sustainable regime. It is also
necessary to look into the objective of designing and placing concrete mix and to
 Concrete as Construction Material 15

compare this ideal with experience. The aim is to minimize the gap between the ideal
and the practice. For the given technical quality of the batching and mixing system,
this objective can be achieved by proper training of personnel.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.1 Explain the statement with examples: 1.3 What are the seven basic advantages
“The popularity of the concrete is due to and seven basic disadvantages of con-
the fact that from the common ingredi- crete?
ents, it is possible to tailor the properties 1.4 What are sustainability and the frame-
of concrete to meet the demands of any work for cement industry to be sustain-
particular situation”. able?
1.2 What is difference between prescriptive 1.5 Briefly explain the challenges faced by
specifications and performance-oriented the concrete industry in regard to process
specifications? improvement and energy efficiency.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.1 Assertion A: Concrete is the most widely in ready-mixed concrete industry
used man-made construction material in where the consumer can specify the
the world, and is second only to water as concrete of his needs.
the most utilized substance on the planet. (d) Sustainable regime may be defined
Reason R: Locally available materials as that regime in which the endeav-
can be effectively used by judicious ors are towards meeting the needs
control of its basic and process com- of the present generation without
ponents, so as to produce concrete sati- compromising the needs of the fu-
sfying performance requirements. ture generations.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (e) None of the above.
correct explanation of (A) 1.3 Identify the false statement(s).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (a) Due to the fear of failure to meet
an incorrect explanation of (A) design criteria, producers, users, and
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false designers are reluctant to shift from
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true tried and proven processes and mate-
(e) Both are false rials to adopt promising new technol-
1.2 Identify the false statement. ogies until long (15 to 20 years) use
(a) The classification specifying the histories have been substantiated.
proportions of constituents and their (b) Since the construction industry in-
characteristics is termed as prescrip- volves multi-disciplinary inputs, the
tive specifications and is based on manpower development for such an
the hope that adherence to such industry becomes a simple task.
specifications will result in satisfac- (c) Concrete Industry should endeavor
tory performance. to produce concrete products hav-
(b) The specifications specifying the re- ing concrete strengths of 5 to 10
quirements of the desirable properties times that of current levels leading
of concrete are termed performance- to a reduction in the overall volume
oriented specifications. of concrete required.
(c) The concept of treating concrete in (d) Energy efficiency can be im-
its entity as a building material rather proved by saving energy by mak-
than its ingredients is symbolized ing increased use of recycled waste
16 Concrete Technology

and by-products, from within the of by-products from other industries

concrete industry and from other in- to evolve novel concretes for tai-
dustries in concrete manufacturing. lored waste isolation.
(e) For sustainability, the concrete in-
dustry must consume a wider range

Answers to MCQs
1.1 (a) 1.2 (e) 1.3 (b)
 CONCRETE MAKING
2 MATERIALS—I: CEMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Cement is a well-known building material and has occupied an indispensable place
in construction works. There are a variety of cements available in the market and
each type is used under certain conditions due to its special properties as shown
in Fig. 2.1. A mixture of cement and sand when mixed with water to form a paste
is known as cement mortar whereas the composite product obtained by mixing
cement, water and an inert matrix of sand and gravel or crushed stone is called
cement concrete. The distinguishing property of concrete is its ability to harden
under water.

Gray dry cement White cement

Fig. 2.1 A fine powder called cement is the delicate link in concrete construction. (The
color and properties of cement change with the composition of cement.)

The cement commonly used is Portland cement, and the fine and coarse aggregates
used are those that are usually obtainable, from nearby sand, gravel or rock deposits.
In order to obtain a strong, durable and economical concrete mix; it is necessary to
understand the characteristics and behavior of the ingredients. Portland cement is
defined as hydraulic cement, i.e., a cement that not only hardens by reacting with
water but also forms a water-resistant product. The ingredients of concrete can be
classified into two groups, namely active and inactive. The active group consists of
cement and water, whereas the inactive group comprises fine and coarse aggregates.
The inactive group is also sometimes called the inert matrix. In this chapter, the
ingredients of the active group will be discussed.
Although all materials that go into a concrete mixture are essential, cement is by
far the most important constituent because it is usually the delicate link in the chain.
The function of cement is, first to bind the sand and coarse aggregates together, and
 18 Concrete Technology

second to fill the voids in between sand and coarse aggregate particles to form a com-
pact mass. Although cement constitutes only about 10 per cent of the volume of the
concrete mix, it is the active portion of the binding medium and the only scientifically
controlled ingredient of concrete.

2.2 PORTLAND CEMENT

Portland cement is an extremely ground material having adhesive and cohesive
properties, which provide a binding medium for the discrete ingredients. It is obtained
by burning together, in a definite proportion, a mixture of naturally occurring
argillaceous (containing alumina) and calcareous (containing calcium carbonate or
lime) materials to a partial fusion at high temperature (about 1450°C). The basic
components of the manufacturing process are shown in Fig. 2.2. The product obtained
on burning, called clinker or nodules (5 to 25 mm diameter), is cooled and ground
to the required fineness to produce a material known as cement. Its inventor, Joseph
Aspdin, called it Portland cement because when hardened, it produced a material
resembling stone from the quarries near Portland in England. During the grinding of
clinker, gypsum or plaster of Paris (CaSO4) is added to adjust the setting time. The
amount of gypsum is about three per cent by weight of clinker. It also improves the
soundness of cement.

limestone

blending clinker cement

kiln
store mill

clay

Fig. 2.2 The basic components of the cement-manufacturing process

Depending upon the location of the cement-manufacturing plant, available raw

materials are pulverized and mixed in proportions such that the resulting mixture
will have the desired chemical composition. The common calcareous materials
are limestone, chalk, oyster shells and marl. The argillaceous materials are clay,
shale, slate and selected blast-furnace slag. When limestone and clay are the
two basic ingredients, the proportions will be approximately four parts limestone
to one part of clay. Certain clays formed during volcanic eruption, known as
volcanic ash or pozzolana, found near Italy, have properties similar to that of
Portland cement.
Since the raw materials consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and iron
oxide, these form the major constituents of Portland cement also. Depend-
ing upon the wide variety of raw materials used in the manufacture of ce-
ments, the oxide composition of ordinary Portland cement may be expressed
as given in Table 2.1.
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 19

Table 2.1 Oxide composition of ordinary Portland cement

Oxide Percentage Average

Lime, CaO .60–65 63
Silica, SiO2 .17–25 20
Alumina, A12O3 .3.5–9 6.3
Iron oxide, Fe2O3 0.5–6 3.3
Magnesia, MgO 0.5–4 2.4
Sulfur trioxide, SO3 0.1–2 1.5
Alkalis, i.e., soda and/or potash, Na2O + K2O 0.5–1.3 1.0

These oxides interact with each other to form a series of more complex products
during fusion. The compound composition will be discussed later in the chapter.

Fig. 2 3 A view of a typical cement plant

2.2.1 Manufacture of Portand Cement

A view of a typical cement plant is shown in Fig. 2.3. The processes used for the
manufacture of cement can be classified as dry and wet. When the basic raw material
is rock, it is transported to a large gyratory, or jaw crusher for primary reduction in
size (to about 150 mm). It then passes through a smaller crusher or hammer mill where
further reduction takes place to a 40 mm size aggregate, and from there it goes to a
rock storage or stacker. From the stacker, the crushed rock is fed to a vertical ball mill
along with clay or crushed shale. In the wet process, water is added at this point to
obtain a blended mixture of very finely ground raw materials and water, called slurry.
The slurry is stored in tanks under constant agitation and fed into huge firebrick-lined
rotary kilns. In the dry process, the raw powdered materials (also called raw meal)
which are mixed, and homogenized pass through a series of sophisticated precalcining
systems with each system consisting of separate strings of five or six-stage precalcining
 20 Concrete Technology

units and fed to the kiln in the dry state. In the recent past, economical, efficient and
environmental friendly dry process of cement manufacturing has replaced the more
power-oriented wet process. In the recent years, significant advancements have been
made in raw material grinding, pyro-processing, controlled clinker cooling, cement
grinding and packing technologies with advanced process control and instrumentation
system. The coal consumption in the dry process is approximately one-fourth of that in
the wet process. Typically, the total consumption of coal in the dry process is 100 kg as
against 350 kg in the wet process for producing a tonne of cement.

(a) Schematic diagram (b) Real view of plant

Fig. 2.4 Schematic diagram and real view of the manufacture of Portland cement by dry
process

The kilns are fired with crushed coal or gas from the discharge end under a forced draft so
that material being fed in advances against the heat blast as the kiln rotates as shown in
Fig. 2.4. The kilns are mounted with the longitudinal axis inclined in such a way
that the raw material or slurry is fed at the higher end. At about 425°C, excess
water is driven off, and then further along the kiln, at 875°C, limestone breaks down
into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Finally, at 1400°C to 1450°C, about 10 m
from the discharge end, the initial melting stage of material, known as the point
of incipient fusion, is reached. Sintering takes place at this point, and a substance
having its own physical and chemical properties called clinker is formed. The rate
of cooling influences the mineralogy of clinker, i.e., the degree of crystallization, the
size of crystals and the amount of amorphous materials. The mineralogy of clinker
influences the hydration and strength properties of cement considerably. Various
forms of clinkers are shown in Fig. 2.7. A moderate rate of cooling in rotary kiln
from 1200°C to 500°C in about 15 minutes and from 500°C to normal atmospheric
temperature in about 10 minutes results in high strength cements. The cooled clinker
is crushed, mixed with about three per cent crushed gypsum, and fed into a tube mill
and processed through closed circuit grinding where proper particle size distribution
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 21

is ensured by a cyclonic separator. After initial grinding in a tube mill, the material
moves into high efficiency cyclonic separator, which assures that the ground material
has the ideal surface and ideal proportion of particles of sizes between 5 to 30 micron
(to the extent of 50 per cent). The finished product known as Portland cement is taken
to the storage silos where it is finally bagged in high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
woven sacks, double Hessian bitumenized sacks, polyethylene lined jute bags, and
four-ply paper bags and transported to stockists and construction sites.
A typical schematic preheater long cement kiln for manufacture of Portland ce-
ment by dryprocess is shown in Fig. 2.5. Whereas, the details of hot end of medium
sized modern cement kiln, illustrating tires, rollers and drive gear can be seen in
Fig. 2.6.

In addition to primary fuel of crushed coal, new

or recycled oil, gas, etc.,, fired from the discharge
end, preheaters using waste fuel like rubber
tires, containers, by-product fuel like bags,
bales and hot gases from kiln heat, provide
about 40 per cent calcination before the feed
enters the kiln.
Schematic diagram

Fig. 2.5 A typical preheater long cement kiln

Fig. 2.6 Hot end of a medium-sized modern cement kiln showing tires, rollers and drive
gear

The variations in the chemical and physical properties of cement, especially the
strength and fineness can be minimized or consistency in quality can be ensured by
installation of proper quality control monitoring systems and modern sophisticated
 22 Concrete Technology

instrumentation control systems. Computers are widely used for controlling the
operations and quality at various stages in the cement-manufacturing process, i.e.,
on-line analysers for raw meal quality control and expert systems for controlling
operations of raw materials grinding mill, preheaters, precalcinators and clinker
coolers, cement grinding and packing sections for achieving smooth operation,
uniform quality and maximum output.

Fig. 2.7 Typical forms of clinkers or nodules (5 to 25 mm in diameter)

The composition of Portland cement is rather complicated but basically it consists of

the following four main compounds:
Tricalcium silicate (C3S), 3CaO·SiO2 (alite)
Dicalcium silicate (C2S), 2CaO·SiO2 (belite)
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A), 3CaO·A12O3 (aluminate)
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF), 4CaO·A12O3·Fe2O3 (ferrite)
The symbols in parentheses are the abbreviations generally used. To the above
ingredients is added about three per cent gypsum (CaSO4). Depending upon the
wide variety of raw materials used in the manufacture of cements, typical ranges
of these compounds in ordinary Portland cements may be expressed as given in
Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Compound composition of ordinary Portland cement

Compound Percentage by mass in cement

C3S 25–50
C2S 20–45
C3A 5–12
C4AF 6–12

Differences in the various types of ordinary Portland cements arise due to the variations
in the relative proportions of these compounds in the cement. The minerology of
clinker is shown in Fig. 2.8.
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 23

In the Backscattered SEM Image Light gray crystals are alite (C3S); dark gray
crystals are belite (C2S), rounded; bright interstitial material is mainly ferrite (C4AF),
small dark inclusions are aluminate (C3A); and black areas are epoxy resin.

Backscattered SEM image Optical microscope image

Note
Belite is not actually blue—it appears blue here because it has been etched to
show it more clearly.

Fig. 2.8 Typical scanning-electron micrograph (SEM) and optical microscope image of dif-
ferent clinkers [For colored images, visit http://www.mhhe.com/gamdhir/ct4e]

In the Optical Microscope Image (Polished Section) of Clinker Mineral The

brown crystals are alite (C3S), blue crystals are belite (C2S), bright interstitial
material is mainly ferrite (C4AF), with small dark inclusions of aluminate (C3A).
The gray material is the epoxy resin in which the clinker was embedded to make the
specimen.

2.2.2 Basic Properties of Cement Compounds

The two silicates, namely C3S and C2S, which together constitute about 70 to 80
per cent of the cement, control the most of the strength-giving properties. Upon
hydration, both C3S and C2S give the same product called calcium silicate hydrate
(C3S2H3) and calcium hydroxide. Tricalcium silicate (C3S) having a faster rate of
reaction (Fig 2.9) accompanied by greater heat evolution develops early strength. On
the other hand, dicalcium silicate (C2S) hydrates and hardens slowly and provides
much of the ultimate strength. It is likely that both C3S and C2S phases contribute
equally to the eventual strength of the cement as can he seen in Fig. 2.10. C3S
and C2S need approximately 24 and 21 per cent water by weight, respectively, for
chemical reaction but C3S liberates nearly three times as much calcium hydroxide on
hydration as C2S. However, C2S provides more resistance to chemical attack.
Thus, a higher percentage of C3S results in rapid hardening with an early gain in
strength at a higher heat of hydration. On the other hand, a higher percentage of C2S re-
sults in slow hardening, less heat of hydration and greater resistance to chemical attack.
 24 Concrete Technology

1.0
C4AF

0.8 C3A
Fraction hydrated

0.6
C3S

0.4

0.2
C2S

0.0
1 10 100 180
Log time, days

Fig. 2.9 Rate of hydration of pure cement compounds

70
C3S
60
C2S
Compressive Strength, MPa

50

40

30

20

10 C3A
C4AF
0
7 28 90 180 360
Age, days

Fig. 2.10 Contribution of cement compounds to the strength of cement

The compound tricalciumaluminate (C3A) is characteristically fast-reacting with wa-

ter and may lead to an immediate stiffening of paste, and this process is termed as flash
set. The role of gypsum added in the manufacture of cement is to prevent such a fast re-
action. C3A reacts with 40 per cent water by mass, and this is more than that required for
silicates. However, since the amount of C3A in cement is comparatively small, the net
water required for the hydration of cement is not substantially affected. It provides weak
resistance against sulfate attack and its contribution to the development of strength of
cement is perhaps less significant than that of silicates. In addition, the C3A phase is re-
sponsible for the highest heat of evolution, both during the initial period as well as in the
long run. Like C3A, C4AF hydrates rapidly but its individual contribution to the overall
strength of cement is insignificant. However, it is more stable than C3A.
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 25

In terms of oxide composition, a high lime content generally increases the setting
time and results in higher strengths. A decrease in lime content reduces the strength
of concrete. A high silica content prolongs the setting time and gives more strength.
The presence of excess unburnt lime is harmful since it results in delayed hydration
causing expansion (unsoundness) and deterioration of concrete. Iron oxide is not a
very active constituent of cement, and generally acts as a catalyst and helps the burn-
ing process. Owing to the presence of iron oxide the cement derives the characteristic
gray color. Magnesia, if present in larger quantities, causes unsoundness.

2.2.3 Hydration of Cements

The extent of hydration of cement and the resultant microstructure of hydrated
cement influences the physical properties of concrete. The microstructure of hydrated
cement is more or less similar to that of silicate phases. When the cement comes
in contact with water, the hydration of cement proceeds both inward and outward
in the sense that the hydration products get deposited on the outer periphery and
the nucleus of the unhydrated cement inside gets gradually diminished in volume.
The reaction proceeds slowly for 2–5 hours (called induction or dormant period)
before accelerating as the surface skin breaks. At any stage of hydration, the cement
paste consists of gel (a finely grained product of hydration having large surface
area collectively called gel), the remnant of unreacted cement, calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2, and water, besides some other minor compounds. The crystals of various
resulting compounds form an interlocking random three-dimensional network
gradually filling the space originally occupied by the water, resulting in stiffening
and subsequent development of strength as shown in Fig. 2.11. Accordingly, the

Dry cement powder A dry grain of cement Hydration starts

When water is added

Random 3-D network of Interlocking 3-D network Until dense network of

crystals of hydration of crystals of hydration hydration compunds
compounds begin to form compounds develops fast is created

Fig. 2. 11 Simplistic (microscopic) view of hydration of cement

 26 Concrete Technology

hardened cement paste has a porous structure, the pore size varying from very small
(4 × 10–4 μm) to a much larger value, the pores being called gel pores and capillary
pores, respectively. The pore system inside the hardened cement paste may or may
not be continuous. As the hydration proceeds, the deposit of hydration products on
the original cement grain makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated nucleus more
and more difficult thus reducing the rate of hydration with time.
The reactions of compounds of cement and their products may be represented as
2(3CaO.SiO2) + 6 H2O → 3CaO. 2SiO2 .3H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2
or symbolically
2C3S + 6H → C3S2H3 + 3 Ca (OH)2
2 (2CaO.SiO2) + 4 H2O → 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + Ca (OH)2
or
2C2S + 4 H → C3 S2 H3 + Ca (OH)2
2C3A + 21 H → C4 A H13 + C2AH8 → 2C3 AH6 + 9H
C4AF + 7 H → C3AH6 + CFH
Reactions in the presence of gypsum are:
–
C3A + 32 H + 3CaSO4 → C3A.3CS H32 → C6AS3H32
(trisulfate hydrate or ettringite)
– –
C3A + 18 H + CaSO4 → C3A.C S H18 → C4A S H18
(monosulfate hydrate)
The above equations (with C = CaO; S = SiO2 and H = H2O) only refer to the process
in which the cement compounds react with water to form a strong hydrated mass.
The hydrated crystals are extremely small, varying from colloidal dimensions (less
than 2 μm) to 10 μm or more. The calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH2), liberated during
the reaction of silicate phase crystallizes in the available free space. The product
C3S2H3 representing calcium silicate hydrate, a gel structure, is normally expressed
by hyphenation C-S-H, which signifies that it is not a well-defined compound.
The simplistic scanning-electron micrograph of hydration of cement is shown in
Fig. 2.11.
The hydration of C3S produces a comparatively lesser quantity of C–S–H than
that produced by C2S. On the other hand, C3S liberates nearly three times as much
calcium hydroxide on hydration as C2S. However, Ca(OH)2 is not a desirable prod-
uct in the concrete mass as it is soluble in water and gets leached out making the
concrete porous. The only advantage of Ca(OH)2 is its being alkaline in nature and
maintaining a pH value of around 13 in the concrete. A pH value at this level passi-
vates reinforcing steel against corrosion. In general, the quality and density of C-S-H
produced due to hydration of C3S is slightly inferior to that formed by hydration of
C2S. The hydration product of C2S is rather dense and its specific surface is higher.
On hydration of C3A, a calcium aluminate system CaO–Al2O3–H2O is formed.
The cubic compound C3AH6 is probably the only stable product. Hydration of C4AF
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 27

is believed to form a system CaO–Fe2O3–H2O. A hydrated calcium ferrite of the form

C3FH6 is comparatively more stable. In the presence of gypsum, depending upon the
concentrations of aluminate and sulfate ions in the solution phase, the precipitating crys-
talline product is either calcium aluminate trisulfate hydrate (C6S3H32) or calcium alumi-
nate monosulfate hydrate. The product calcium aluminate trisulfate is known as ettring-
ite, which crystallizes as short prismatic needles on account of high sulfate–aluminate
ions ratio in the solution phase during first hour of hydration. When sulfate solution gets
depleted, aluminate ions concentration increases due to renewed hydration and the alu-
minate is gradually converted into monosulfate which is the final product of hydration of
Portland cement containing more than five per cent C3A.
Rate of Hydration As mentioned earlier, the reaction of the compound C3A with
water is very fast in that flash setting, i.e., siffening without strength development, can
occur because the C—A—H phase prevents the hydration of C3S and C2S. However,
some of the CaSO4 ground in the clinker dissolves immediately in water and the
sulfate ions in the solution react with C3A to form insoluble calcium sulfoaluminate
which deposits on the surface of the C3A to form a protective colloidal membrane and
thus retard the direct hydration reaction. When all the sulfate is consumed, hydration
can accelerate. The amount of sulfate must, therefore, be carefully controlled to leave
little excess C3A to hydrate directly. The hardening of C3S appears to be catalyzed
by C3A so that C3S becomes almost solely responsible for the gain of strength up to
about 28 days by growth and interlocking of C—S—H gel. The later age increase
in strength is due to the hydration of C2S. The rate of strength development can,
therefore, be modified by changes in the relative quantities of these compounds.

Mechanism of Hydration C3A reacts from beneath the thin membrane of

calcium sulfoaluminate formed on the C3A surface. Owing to the larger volume
of calcium sulfoaluminate, pressure develops and the membrane eventually bursts,
allowing the sulfate in solution to come in contact with unreacted C3A to reform the
membrane. The cyclic process continues until all the sulfate in solution is consumed,
whereupon the C3A can hydrate directly at a faster rate and the transformation of
calcium sulfoaluminate into needle like monosulfate crystals leads to the loss of
workability and to setting. This gives rise to the induction period which ends when
the protective membrane is disrupted. Although the reaction between C3S and water
proceeds at the same time, in a properly retarded cement. The end of induction period
of C3S hydration coincides with the point at which the sulfate in solution is no longer
available for reaction. Setting, now, is due to the simultaneous growth of aluminate
hydrate, monosulfate and silicate hydrate in the inter-particle space. The above
theory is termed as protective membrane layer theory.

Effect of Admixtures on Hydration Some admixtures may reduce the electric

repulsion between the individual positively charged hydrating cement particles, so
that they approach closer and stick to form agglomerates which grow and eventualy
settle out. This process is termed flocculation and the agglomerates floc. The anions
may flocculate the colloidal membrane thus making it more permeable. The rapid
diffusion of water through the permeable membrane increases hydrostatic pressure
 28 Concrete Technology

beneath the membrane till it reaches a level sufficient to rupture it at an earlier stage
in hydration, thus accelerating the hydration of cement.

2.2.4 Abram’s Law: Water-to-Cement Ratio and

Compressive Strength
A cement of average composition requires about 25 per cent of water by mass for
chemical reaction. In addition, an amount of water is needed to fill the gel pores.
Nearly 100 years ago, Duff Abrams discovered the direct relationship between
water-to-cement ratio and strength, i.e., lesser the water used higher the strength
of the concrete, since too much water leaves lots of pores in the cement paste.
According to Abram’s law, the strength of fully compacted concrete at a given age
and normal temperature is inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio. Here the
water-to-cement ratio is the relative weight of the water to the cement in the mixture.
For most applications, water-to-cement should be between 0.4 and 0.5—lower for
lower permeability and higher strength. In concrete, the trade off, of course, is with
workability, since very low water content results in very stiff mixtures that are difficult
to place. The water-to-cement ratio is a factor selected by the civil engineer.

2.2.5 Gel-Space Ratio

In concrete, as explained earlier, the hardened cement paste is a porous ensemble. Also,
the concentration of the solid products of hydration in the total space or volume available
(the original water and hydrated cement) is an index of porosity. Like any other porous
solid, the compressive strength of cement paste (or concrete) is related to the parameter
gel–space ratio or hydrate–space ratio. Gel is the hydrated cement while space is
volume occupied by hydrated cement plus capillary pores. Hence, gel/space ratio is the
fraction of volume occupied by hydrated cement in the total space occupied by hydrated
cement and capillary pores. In other words, it is a measure of capillary pore space. Before
hydration, this space is occupied by mixing water, after hydration the space is the sum of
the hydrated cement and the remaining capillary pore space. Thus,
Volume of gel (including gel pores)
Gel/space ratio, x =
Volume of gel + volume of capillary pores

Thus, a decrease in capillary porosity in a hydration product shall increase the gel/
space ratio. The porosity within the gel for all normally hydrated cements is of the
order of 0.26.
The strength of cement/concrete is primarily governed by its porosity which is af-
fected by the gel/space ratio which depends on the degree of hydration at a given age of
the cementitious materials; a higher gel/space ratio that reduces the porosity increases
the strength of concrete. On the other hand, the gel/space ratio is itself affected by the
water/cement ratio of concrete. A higher water/cement ratio decreases the gel/space ra-
tio, thus increasing the porosity and thereby decreasing the strength of concrete. These
observations indirectly validate the Abrams’ law which states that “assuming full com-
paction, and at a given age and normal temperature, strength of concrete can be taken
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 29

to be inversely proportional to the water/cement ratio”. Thus, the water–cement ratio

is really an expression of the concentration of hydration products in the total volume at
a particular age for the resultant degree of hydration. A typical Power’s gel/space ratio
versus strength curve (based on 51 mm cubes) is shown in Fig. 2.12.
120

100

80
Strength, MPa

60

40

20

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Gel/space ratio

Fig. 2.12 Typical Power’s gel/space ratio versus strength curve

However, in contrast to Abrams’ law, in terms of porosity the strength of concrete

is directly proportional to the increase in gel/space ratio, regardless of age, w/c ratio,
or type of cement. While dealing with the porosity which has a strong influence on
strength and durability of concrete, it should be noted that in hardened cement paste,
there are several factors contributing to porosity such as trapped or entrained air (air
bubbles of 0.1 to several mm in size), capillary pores (0.01 to a few microns) exist-
ing in the space between hydration products, and gel pores (several nanometers or
below) within the layered structure of the C-S-H. The capillary pores have a large
effect on the strength and permeability of the hardened paste itself. Large pores may
be more effective than small pores in relieving stress concentrations at crack tips.
The relations for total volume of hydration products (cement gel) and the capil-
lary porosity which are based on the degree of hydration reported in literature do not
adequately model the strength characteristics.
As the hydration reactions of cement and fly ash reaction in high-volume fly ash sys-
tems are more complex than plain Portland cement systems, the role played by the gel/
space ratios of fly ash concrete mixes need further investigations. A presumption that
the correlation between gel/space ratio and compressive strength for fly ash concrete
may be the same as for Portland cement concrete can be good starting point.
 30 Concrete Technology

2.2.6 Physical Properties of Portland Cement

The cement to be used in construction must have certain given qualities in order
to play its part effectively in a structure. When these properties lie within a certain
range, the engineer is confident that in most of the cases the cement performance
will be satisfactory. Also, based on these properties, it is possible to compare the
quality of cement from different sources. Frequent tests are carried out on the cement
either on dry powder or hardened cement paste, and sometimes on the concrete made
from the cement, to maintain quality within specified limits. The important physical
properties of a cement are as follows.

1. Fineness The fineness of a cement is a measure of the size of particles

of cement and is expressed in terms of specific surface of cement. It can
be calculated from particle size distribution or one of the air permeability
methods. It is an important factor in determining the rate of gain of strength
and uniformity of quality. For a given weight of cement, the surface area is
more for a finer cement than for a coarser cement. The finer the cement, the
higher is the rate of hydration, as more surface area is available for chemi-
cal reaction. This results in the early development of strength. The effect
of fineness on the compressive strength of cement is shown in Fig. 2.13. If
the cement is ground beyond a certain limit, its cementative properties may
be adversely affected due to prehydration by atmospheric moisture. As per
Indian Standard Specifications, the residue of cement should not exceed 10
per cent when sieved on a 90-micron IS sieve. In addition, the amount of
water required for constant slump concrete decreases with the incrase in the
fineness of cement.

4.5
= 28 days
= 1 year
4.0
Compressive strength, MPa

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0
1800 2160 2520 2880 3240 3600
2 2
Cement fineness (Blaine), mm //g(x
( 10 )

Fig. 2.13 The effect of fineness of cement on the compressive strength of concrete
 Concrete Making Materials—I: Cement 31

2. Setting time Cement when mixed with water forms paste which gradually
becomes less plastic, and finally a hard mass is obtained. In this process of set-
ting, a stage is reached when the cement paste is sufficiently rigid to withstand
a definite amount of pressure. The time to reach this stage is termed as setting
time. The time is reckoned from the instant when water is added to the cement.
The setting time is divided into two parts, namely, the initial and the final set-
ting times. The time at which the cement paste loses its plasticity is termed the
initial setting time. The time taken to reach the stage when the paste becomes
a hard mass is known as the final setting time.
It is essential for proper concreting that the initial setting time be sufficiently
long for finishing operations, i.e., transporting and placing the concrete. The set-
ting process is accompanied by temperature changes. The temperature rises rap-
idly from the initial setting to a peak value at the final setting. The setting time
decreases with rise in temperature up to 30°C and vice versa. The setting times
specified for various types of cements are given in Table 2.4. For an ordinary
Portland cement, the initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes and
final setting time should not be more than 600 minutes. A phenomenon of
abnormal premature hardening within a few minutes of mixing the water is
termed false set. However, not much heat is evolved and remixing the paste
without water restores the plasticity and then the cement sets in the normal
manner with no appreciable loss of strength.
In practice, the length of time for which a concrete mixture will remain
plastic is usually more dependent on the amount of mixing water used and
atmospheric temperature than on the setting time of cement.
3. Soundness The unsoundness of cement is caused by the undesirable expan-
sion of some of its constituents, sometimes after setting. The large change in
volume accompanying expansion results in disintegration and severe crack-
ing. The unsoundness is due to the presence of free lime and magnesia in the
cement. The free lime hydrates very slowly because it is covered by the thin
film of cement which prevents direct contact between lime and water. After
the setting of cement, the moisture penetrates into the free lime resulting in
its hydration. Since slaked lime occupies a larger volume, the expansion takes
place resulting in severe cracking. The unsoundness due to the presence of
magnesia is similar to that of lime. The unsoundness may be reduced by
(a) limiting the MgO content to less than 0.5 per cent,
(b) fine grinding,
(c) allowing the cement to aerate for several days, and
(d) thorough mixing.
The chief tests for soundness are the Le Chatelier and Autocalve tests. The
expansion carried out in the manner described in IS: 269–1989 should not be
more than 10 mm in the Le Chatelier test and 0.8 per cent in Autoclave test.
4. Compressive strength It is one of the important properties of cement. The
strength tests, generally carried out in tension on samples of neat cement,
are of doubtful value as an indication of ability of the cement to make con-
crete strong in compression. Therefore, these are largely being superseded
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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temple of Æsymnetes, which is near the sea on the right as you go
from the market-place. And as you go lower down from the temple of
Æsymnetes there is a temple and stone statue to Recovery,
originally they say erected by Eurypylus when he recovered from his
madness. And near the harbour is a temple of Poseidon, and his
statue erect in white stone. Poseidon, besides the names given to
him by poets to deck out their poetry, has several local names
privately given to him, but his universal titles are Pelagæus and
Asphalius and Hippius. One might urge several reasons why he was
called Hippius, but I conjecture he got the name because he was the
inventor of riding. Homer at any rate in that part of his Iliad about the
horse-races has introduced Menelaus invoking this god in an oath.
“Touch the horses, and swear by the Earth-Shaker Poseidon that
you did not purposely with guile retard my chariot.”[11]
And Pamphus, the most ancient Hymn-writer among the Athenians,
says that Poseidon was “the giver of horses and ships with sails.” So
he got the name Hippius probably from riding and for no other
reason.
Also at Patræ not very far from that of Poseidon are temples of
Aphrodite. One of the statues a generation before my time was
fished up by some fishermen in their net. There are also some
statues very near the harbour, as Ares in bronze, and Apollo, and
Aphrodite. She has a sacred enclosure near the harbour, and her
statue is of wood except the fingers and toes and head which are of
stone. At Patræ there is also a grove near the sea, which is a most
convenient race-course, and a most salubrious place of resort in
summer time. In this grove there are temples of Apollo and
Aphrodite, their statues also in stone. There is also a temple of
Demeter, she and Proserpine are standing, but Earth is seated. And
in front of the temple of Demeter is a well, which has a stone wall on
the side near the temple, but there is a descent to it outside. And
there is here an unerring oracle, not indeed for every matter, but in
the case of diseases. They fasten a mirror to a light cord and let it
down into this well, poising it so as not to be covered by the water,
but that the rim of the mirror only should touch the water. And then
they look into the mirror after prayer to the goddess and burning of
incense. And it shews them whether the sick person will die or
recover. Such truth is there in this water. Similarly very near Cyaneæ
in Lycia is the oracle of Apollo Thyrxis, and the water there shows
anyone looking into the well whatever he wants to see. And near the
grove at Patræ are two temples of Serapis, and in one of them the
statue of the Egyptian Belus. The people of Patræ say that he fled to
Aroe from grief at the death of his sons, and that he shuddered at
the name of Argos, and was still more afraid of Danaus. There is
also a temple of Æsculapius at Patræ above the citadel and near the
gates which lead to Mesatis.
And the women at Patræ are twice as numerous as the men, and
devoted to Aphrodite if any women are. And most of them get their
living by the flax that grows in Elis, which they make into nets for the
hair and other parts of dress.
[11] Iliad, xxiii. 584, 5.
 CHAPTER XXII.

A nd Pharæ, a town in Achaia, is reckoned with Patræ since the

days of Augustus, and the road to Pharæ from Patræ is about
150 stades, and from the sea to the mainland about 70 stades. And
the river Pierus flows near Pharæ, the same river I think which flows
by the ruins of Olenus, and is called Pirus by the men who live near
the sea. Near the river is a grove of plane-trees, most of them hollow
from old age, and of such a size that whoever chooses can eat and
sleep inside them.[12] The circuit of the market-place is large at
Pharæ according to ancient custom, and in the middle of the market-
place is a stone statue of bearded Hermes; it is on the ground, no
great size, and of square shape. And the inscription on it says that it
was an offering of the Messenian Simylus. It is called Hermes of the
Market-place, and near it is an oracle. And before the statue is a
hearth made of stone, and some brazen lamps are fastened with
lead to the hearth. He that wants to consult the oracle of the god
comes at eventide and burns some frankincense on the hearth, and
when he has filled the lamps with oil and lit them, he lays on the altar
on the right of the statue the ordinary piece of money, a brass coin,
and whispers his question whatever it is in the ear of the statue of
the god. Then he departs from the market-place and stops up his
ears. And when he has gone a little distance off he takes his hands
from his ears, and whatever he next hears is he thinks the oracular
response. The Egyptians have a similar kind of oracle in the temple
of Apis. And at Pharæ the water is sacred, Hermes’ well is the name
they give to it, and the fish in it they do not catch, because they think
them sacred to the god. And very near the statue are 30 square
stones, which the people of Pharæ venerate highly, calling each by
the name of one of the gods. And in early times all the Greeks paid
to unhewn stones, and not statues, the honours due unto the gods.
And about 15 stades from Pharæ is a grove of Castor and Pollux.
Bay trees chiefly grow in it, and there is neither temple in it nor any
statues. The people of the place say the statues were removed to
Rome. And in the grove at Pharæ is an altar of unhewn stones. But I
could not learn whether Phares, the son of Phylodamia, the daughter
of Danaus, or some one of the same name was the founder of the
town.
And Tritea, also a town of Achaia, is built in the interior of the
country, and reckoned with Patræ by Imperial order. The distance
from Pharæ to Tritea is about 120 stades. And before you get to it
there is a tomb in white stone, well worth seeing in other respects
and not least for the paintings on it, which are by Nicias. There is a
throne of ivory and a young and good-looking woman seated on it,
and a maid is standing by with a sun-shade. And a young man
without a beard is standing up clad in a tunic, with a scarlet cloak
over the tunic. And near him is a servant with some javelins, driving
some hunting dogs. I could not ascertain their names; but everybody
infers that they are husband and wife buried together. The founder of
Tritea was some say Celbidas, who came from Cumæ in the Opic
land, others say that Ares had an intrigue with Tritea the daughter of
Triton, who was a priestess of Athene, and Melanippus their son
when he was grown up built the town, and called it after the name of
his mother. At Tritea there is a temple to what are called the Greatest
Gods, their statues are made of clay: a festival is held to them
annually, like the festival the Greeks hold to Dionysus. There is also
a temple of Athene, and a stone statue still to be seen: the old statue
was taken to Rome according to the tradition of the people of Tritea.
The people of the place are accustomed to sacrifice both to Ares and
Tritea.
These towns are at some distance from the sea and well inland: but
as you sail from Patræ to Ægium you come to the promontory of
Rhium, about 50 stades from Patræ, and 15 stades further you come
to the harbour of Panormus. And about as many stades from
Panormus is what is called the wall of Athene, from which to the
harbour of Erineus is 90 stades’ sail along the coast, and 60 to
Ægium from Erineus, but by land it is about 40 stades less. And not
far from Patræ is the river Milichus, and the temple of Triclaria (with
no statue) on the right. And as you go on from Milichus there is
another river called Charadrus, and in summer time the herds that
drink of it mostly breed male cattle, for that reason the herdsmen
keep all cattle but cows away from it. These they leave by the river,
because both for sacrifices and work bulls are more convenient than
cows, but in all other kinds of cattle the female is thought most
valuable.
[12] See the wonderful account of Pliny. Nat. Hist. xii. 1.
 CHAPTER XXIII.

A nd next to the river Charadrus are some ruins not very easy to
trace of the town of Argyra, and the well Argyra on the right of
the high road, and the river Selemnus that flows into the sea. The
local account is that Selemnus was a handsome youth who fed his
flocks here, and they say the sea-nymph Argyra was enamoured of
him, and used to come up from the sea and sleep with him. But in a
short time Selemnus lost all his good looks, and the Nymph no
longer came to visit him, and Aphrodite turned the poor lad
Selemnus, who was deprived of Argyra and dying for love, into a
river. I tell the tale as the people of Patræ told it me. And when he
became a river he was still enamoured of Argyra, (as the story goes
about Alpheus that he still loved Arethusa,) but Aphrodite at last
granted him forgetfulness of Argyra. I have also heard another
tradition, viz. that the water of the Selemnus is a good love-cure both
for men and women, for if they bathe in this water they forget their
love. If there is any truth in this tradition, the water of Selemnus
would be more valuable to mankind than much wealth.
And at a little distance from Argyra is the river called Bolinæus, and
a town once stood there called Bolina. Apollo they say was
enamoured of a maiden called Bolina, and she fled from him and
threw herself into the sea, and became immortal through his favour.
And there is a promontory here jutting out into the sea, about which
there is a tradition that it was here that Cronos threw the sickle into
the sea, with which he had mutilated his father Uranus, so they call
the promontory Drepanum (sickle). And a little above the high road
are the ruins of Rhypæ, which is about 30 stades from Ægium. And
the district round Ægium is watered by the river Phœnix and another
river Miganitas, both of which flow into the sea. And a portico near
the town was built for the athlete Strato, (who conquered at Olympia
on the same day in the pancratium and in the wrestling), to practise
in. And at Ægium they have an ancient temple of Ilithyia, her statue
is veiled from her head to her toes with a finely-woven veil, and is of
wood except the face and fingers and toes, which are of Pentelican
marble. One of the hands is stretched out straight, and in the other
she holds a torch. One may symbolize Ilithyia’s torches thus, that the
throes of travail are to women as it were a fire. Or the torches may
be supposed to symbolize that Ilithyia brings children to the light.
The statue is by the Messenian Damophon.
And at no great distance from the temple of Ilithyia is the sacred
enclosure of Æsculapius, and statues in it of Hygiea and
Æsculapius. The iambic line on the basement says that they were by
the Messenian Damophon. In this temple of Æsculapius I had a
controversy with a Sidonian, who said that the Phœnicians had more
accurate knowledge generally about divine things than the Greeks,
and their tradition was that Apollo was the father of Æsculapius, but
that he had no mortal woman for his mother, and that Æsculapius
was nothing but the air which is beneficial for the health of mankind
and all beasts, and that Apollo was the Sun, and was most properly
called the father of Æsculapius, because the Sun in its course
regulates the Seasons and gives health to the air. All this I assented
to, but was obliged to point out that this view was as much Greek as
Phœnician, since at Titane in Sicyonia the statue of Æsculapius was
called Health, and that it was plain even to a child that the course of
the sun on the earth produces health among mankind.
At Ægium there is also a temple to Athene and another to Hera, and
Athene has two statues in white stone, but the statue of Hera may be
looked upon by none but women, and those only the priestesses.
And near the theatre is a temple and statue of beardless Dionysus.
There are also in the market-place sacred precincts of Zeus Soter,
and two statues on the left as you enter both of brass, the one
without a beard seemed to me the older of the two. And in a building
right opposite the road are brazen statues of Poseidon, Hercules,
Zeus, and Athene, and they call them the Argive gods, because the
Argive tradition says they were made at Argos, but the people of
Ægium say it was because the statues were deposited with them by
the Argives. And they say further that they were ordered to sacrifice
to these statues every day: and they found out a trick by which they
could sacrifice as required, but without any expense by feasting on
the victims: and eventually these statues were asked back by the
Argives, and the people of Ægium asked for the money they had
spent on the sacrifices first, so the Argives (as they could not pay
this) left the statues with them.
 CHAPTER XXIV.

A t Ægium there is also near the market-place a temple in

common to Apollo and Artemis, and in the market-place is a
temple to Artemis alone dressed like a huntress, and the tomb of
Talthybius the herald. Talthybius has also a monument erected to
him at Sparta, and both cities perform funeral rites in his honour. And
near the sea at Ægium Aphrodite has a temple, and next Poseidon,
and next Proserpine the daughter of Demeter, and fourthly Zeus
Homagyrius (the Gatherer). There are statues too of Zeus and
Aphrodite and Athene. And Zeus was surnamed Homagyrius,
because Agamemnon gathered together at this place the most
famous men in Greece, to deliberate together in common how to
attack the realm of Priam. Agamemnon has much renown generally,
but especially because with the army that accompanied him first,
without any reinforcements, he sacked Ilium and all the surrounding
cities. And next to Zeus Homagyrius is the temple of Pan-Achæan
Demeter. And the sea-shore at Ægium, where these temples just
described are, furnishes abundantly water good to drink from a well.
There is also a temple to Safety, the statue of the goddess may be
seen by none but the priests, but the rites are as follows. They take
from the altar of the goddess cakes made after the fashion of the
country and throw them into the sea, and say that they send them to
Arethusa in Syracuse. The people at Ægium have also several
brazen statues as Zeus as a boy, and Hercules without a beard, by
Ageladas the Argive. Priests are chosen annually for these gods,
and each of the statues remains in the house of the priest. And in
older times the most beautiful boy was chosen as priest to Zeus, and
when their beards grew then the priest’s office passed to some other
beautiful boy. And Ægium is the place where the general meeting of
the Achæans is still held, just as the Amphictyonic Council is held at
Thermopylæ and Delphi.
As you go on you come to the river Selinus, and about 40 stades
from Ægium is a place called Helice near the sea. It was once an
important city, and the Ionians had there the most holy temple of
Poseidon of Helice. The worship of Poseidon of Helice still remained
with them, both when they were driven by the Achæans to Athens,
and when they afterwards went from Athens to the maritime parts of
Asia Minor. And the Milesians as you go to the well Biblis have an
altar of Poseidon of Helice before their city, and similarly at Teos the
same god has precincts and an altar. Even Homer has written of
Helice, and of Poseidon of Helice.[13] And later on the Achæans
here, who drove some suppliants from the temple and slew them,
met with quick vengeance from Poseidon, for an earthquake coming
over the place rapidly overthrew all the buildings, and made the very
site of the city difficult for posterity to find. Previously in earthquakes,
remarkable for their violence or extent, the god has generally given
previous intimation by signs. For either continuous rain or drought
are mostly wont to precede their approach: and in winter the air is
hotter, and in summer the disk of the sun is misty and has a different
colour to its usual colour, being either redder or slightly inclining to
black. And the springs are generally deficient in water, and gusts of
wind sweeping over the district uproot the trees, and in the sky are
meteors with flames of fire, and the appearance of the stars is
unusual and excites consternation in the beholders, and moreover
vapours and exhalations rise up out of the ground. And many other
indications does the god give in the case of violent earthquakes. And
earthquakes are not all similar, but those who have paid attention to
such things from the first or been instructed by others have been
able to recognize the following phenomena. The mildest of them, if
indeed the word mildness is applicable to any of them, is when
simultaneously with the first motion of the earth and with the rocking
of buildings to their foundation a counter motion restores them to
their former position. And in such an earthquake you may see pillars
nearly rooted up falling into their places again, and walls that gaped
asunder joining again: and beams that slipped out of their fittings
slipping back again: so too in the pipes of conduits, if any pipe bursts
from the pressure of water, the broken parts weld together again
better than any workmen could adjust them. Another kind of
earthquake destroys everything within its range, and, on whatever it
spends its force, forthwith batters it down, like the military engines
employed in sieges. But the most deadly kind of earthquake may be
recognized by the following concomitants. The breath of a man in a
long-continued fever comes thicker and with much effort, and this is
marked in other parts of the body, but especially by feeling the pulse.
Similarly this kind of earthquake they say undermines the
foundations of buildings, and makes them rock to and fro, like the
effect produced by the burrowing of moles in the earth. And this is
the only kind of earthquake that leaves no trace in the earth of
previous habitation. This was the kind of earthquake that rased
Helice to the ground. And they say another misfortune happened to
the place in the winter at the same time. The sea encroached over
much of the district and quite flooded Helice with water: and the
grove of Poseidon was so submerged that the tops of the trees alone
were visible. And so the god suddenly sending the earthquake, and
the sea encroaching simultaneously, the inundation swept away
Helice and its population. A similar catastrophe happened to the
town of Sipylus which was swallowed up by a landslip. And when
this landslip occurred in the rock water came forth, and became a
lake called Saloe, and the ruins of Sipylus were visible in the lake, till
the water pouring down hid them from view. Visible too are the ruins
of Helice, but not quite as clearly as formerly, because they have
been effaced by the action of the sea.
[13] Hom. Iliad, ii. 575; viii. 203; xx. 404.
 CHAPTER XXV.

O ne may learn not only from this ruin of Helice but also from
other cases that the vengeance of heaven for outrages upon
suppliants is sure. Thus the god at Dodona plainly exhorted men to
respect suppliants. For to the Athenians in the days of Aphidas came
the following message from Zeus at Dodona.
“Think of the Areopagus and the smoking altars of the Eumenides,
for you must treat as suppliants the Lacedæmonians conquered in
battle. Slay them not with the sword, harm not suppliants. Suppliants
are inviolable.”
This the Greeks remembered when the Peloponnesians came to
Athens, in the reign of Codrus the son of Melanthus. All the rest of
the Peloponnesian army retired from Attica, when they heard of the
death of Codrus and the circumstances attending it. For they did not
any longer expect victory, as Codrus had devoted himself in
accordance with the oracle at Delphi. But some of the
Lacedæmonians got stealthily into the city by night, and at daybreak
perceived that their friends had retired, and, as the Athenians began
to muster against them, fled for safety to the Areopagus and to the
altars of the goddesses called the August.[14] And the Athenians
allowed the suppliants to depart scot-free on this occasion, but some
years later the authorities destroyed the suppliants of Athene, those
of Cylo’s party who had occupied the Acropolis, and both the
murderers and their children were considered accursed by the
goddess. Upon the Lacedæmonians too who had killed some
suppliants in the temple of Poseidon at Tænarum came an
earthquake so long-continued and violent, that no house in
Lacedæmon could stand against it. And the destruction of Helice
happened when Asteus was Archon at Athens, in the 4th year of the
101st Olympiad, in which Damon of Thuria was victor. And as there
were none left remaining at Helice the people of Ægium occupied
their territory.
And next to Helice, as you turn from the sea to the right, you will
come to the town of Cerynea, built on a hill above the high-road. It
got its name either from some local ruler or from the river Cerynites,
which rises in Arcadia in the Mountain Cerynea, and flows through
the district of those Achæans, who came from Argolis and dwelt
there through the following mischance. The fort of Mycenæ could not
be captured by the Argives owing to its strength, (for it had been built
by the Cyclopes as the wall at Tiryns also), but the people of
Mycenæ were obliged to evacuate their city because their supplies
failed, and some of them went to Cleonæ, but more than half took
refuge with Alexander in Macedonia, who had sent Mardonius the
son of Gobryas on a mission to the Athenians, and the rest went to
Cerynea, and Cerynea became more powerful through this influx of
population, and more notable in after times through this coming into
the town of the people of Mycenæ. And at Cerynea is a temple of the
Eumenides, built they say by Orestes. Whatever wretch, stained with
blood or any other defilement, comes into this temple to look round,
he is forthwith driven frantic by his fears. And for this reason people
are not admitted into this temple indiscriminately. The statues of the
goddesses in the temple are of wood and not very large: but the
statues of some women in the vestibule are of stone and artistically
carved: the natives say that they are some priestesses of the
Eumenides.
And as you return from Cerynea to the high road, and proceed along
it no great distance, the second turn to the right from the sea takes
you by a winding road to Bura, which lies on a hill. The town got its
name they say from Bura the daughter of Ion, the Son of Xuthus by
Helice. And when Helice was totally destroyed by the god, Bura also
was afflicted by a mighty earthquake, so that none of the old statues
were left in the temples. And those that happened to be at that time
away on military service or some other errand were the only people
of Bura preserved. There are temples here to Demeter, and
Aphrodite, and Dionysus, and Ilithyia. Their statues are of Pentelican
marble by the Athenian Euclides. Demeter is robed. There is also a
temple to Isis.
And as you descend from Bura to the sea is the river called
Buraicus, and a not very big Hercules in a cave, surnamed Buraicus,
whose oracular responses are ascertained by dice on a board. He
that consults the god prays before his statue, and after prayer takes
dice, plenty of which are near Hercules, and throws four on the
board. And on every dice is a certain figure inscribed, which has its
interpretation in a corresponding figure on the board. It is about 30
stades from this temple of Hercules to Helice by the direct road. And
as you go on your way from the temple of Hercules you come to a
perennial river, that has its outlet into the sea, and rises in an
Arcadian mountain, its name is Crathis as also the name of the
mountain, and from this Crathis the river near Croton in Italy got its
name. And near the Crathis in Achaia was formerly the town Ægæ,
which they say was eventually deserted from its weakness. Homer
has mentioned this Ægæ in a speech of Hera,
“They bring you gifts to Helice and Ægæ,”[15]
plainly therefore Poseidon had gifts equally at Helice and Ægæ. And
at no great distance from Crathis is a tomb on the right of the road,
and on it you will find a rather indistinct painting of a man standing by
a horse. And the road from this tomb to what is called Gaius is 30
stades: Gaius is a temple of Earth called the Broad-breasted. The
statue is very ancient. And the woman who becomes priestess
remains henceforth in a state of chastity, and before she must only
have been married once. And they are tested by drinking bull’s
blood, whoever of them is not telling the truth is detected at once and
punished. And if there are several competitors, the woman who
obtains most lots is appointed priestess.
[14] A euphemism for the Eumenides.
[15] Iliad, viii. 203.
 CHAPTER XXVI.

A nd the seaport at Ægira (both town and seaport have the same
name) is 72 stades from the temple of Hercules Buraicus. Near
the sea there is nothing notable at Ægira, from the port to the upper
part of the town is 12 stades. In Homer[16] the town is called
Hyperesia, the present name was given to it by the Ionian settlers for
the following reason. A hostile band of Sicyonians was going to
invade their land. And they, not thinking themselves a match for the
Sicyonians, collected together all the goats in the country, and
fastened torches to their horns, and directly night came on lit these
torches. And the Sicyonians, who thought that the allies of the
Hyperesians were coming up, and that this light was the campfires of
the allied force, went home again: and the Hyperesians changed the
name of their city because of these goats, and at the place where
the goat that was most handsome and the leader of the rest had
crouched down there they built a temple to Artemis the Huntress,
thinking that this stratagem against the Sicyonians would not have
occurred to them but for Artemis. Not that the name Ægira prevailed
at once over Hyperesia. Even in my time there are still some who
call Oreus in Eubœa by its old name of Hestiæa. At Ægira there is a
handsome temple of Zeus, and his statue in a sitting posture in
Pentelican marble by the Athenian Euclides. The head and fingers
and toes are of ivory, and the rest is wood gilt and richly variegated.
There is also a temple of Artemis, and a statue of the goddess which
is of modern art. A maiden is priestess, till she grows to a
marriageable age. And the old statue that stands there is, according
to the tradition of the people at Ægira, Iphigenia the daughter of
Agamemnon: and if they state what is correct, the temple must
originally have been built to Iphigenia. There is also a very ancient
temple of Apollo, ancient is the temple, ancient are the gables,
ancient is the statue of the god, which is naked and of great size.
Who made it none of the natives could tell: but whoever has seen
the Hercules at Sicyon, would conjecture that the Apollo at Ægira
was by the same hand as that, namely by Laphaes of Phlius. And
there are some statues of Æsculapius in the temple in a standing
position, and of Serapis and Isis apart in Pentelican marble. And
they worship most of all Celestial Aphrodite: but men must not enter
her temple. But into the temple of the Syrian goddess they may enter
on stated days, but only after the accustomed rites and fasting. I
have also seen another building in Ægira, in which there is a statue
of Fortune with the horn of Amalthea, and next it a Cupid with wings:
to symbolize to men that success in love is due to chance rather
than beauty. I am much of the opinion of Pindar in his Ode that
Fortune is one of the Fates, and more powerful than her sisters. And
in this building at Ægira is a statue of a man rather old and evidently
in grief, and 3 women are taking off their bracelets, and there are 3
young men standing by, and one has a breastplate on. The tradition
about him is that he died after fighting most bravely of all the people
of Ægira against the Achæans, and his brothers brought home the
news of his death, and his sisters are stripping off their bracelets out
of grief at his loss, and the people of the place call the old man his
father Sympathetic, because he is clearly grieving in the statue.
And there is a direct road from Ægira starting from the temple of
Zeus over the mountains. It is a hilly road, and about 40 stades bring
you to Phelloe, not a very important place, nor inhabited at all when
the Ionians still occupied the land. The neighbourhood of Phelloe is
very good for vine-growing, and in the rocky parts are trees and wild
animals, as wild deer and wild boars. And if any places in Greece
are well situated in respect of abundance of water, Phelloe is one of
them. And there are temples to Dionysus and Artemis, the goddess
is in bronze in the act of taking a dart out of her quiver, and
Dionysus’ statue is decorated with vermilion. As you go down
towards the seaport from Ægira and forward a little there is, on the
right of the road, a temple of Artemis the Huntress, where they say
the goat crouched down.
And next to Ægira is Pellene: the people of Pellene are the last of
the Achæans near Sicyon and Argolis. Their town was called
according to their own tradition from Pallas who they say was one of
the Titans, but according to the tradition of the Argives from the
Argive Pellen, who was they say the son of Phorbas and grandson of
Triopas. And between Ægira and Pellene there is a town subject to
Sicyon called Donussa, which was destroyed by the Sicyonians, and
which they say is mentioned by Homer in his Catalogue of
Agamemnon’s forces in the line,

“And those who inhabited Hyperesia and steep Donoessa.”

Il. ii. 573.

But when Pisistratus collected the verses of Homer, that had been
scattered about and had to be got together from various quarters,
either he or some of his companions in the task changed the name
inadvertently.[17] The people of Pellene call their seaport
Aristonautæ. To it from Ægira on the sea is a distance of 120 stades,
and it is half this distance to Pellene from the seaport. The name
Aristonautæ was given they say to their seaport because the
Argonauts put in at the harbour.
[16] Iliad, ii. 573.
[17] To Gonoessa, the reading to be found in modern texts of
Homer.
 CHAPTER XXVII.

A nd the town of Pellene is on a hill which is very steep in its

topmost peak, (indeed precipitous and therefore uninhabited),
and is built upon its more level parts not continuously, but is cut as it
were into two parts by the peak which lies between. And as you
approach Pellene you see a statue of Hermes on the road called
Dolios (wily), he is very ready to accomplish the prayers of people: it
is a square statue, the god is bearded and has a hat on his head. On
the way to the town there is also a temple of Athene made of the
stone of the country, her statue is of ivory and gold by they say
Phidias, who earlier still made statues of Athene at Athens and
Platæa. And the people of Pellene say that there is a shrine of
Athene deep underground under the base of her statue, and that the
air from it is damp and therefore good for the ivory. And above the
temple of Athene is a grove with a wall built round it to Artemis called
the Saviour, their greatest oath is by her. No one may enter this
grove but the priests, who are chiefly chosen out of the best local
families. And opposite this grove is the temple of Dionysus called the
Lighter, for when they celebrate his festival they carry torches into
his temple by night, and place bowls of wine all over the city. At
Pellene there is also a temple of Apollo Theoxenius, the statue is of
bronze, and they hold games to Apollo called Theoxenia, and give
silver as a prize for victory, and the men of the district contend. And
near the temple of Apollo is one of Artemis, she is dressed as an
archer. And there is a conduit built in the market-place, their baths
have to be of rain-water for there are not many wells with water to
drink below the city, except at a place called Glyceæ. And there is an
old gymnasium chiefly given up to the youths to practise in, nor can
any be enrolled as citizens till they have arrived at man’s estate.
Here is the statue of Promachus of Pellene, the son of Dryon, who
won victories in the pancratium, one at Olympia, three at the
Isthmus, and two at Nemea, and the people of Pellene erected two
statues to him, one at Olympia, and one in the gymnasium, the latter
in stone and not in brass. And it is said that in the war between
Corinth and Pellene Promachus slew most of the enemy opposed to
him. It is said also that he beat at Olympia Polydamas of Scotussa,
who contended a second time at Olympia, after coming home safe
from the King of the Persians. But the Thessalians do not admit that
Polydamas was beaten, and they bring forward to maintain their view
the line about Polydamas,

“O Scotoessa, nurse of the invincible Polydamas.”

However the people of Pellene hold Promachus in the highest

honour. But Chæron, though he won two victories in wrestling, and 4
at Olympia, they do not even care to mention, I think because he
destroyed the constitution of Pellene, receiving a very large bribe
from Alexander the son of Philip to become the tyrant of his country.
At Pellene there is also a temple of Ilithyia, built in the smaller half of
the town. What is called Poseidon’s chapel was originally a parish
room, but is not used in our day, but it still continues to be held
sacred to Poseidon, and is under the gymnasium.
And about 60 stades from Pellene is Mysæum, the temple of Mysian
Demeter. It was built they say by Mysius an Argive, who also
received Demeter into his house according to the tradition of the
Argives. There is a grove at Mysæum of all kinds of trees, and plenty
of water springs up from some fountains. And they keep the feast
here to Demeter 7 days, and on the third day of the feast the men
withdraw from the temple, and the women perform there alone
during the night their wonted rites, and not only are the men
banished but even male dogs. And on the following day, when the
men return to the temple, the women and men mutually jest and
banter one another. And at no great distance from Mysæum is the
temple of Æsculapius called Cyros, where men are healed by the
god. Water too flows freely there, and by the largest of the fountains
is a statue of Æsculapius. And some rivers have their rise in the hills
above Pellene: one of them, called Crius from the Titan Crius, flows
in the direction of Ægira.... There is another river Crius which rises at
the mountain Sipylus and is a tributary of the Hermus. And on the
borders between Pellene and Sicyonia is the river Sythas, the last
river in Achaia, which has its outlet in the Sicyonian sea.
BOOK VIII.—ARCADIA.
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