Nervous System

By Mr Tejas Gaikwad
Overview of nervous system
• The nervous system is one of the most complex and essential
systems in the human body. It serves as the control center,
coordinating various activities to ensure the body's proper
functioning. Here's a detailed explanation:
Definition of Nervous System
• The nervous system is a network of specialized cells
(neurons) and tissues that regulate and coordinate body
activities by transmitting signals between di erent parts of
the body.
Components of Nervous System
• The Nervous System is divided into three main parts:
•
•
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
•
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
•
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (a subdivision of the PNS)
Central Nervous System
• Components:
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
•
• Functions:
• Serves as the command center of the body.
• Processes and integrates sensory information.
• Initiates motor output to muscles and glands.
Peripheral Nervous
• Components:
• Nerves outside the CNS i.e
• Cranial Nerves
• Spinal Nerves
•
• Functions:
• Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
• Transmits sensory input to the CNS.
• Carries motor output to e ectors like muscles and glands.
Autonomic Nervous System
• Part of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Divisions:
• Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the "fight or flight" response.
• Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes "rest and digest" functions.
•
• Functions:
• Controls involuntary activities such as:
• Heart rate
• Digestion
• Respiration
• Nervous System is made up of two types of cells.
• Neurons and Glial Cells
• Neurons
• Neurons are the primary functional cells of the nervous system,
responsible for transmitting and processing information throughout
the body. They are often called nerve cells.
Neuron
 Definition Of Neuron
• A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is the fundamental unit of the
nervous system responsible for transmitting information throughout
the body. Neurons are specialized cells designed to receive, process,
and transmit signals, enabling communication within the nervous
system.
 Structure of Neuron

• The cell body is the central part of the neuron that contains
the nucleus and most of the cell's organelles.
•
• Nucleus: Contains the neuron’s genetic material (DNA) and
controls cell activities.
•
• Nissl Bodies: Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) visible
under the microscope, responsible for synthesizing proteins
necessary for neurotransmitter production and other cellular
functions.
• Cytoplasm: Contains other organelles like mitochondria (energy
production), Golgi apparatus (processing and packaging proteins),
and lysosomes (digestive enzymes).Function: Integrates incoming
signals from dendrites and generates an outgoing signal to the
axon if the threshold is met.
• Dendrites
• Dendrites are tree-like, branched projections that extend from the
cell body.
• They are the primary sites for receiving signals (synaptic inputs)
from other neurons.
• Each dendrite has numerous dendritic spines, which increase the
surface area for synapses and improve communication.
• Function: Collect electrical signals from other neurons and pass
them to the cell body. They act as the "antennae" of the neuron.
• Axon
• A single, long projection from the cell body, often called the nerve
fiber.
• Axon Hillock: A specialized region at the junction of the cell body and
axon. It’s where the decision to initiate an action potential occurs.
• Axoplasm: Cytoplasm of the axon, containing microtubules and
neurofilaments for structural support and intracellular transport.
• Axon Terminals (Synaptic Boutons): The ends of the axon that make
contact with target cells (other neurons, muscles, or glands) and contain
synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
• Function: Conducts electrical impulses (action potentials) away from
the cell body to other neurons or e ectors (muscles or glands).
• Myelin Sheath:
• The myelin sheath is a segmented, fatty layer covering the axon, formed by
specialized glial cells:
• In the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Myelin is formed by Schwann
cells.
• In the Central Nervous System (CNS): Myelin is formed by
oligodendrocytes.
•
• Function of Myelin:
• Acts as an insulator to speed up the transmission of electrical signals
along the axon.
• Increases the e ciency of nerve signal transmission by reducing electrical
leakage.
• Nodes of Ranvier:
• Small gaps between adjacent segments of the myelin sheath.
• Rich in voltage-gated ion channels, allowing the action potential to
"jump" from node to node in a process called saltatory conduction.
• This rapid transmission conserves energy and increases speed.
• Synapse (Neuronal Junction)
• The synapse is the junction where communication occurs between two neurons or
between a neuron and another cell type (muscle/gland).
• Presynaptic Neuron: The neuron that sends the signal.
• Synaptic Cleft: The small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells.
• Postsynaptic Neuron: The neuron that receives the signal.
• Synaptic Transmission:
• The presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) from
synaptic vesicles.
• Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane, initiating a response (excitatory or inhibitory).
Functional classification of Neuron
• Sensory Neurons (A erent Neurons):
• Function: Carry sensory information from the body's tissues and organs to
the Central Nervous System (CNS).
• Example: Detecting heat, touch, or light and sending the signals to the
brain.
•
• Motor Neurons (E erent Neurons):
• Function: Send signals from the CNS to muscles and glands, causing them
to act.
• Example: Telling your muscles to move your hand away from something hot.
• Interneurons (Relay Neurons):
• Function: Connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS,
processing information and forming complex networks.
• Example: Found in the brain and spinal cord for decision-making
and reflexes.
Structural classification of Neuron
• Neurons can be classified based on their structure (number of
extensions from the cell body) into three main types: Unipolar,
Bipolar, and Multipolar. Each type has a unique structure that
reflects its function within the nervous system.
Unipolar Neurons

Structure: A single extension (axon) that emerges from the cell body, which then
splits into two branches: one that functions like a dendrite (to receive signals) and
another that functions like an axon (to send signals).

Function: Primarily involved in sensory pathways, transmitting sensory information

from the body to the CNS.

Location: Commonly found in sensory neurons of the Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS), such as those in the skin that detect touch, pressure, and pain.
• Bipolar NeuronsStructure:
• Have two extensions (one dendrite and one axon) emerging from
opposite sides of the cell body.Function: Specialized for transmitting
specific sensory information.Location: Found in specialized sensory
organs, like the retina of the eye (vision), the olfactory epithelium in
the nose (smell), and the inner ear (hearing
Multipolar Neurons
Structure: Have multiple extensions – one long axon and two or more dendrites. This is the
most common type of neuron.
Function: Involved in integrating information from other neurons and sending motor
commands.
Location: Commonly found in the Central Nervous System (CNS), including the brain and
spinal cord, and in motor neurons that control muscles.
• Glial Cells
• Glial cells (or glia) are the supporting cells of the nervous system.
They do not transmit electrical signals like neurons but are crucial
for maintaining a healthy environment for neurons to function.
Types of glial cells
• Astrocytes (in CNS):
• Function: Provide nutrients to neurons, maintain the blood-brain
barrier, and support brain structure.
• Location: Found in the brain and spinal cord.
•
• Oligodendrocytes (in CNS):

• Function: Form the myelin sheath around neurons in the CNS,

helping with faster transmission of electrical signals.
• Location: Found only in the CNS (brain and spinal cord).
• Schwann Cells (in PNS):
• Function: Form the myelin sheath around neurons in the PNS, assisting
in faster nerve signal transmission.
• Location: Found only in the PNS (nerves outside the brain and spinal
cord).
•
• Microglia (in CNS):
• Function: Act as the immune cells of the CNS, cleaning up debris,
damaged cells, and fighting infections.
• Location: Found in the CNS, scattered throughout the brain and spinal
cord.
• Ependymal Cells (in CNS):
• Function: Produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which
cushions the brain and spinal cord.
• Location: Line the cavities of the brain (ventricles) and central
canal of the spinal cord.
What is the structure and function of a neuron? Draw a well-labelled diagram.
Year: Winter 2018
• 1. Definition of Nerve Impulse:
• A nerve impulse is an electrical signal generated by a rapid
change in membrane potential that travels along the axon of a
neuron. It is also referred to as an action potential.
Mechanisms of impulse conduction
• A. Graded Potential:
• Small changes in membrane potential occur in the dendrites and
soma due to synaptic input.
• If the graded potential is strong enough to reach the threshold at
the axon hillock(-55mV) , an action potential is initiated.
• B. Action Potential:
• The action potential is a self-propagating wave of depolarization
and repolarization along the axon.
• It is an all-or-none phenomenon: once initiated, it travels the length
of the axon without losing strength.
• C. Saltatory Conduction:
• In myelinated axons, the action potential jumps from one Node of
Ranvier to the next.
• This process speeds up impulse conduction and conserves energy.
• D. Synaptic Transmission:
• The action potential reaches the axon terminal.
• Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open, allowing Ca²⁺ to enter the terminal.
• Ca²⁺ triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
• Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron,
generating a new graded potential.
Phases of nerve impulse conduction
• 1. Resting Membrane Potential (RMP):
• Definition: The resting state of a neuron when it is not transmitting a signal.At resting
state the inside of the neuron is more negative compared to the outside Around -70
mV.
• Ion Distribution:
• High Na⁺ concentration outside the cell.
• High K⁺ concentration inside the cell.
• Cl⁻ and negatively charged proteins inside the cell contribute to the negative charge.
• Maintenance:
• The sodium-potassium pump actively transports 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions in,
maintaining the ion gradient.
• Leak channels allow some K⁺ to leave the cell, making the inside more negative.
• 2. Depolarization:
• When a stimulus reaches the neuron and threshold potential is
achieved (-55 mV), voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open.
• Na⁺ rushes into the neuron due to the concentration gradient.
• The membrane potential becomes less negative and may rise to
+30 mV.
• 3. Repolarization (Recovery Phase):
• Once the membrane potential reaches +30 mV:
• Na⁺ channels close, stopping Na⁺ influx.
• Voltage-gated K⁺ channels open, allowing K⁺ to flow out.
• The inside of the cell becomes negative again as the charge returns
toward -70 mV.
• 4. Hyperpolarization (Overcorrection Phase):
• K⁺ channels close slowly, causing the membrane potential to
become more negative than the resting level (~ -90 mV).
• This ensures the neuron cannot fire another impulse immediately
(refractory period).
• 5. Restoration (Resting Phase Again):
• The sodium-potassium pump restores the original ion distributions:
• Pumps 3 Na⁺ out of the cell.
• Pumps 2 K⁺ into the cell.
•
• The membrane potential stabilizes back to -70 mV (RMP).
• The neuron is now back to its resting state (-70 mV) and ready for
the next impulse.
• Factors A ecting Nerve Impulse Conduction
• Myelination:
• Myelinated neurons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated ones.
• Axon Diameter:
• Larger-diameter axons have lower resistance and conduct impulses faster.
• Temperature:
• Higher temperatures increase the speed of conduction (up to a limit).
• Strength of Stimulus:
• A stronger stimulus can trigger more frequent impulses but does not a ect
individual impulse speed
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