NATURE OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

Since biogeography frequently pertains to the study of the physical environment and how it
influenced species and shaped their distribution throughout the world, it is typically regarded
as a subfield of physical geography. Biogeography is the study of the past and present
distribution of the numerous animal and plant species found in the world.
In the middle of the 1800s, Alfred Russel Wallace conducted research on the flora and fauna
distribution in the Malay Archipelago and the Amazon Basin. He is regarded as the "father of
biogeography" because of his groundbreaking study that advanced the field.

MEANING AND NATURE:

The term “Biogeography” comes from the union of two words Bio+geography. ‘Bio’ means
‘biology a science deals with living phenomena' and 'Geography’ means a science related to both
living as well as non-living phenomena'. Geography forms the habitat and living phenomena
survive in that. In other words the study of the biosphere is called biogeography, which
includes the consideration of the physical environment, soil, animals and plants

According to Browne, “Biogeography as the branch of physical geography; geography of

organic life, the study of spatial distribution of animate nature, including both plants and
animals and the processes that produce variations in the patterns of distribution”.

According to J. Tivy, “Biogeography, as the term indicates, is both a biological and a

geographical science. Its field of study is the biologically inhabited part of the lithosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere- or, as it has become known-the biosphere”.

Margaret Anderson defined “biogeography as the essence of biological relation between man
( considered as animal) and the whole of the animate and inanimate environment”.
Biogeography as a science is the synthesis of concepts and information from geology,
climatology, pedology, geomorphology as well as botany, zoology, physical geography,
evolutionary biology, and ecology etc.
The goals of biogeography are to better understand the complex relationships between living
organisms and their environments, to identify areas of high biodiversity and conservation value,
and to develop strategies for protecting and managing these areas.

It explores the factors that contribute to the distribution of plants and animals, including the
physical and climatic features of different regions, the historical and geological events that have
shaped the landscape, and the interactions between species and their habitats.

It seeks to understand the patterns and processes that shape the diversity of life across space and
time. Biogeographers help better understand the complex and dynamic relationships between
living organisms and the natural world around them.

Our earth possesses mainly two kinds of spheres, i. e

a) non-living spheres (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) and

b )the living sphere (the sphere of living organisms) or the biosphere.

Biogeography has been mainly concerned with the sphere of living organisms.
It deals with the relation of geographical factors with plant and animal life.

Biogeography covers important linkages between man and his physical as well as
biological environment. It is not only related to biology and geography together but its
compass of knowledge covers 1he productive forces of the environment where the role of man
is most challenging.
 SCOPE OF BIOGEOGRAPHY

The scope of biogeography is quite broad, as it encompasses the study of the

distribution and interactions of living organisms across a wide range of spatial and
temporal scales.

It also encompasses the many different areas of study and providing a framework for
understanding the complex relationships between living organisms and their
environments.

Biogeography, in its broadest sense, attempts to understand the interactions between

and among the environment, animals, plants, and man, all of which constitute the
sub-systems of the global ecosystem.

Thus bio-geographical studies include:

● Biogeography helps in knowing how different species have adapted to different

geographic regions.
● It helps other sciences in understanding the animals’ and plants’ life and their
distribution on the Earth.
● It studies help the understanding of the rapid depletion of the biotic
community mainly due to human action.
● The study of biogeography helps in providing solutions to various
environmental problems.
● To evaluate the ecological potential of the area for a species of plants or animals.
● To analyze the spatial and temporal affinities between individual organisms and
populations.
● To examine, by means of experimental analysis, the relationship between
complex ecological systems and propagation areas e.g. in a forest, grassland,
pond, or estuary.
● To evaluate the ecological potential of the area for a species of plant or animal.
The potential may be influenced by abiotic factors like soil, relief, amount of
nutrients present in a given area, climatic conditions of temperature, rainfall,
and moisture or by biotic factors like the methods of dispersal of that species,
behavior towards environment, reproductive rate, adaptations to environment,
etc.
 ● To measure the impact of anthropogenic factors which are responsible for the
growth or extinction of certain species in a region as human behavior is diverse
in every region due to environmental variations.

However, the primary subject matter of biogeography comprises the analysis and
interpretation of different aspects of living organisms including plants and animals of the
biospheric ecosystem.

Thus, on the basis of plant and animal, biogeography is divided into three basic branches and
these three also divided in sub-discipline. They are given below :

1. Plant Biogeography or Phytogeography

The study of plants communities as social groups in terms of their evolution, spatial and
temporal changes, dispersal and distribution patterns, processes and causes of their spatial
variations and ecological changes through time, their interactions with the environment of
their habitats and responses coming there from etc., is called phytogeography (plant
geography).

2. Zoogeography or Animal Geography

The study of animal communities of both land and marine habitats and environment in terms
of speciation and evolution, dispersal, extinction and distribution patterns of animals,
interactions of animals with environment, responses of animal communities to. Zoogeography
also studies the abilities of animals to adapt to varying environmental conditions of their
habitats which vary both spatially-and temporally.

3. Pedology or Soil Geography Phytogeography :

Soil geography or pedology is also the subject matter of biogeography . It is the study of soils in
their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being
edaphology. Pedology deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification, while
edaphology studies the way soils influence plants, fungi, and other living things.

Biogeography plays an important role in our understanding of the natural world, by helping us
to identify areas of high biodiversity and conservation value, and by informing strategies for
protecting and managing these areas. It also has practical applications in fields like agriculture,
forestry, and public health, by providing insights into the spread of diseases, the impacts of
land-use change, and the effects of climate change on ecosystems.
 TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY

There are three essential types of biodiversity, which are listed below:

○ Species Biodiversity

○ Genetic Biodiversity

○ Ecological Biodiversity

SPECIES DIVERSITY:

The term "species diversity" describes a collection of related creatures that usually mate to
create progeny. Frequently, they have the same ancestry. The most fundamental classification
unit, species diversity, encompasses all species, from different bacteria to plants. Furthermore,
there is variability among two individuals belonging to the same species group; they are not
exactly alike. Two other people are not the same, for example. Aside from this, there is a great
deal of variation among people who live in completely different places.

A region's total number of distinct plant and animal species constitutes its species diversity,
which is observed in both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Approximately 5–10 million
species are thought to exist worldwide; nevertheless, only 1.75 million of those have received
scientific names to date. There are more species in certain places than others. 'Hotspots' of
diversity are often defined as areas with higher species richness. A place is considered to be
more biodiverse if it contains a greater number of species, which results in a more diverse
ecosystem.

GENETIC DIVERSITY:

It speaks of variations in an organism's genetic resources. A species' individuals are distinct

from one another based on their genetic composition. Every human being is unique for this
reason. Similar to this, there are various variants within the species of rice, wheat, maize, barley,
etc.

Because there are several gene combinations that can result in unique traits for each individual,
every member of every species of animal or plant is genetically distinct from other individuals.
The healthy reproduction of a species depends on this genetic heterogeneity.

By utilizing wild cousins of crop plants to develop new varieties of more productive crops and
improve domestic animal breeding, the diversity of nature is being utilized more and more in
modern times. Genes are altered by modern biotechnology to create a wide range of industrial
goods and more effective forms of medication. Despite the fact that all species descended from
a single common ancestor, species diverge over time to develop new, distinctive traits that add
to biodiversity.

ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY:

The intricate web of many species found in regional ecosystems and their dynamic interactions
is known as ecological variety. An ecosystem is made up of various types of organisms that
coexist in a given area and are connected to one another by the exchange of matter, energy, and
nutrients. These connections arise from interactions between individuals belonging to
different species. The Sun is the main energy source in nearly all ecosystems. Plants use solar
radiation to transform it into chemical energy. When animals ingest plants and are then eaten
by other species, this energy is released from those systems. Decomposing organisms release
nutrients back into the soil, which is how fungi obtain energy.
Therefore, an ecosystem is made up of both living (such as bacteria, plants, animals, and
fungus) and non-living (such as chemicals and the climate) elements that are interconnected
and engage in mutual interactions. The coexistence of plant and animal species linked by food
webs and the food chain is known as ecological biodiversity. Ecological diversity is also present
in a variety of environments, including mangroves, rainforests, deserts, and so forth. It is
typically seen in a region's many ecosystems.
 CARBON CYCLE
DEFINITION:
Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are interchanged among the biosphere,
geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.

CARBON CYCLE STEPS:

Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bio accumulated into their
bodies.
3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is released
back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually becomes
fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more carbon back
into the atmosphere

CARBON CYCLE ON LAND

Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters the
atmosphere through natural processes such as respiration and industrial applications such as
burning fossil fuels. The process of photosynthesis involves the absorption of CO2 by plants to
produce carbohydrates. The equation is as follows:

CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2

Carbon compounds are passed along the food chain from the producers to consumers. The
majority of the carbon exists in the body in the form of carbon dioxide through respiration.
The role of decomposers is to eat the dead organism and return the carbon from their body
back into the atmosphere. The equation for this process is:

(CH2O)n +O2 → CO2 + H2O

CARBON CYCLE IN OCEAN

This is essentially a carbon cycle but in the sea. Ecologically, oceans take in more carbon than it
gives out. Hence, it is called a “carbon sink.” Marine animals convert carbon to calcium
carbonate and this forms the raw building materials required to create hard shells, similar to the
ones found in clams and oysters.

When organisms with calcium carbonate shells die, their body decomposes, leaving behind
their hard shells. These accumulate on the seafloor and are eventually broken down by the
waves and compacted under enormous pressure, forming limestone.

When these limestone rocks are exposed to air, they get weathered and the carbon is released
back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Phosphorus is an important element for all living organisms. It forms a significant part
of the structural framework of DNA and RNA. They are also an important component
of ATP. Humans contain 80% of phosphorus in teeth and bones.

Phosphorus cycle is a very slow process. Various weather processes help to wash the
phosphorus present in the rocks into the soil. Phosphorus is absorbed by the organic
matter in the soil which is used for various biological processes.

Since phosphorus and phosphorus-containing compounds are present only on land, the
atmosphere plays no significant role in the phosphorus cycle.

Steps of Phosphorus Cycle

Following are the important steps of phosphorus cycle:

● Weathering
Phosphorus is found in the rocks in abundance. That is why the phosphorus cycle starts
in the earth’s crust. The phosphate salts are broken down from the rocks. These salts are
washed away into the ground where they mix in the soil.

● Absorption by Plants
The phosphate salts dissolved in water are absorbed by the plants. However, the amount
of phosphorus present in the soil is very less. That is why the farmers apply phosphate
fertilizers on agricultural land.

The aquatic plants absorb inorganic phosphorus from lower layers of water bodies.
Since phosphate salts do not dissolve in water properly, they affect plant growth in
aquatic ecosystems.

● Absorption by Animals
The animals absorb phosphorus from the plants or by consuming plant-eating animals.
The rate of the phosphorus cycle is faster in plants and animals when compared to rocks.
 ● Return of Phosphorus Back to the Ecosystem
When the plants and animals die they are decomposed by microorganisms During this
process, the organic form of phosphorus is converted into the inorganic form, which is
recycled to soil and water.

Soil and water will end up in sediments and rocks, which will again release phosphorus
by weathering. Thus, the phosphorus cycle starts over.

Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle

A number of human activities, use of fertilizers, artificial eutrophication, etc. has a great
impact on the phosphorus cycle.

The phosphorus fertilizers increase the level of phosphorus in the soil. Overuse of these
fertilizers reduces the fertility of the soil and is also harmful to the microorganisms
present in the soil. When these are washed away into the nearby water bodies, they are
hazardous to aquatic life.

During the shipping of food from farms to cities, the amount of phosphorus that is
washed away in water causes eutrophication. This leads to the growth of algae. These
form algal blooms or die, which is toxic to the aquatic ecosystem.
 CLIMAX COMMUNITY

A climax community is the “endpoint” of succession within the context of a particular

climate and geography.
- It is characterized by a relatively stable and diverse community of organisms adapted to
the prevailing environmental conditions.
- It is often dominated by long-lived tree species and exhibits high species diversity,
biomass, and complexity.
- In a climax community,rates of birth and death of organisms are balanced, leading to
dynamic equilibrium where species composition remains relatively constant over time.
While individual species may undergo fluctuations in abundance, overall structure and
function of the ecosystem persist.
-A climax community will persist in a given location until a disturbance occurs.
However, in many ecosystems, disturbance occurs frequently enough that a matrix of
community types may be consistently present on the landscape.

● CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMAX COMMUNITY

The climax community in a succession shows the following characteristics:

➢ The vegetation of the climax community will have high ecological amplitude.

➢ They possess high tolerance towards the environmental conditions.

➢ They show rich diversity in species composition.

➢ The species composition remains constant for many years

.
➢ The community possesses a complex food chain system.

➢ There will be equilibrium between gross primary productivity and respiration.

➢ The energy used from the sunlight and energy released after decomposition will
be balanced.

➢ The uptake of nutrients from the soil and the release of nutrients back to the soil
by decomposition will be in equilibrium.

➢ The individuals of the community lost by its death are replaced by the
individuals of the same species.

➢ The climax community is considered as the manifestation of the climate prevailed

in the area.

➢ The ecosystem will be balanced and self-sustainable.

TYPES OF CLIMAXES IN ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

➢ (1) Climatic climax:

In this climax, the climax community of the succession is determined by the climate of
the region. The climatic climax will have only one climax community.

➢ (2) Edaphic climax

Here the climax community in the succession is determined by the soil (edaphic factor)
of the region.
The edaphic factors may include soil moisture, topography, soil texture and soil
nutrients.

➢ (3) Catastrophic climax:

Here the climax community is vulnerable to many catastrophic events such as wildfire,
snowfall and floods.
The catastrophic factors replace the climax community completely and this area will be
immediately invaded by new species.
 MAJOR BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE
WORLD

There are several major biogeographical regions recognized worldwide, often based on the
classifications proposed by biogeographers such as Alfred Russel Wallace and others.

One commonly used classification is the "Realms" system proposed by Udvardy in 1975.
According to this system, there are eight biogeographic realms:

1. Nearctic Realm
2. Palearctic Realm
3. Neotropical Realm
4. Afrotropical Realm
5. Indo-Malayan Realm
6. Australasian Realm
7. Oceania Realm
8. Antarctic Realm

1. Nearctic Realm: Encompasses North America, Greenland, and the northern part of
Mexico. This realm includes diverse habitats such as temperate forests, grasslands,
deserts, and tundra.

2. Palearctic Realm: Covers Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas, northern Africa, and
parts of the Arabian Peninsula. It includes diverse ecosystems ranging from boreal
forests to steppes, deserts, and tundra.

3. Neotropical Realm: Encompasses Central and South America, as well as the

Caribbean islands. It is characterized by extensive rainforests, tropical savannas, and
diverse mountain ecosystems.

4. Afrotropical Realm: Includes sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and other nearby

islands. This realm contains a wide range of habitats, including tropical rainforests,
 savannas, deserts, and Mediterranean shrublands.

5. Indo-Malayan Realm: Encompasses the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and

southern China. It is known for its tropical rainforests, mangrove swamps, and diverse
coral reefs.

6. Australasian Realm: Covers Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and neighboring
islands. It includes unique ecosystems such as eucalyptus forests, tropical rainforests,
and extensive coral reefs.

7. Oceania Realm: Includes the islands of the Pacific Ocean, such as Hawaii, Fiji, and
Polynesia. This realm contains a variety of habitats, including tropical rainforests, coral
atolls, and volcanic islands.

8. Antarctic Realm: Encompasses the continent of Antarctica and the surrounding

Southern Ocean. It is characterized by extreme cold and includes habitats such as ice
shelves, glaciers, and polar deserts.
 INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR
CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

IUCN RED LIST

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is a globally recognized inventory managed by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It assesses the extinction risk status
of various plants and animals, categorizing them from least concern to critically
endangeredThe Red List serves as a crucial tool for conservationists and policymakers, guiding
strategic initiatives to safeguard biodiversity and mitigate the impacts of human activities on
the natural world.

IUCN RED LIST CATEGORIES

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species was created in 1964. This is the world’s most
inclusive record of the worldwide conservation status of biological species. The Species are
categorized into nine groups by the IUCN Red List :

Extinct (EX): A species becomes extinct when the last existing member of that family dies or
no known individuals remain. A species said to be a taxon when there is no reasonable doubt
that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in
known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual) throughout
his historic range have failed to record an individual.

Extinct in Wild (EW): Undoubtedly the last member has died but the captive member
endures or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. A taxon is extinct in the wild
when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population well
outside the past range.

Critically Endangered (CE): The critically endangered species face an extremely high risk of
extinction in the immediate future. Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. A taxon is
critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria
A to E for Critically Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild.

Endangered (EN): The endangered species are the species which faces a high risk of extinction
in the near future. High risk of extinction in the wild. A taxon is Endangered when the best
available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered and it is
therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

Vulnerable (VU): High risk of endangerment in the wild. A taxon is Vulnerable when the best
available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable and it is
therefore considered to be facing high risk of extinction in the wild.

Near Threatened (NT): Close to qualifying among threatened species or likely to become
endangered in the near future. A taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against
the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered,
Endangered or Vulnerable now but it is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a
threatened category in the near future.

Least Concern (LC): Low risk to extinction. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category.
Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. A taxon is Least Concern when it
has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered,
Endangered, and Vulnerable or near threatened.