The Nervous System:

Introduction/Definition

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Synopsis
◼ The Nervous System:
◼ - Introduction/Definition
◼ - Functions
◼ - Divisions CNS and PNS
◼ CNS – Brief description of structure and division of brain
and spinal cord

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Introduction
◼ Neuroanatomy is the study of the nervous system. The
nervous system is the body's most complex, widely
investigated, and least understood system.
◼ It, along with the endocrine system, regulates the
functions of all other body systems.
◼ The whole nervous system is derived from the ectoderm
except its blood vessels and some neuroglial elements.

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The functions of the nervous system
1. Reception of sensory stimuli from internal and external
environments.
2. Integration of sensory information.
3. Coordination and control of voluntary and involuntary activities of
the body.
4. Assimilation of experiences, a requisite to memory, learning and
intelligence.
5. Storage of experiences to establish a pattern of future responses
based on prior experience.
6. Programming of basic instincts.
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 Morphological classification
◼ The nervous system is subdivided,
morphologically, into two
compartments
◼ The central nervous system
(CNS), the brain and the spinal
cord.
◼ The peripheral nervous system
(PNS), which emanates from and is
a physical extension of the CNS.

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◼ The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
 The brain is located within the cranial cavity and the spinal cord within
the vertebral canal.
 The CNS is responsible for integrating, processing, coordinating sensory
data, and giving appropriate motor commands.
◼ The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all the neural
tissues outside the CNS, such as
 12 pairs of cranial nerves,
 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and
 ganglia associated with cranial and spinal nerves.

◼ The PNS provides sensory information to the CNS and carries its
motor commands to the peripheral tissues and systems.
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Functional classification
◼ Functionally, subdivided into two components: the
somatic nervous system, which is under the individual’s
conscious control, and
◼ The autonomic nervous system controls a myriad of
activities in conjunction with the voluntary nervous
system.
◼ The autonomic nervous system is a tripartite organization,
in that it has a sympathetic, a parasympathetic, and an
enteric component.
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◼ Sympathetic: initiates the “flight or fight” response,,
◼ A parasympathetic: concerned with the body’s
vegetative activities.
◼ Enteric component: is involved in regulating the process
of digestion.
◼ All three work together to maintain homeostasis

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Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System
Autonomic Functioning
• Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
• Response to unusual stimulus
• Takes over to increase activities
• Remember as the “E” division =
exercise, excitement,
emergency, and embarrassment

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 Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System
Autonomic Functioning
• Parasympathetic – housekeeping
activites
• Conserves energy
• Maintains daily necessary body
functions
• Remember as the “D” division -
digestion, defecation, and diuresis
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◼ The autonomic nervous system acts upon three sets of
cells; glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
◼ The nervous system has two other functional components,
Sensory and motor.
 The sensory component collects information and transmits it to
the CNS (called afferent), where it is sorted, analysed, and
processed.
 The motor component delivers the analysis results away from
the CNS (called efferent) to the effector organs, i.e., muscles
and glands, resulting in response to the stimulus.

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Functional subdivisions of the nervous
system.
◼ Functionally also the nervous
system is divided into two parts,
the afferent division and the
efferent division.
◼ The afferent division brings
sensory information to the CNS.
◼ The efferent division carries
motor commands to the muscles
and glands.
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Functional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous System
• Sensory (afferent) division
• Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system

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Functional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous System
• Motor (efferent) division
• Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous
system

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 Functional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous System
• Motor (efferent) division
• Two subdivisions
• Somatic nervous system = voluntary
• Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

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 Cellular Organization of the Nervous System
◼ It consists of only two principal categories of cells,
◼ (a) neurons, and (b) neuroglia.
◼ Neurons form the basic structural and functional units of the nervous
system. They are excitable cells which are specialised for the
reception of stimuli and the conduction of nerve impulses.
◼ Neuroglia or glial cells are supportive cells that support the neurons
both structurally and functionally. The neuroglia are five times more
abundant than the neurons and account for more than half of the
brain’s weight.

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 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or
Glia)
• Astrocytes
• Abundant, star-shaped cells
• Brace neurons
• Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons
• Control the chemical
environment of
the brain (CNS)

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Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
• Microglia (CNS)
• Spider-like phagocytes
• Dispose of debris
• Ependymal cells (CNS)
• Line cavities of the
brain and spinal cord
• Circulate
cerebrospinal fluid

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Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

• Oligodendrocytes(CNS)
• Produce myelin sheath
around nerve fibers in
the central nervous
system

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Neuroglia vs. Neurons
◼ Neuroglia divide.
◼ Neurons do not.
◼ Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
◼ Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia cells, not the
neurons.
◼ Consider the role of cell division in cancer!

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 Support Cells of the PNS
• Satellite cells
• Protect neuron cell bodies
• Schwann cells
• Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

Figure 7.3e

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 STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL NEURON
◼ A neuron consists of a cell body
that gives off some processes
called neurites.
◼ The cell body is also called the
soma or perikaryon.
◼ It has a cytoplasm surrounded
by a cell membrane which
contains a large central
nucleus (usually with a
prominent nucleolus),
numerous mitochondria,
lysosomes, and a Golgi complex
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 STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL NEURON
◼ The cytoplasm has granular material
that stains intensely with basic dyes.
This material is the Nissl substance
(aka Nissl bodies or granules).
◼ The abundant granular endoplasmic
reticulum indicates a high level of
protein synthesis.
◼ The proteins are needed to produce
neurotransmitters and enzymes
and maintain neuronal repair.
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◼ The cytoplasm has neurofibrils as STRUCTURE OF A
seen with the EM, consisting of
microfilaments and microtubules. TYPICAL NEURON
◼ The centrioles present in neurons
may be concerned with the
production and maintenance of
microtubules.
◼ Some neurons contain pigment
granules (neuromelanin in the
substantia nigra).
◼ Ageing neurons contain a pigment,
lipofuscin (made up of residual
bodies derived from lysosomes).
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Neurites
◼ They are processes arising from
the cell body.
◼ These are of two kinds: many
short branching processes
called dendrites and one longer
process called an axon.
◼ The dendrites bear numerous
small spines that are of variable
shape.

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 Cytology of the neuron (AXON)
❑ An axon is a projection from the soma
with terminals and synaptic junctions up to
100 cm in length
❑ Connected to the cell body by the axon
hillock.
❑ Nissl bodies are seldom seen at the
axon hillock.
◼ Initial segment is a portion of an
axon from its origin to the beginning
of the myelin sheath, referred to as
the Spike trigger zone.
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 Termination of Axon
◼ An axon may give off a variable
number of branches. Some
branches, which arise near the cell
body and lie at right angles to the
axon, are called collaterals.
◼ At its termination, the axon breaks
up into several fine branches
called telodendria that may end in
small swellings (terminal boutons)

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Termination of Axon
◼ An axon (or its branches) can terminate in two ways.
◼ Within the CNS, it always terminates by contacting
another neuron at a synapse.
◼ Outside the CNS, the axon may synapse on an effector
organ (for example, muscle or gland) or end by synapsing
with neurons in a peripheral ganglion.
◼ Axon terminal form Bouton terminal

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 Synaptic Junctions
◼ Synapses are the sites where
impulses are transmitted from a
presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic
cell
◼ Presynaptic membrane contains
mitochondria and an abundance
of synaptic vesicles with
neurotransmitters,
◼ Postsynaptic membrane contains
receptors, and some dense
materials
◼ Synaptic cleft 20-30 nm width,
occupied by fine filaments
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 Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between
Neurons
• Impulses are able to cross the
synapse to another nerve
• Neurotransmitteris released from a
nerve’s axon terminal.
• Thedendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
• Anaction potential is started in the
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dendrite
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 Neuron Cell Body Location
• Most are found in the central nervous system
• Gray matter – cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers
• Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the
central nervous system
• Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central
nervous system

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Classification of
Neurons
Functional Categories
◼ Motor (efferent) neurons:
conduct impulses to muscles,
neurons, and glands.
◼ Sensory (afferent) neurons:
receive sensation
◼ Interneurons: local circuit
neurons, (located in CNS,
establish networks of neuronal
circuits (99 % of all neurons)
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Neuron Classification

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Classification of Neurons
Morphological Categories
◼ Multipolar (the most common
type of neuron)
◼ Bipolar (located in vestibular
and cochlear ganglion)
◼ Unipolar (located in dorsal root
ganglia)
◼ Depending on the shapes of their
cell bodies, some neurons are
referred to as stellate (star-
shaped) or pyramidal.
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Functional Classification of Neurons
◼ Motor neurons have the most common type of ‘body plan’
for a nerve cell - they are multipolar, each with one axon
and several dendrites.
◼ Sensory neurons are unipolar, meaning they only have
one axon, split into two branches.
◼ Interneurons: As the name suggests, interneurons are the
ones in between - they connect the spinal motor and sensory
neurons. They are multipolar, just like motor neurons.

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◼ Bipolar neurons have only two
processes that extend in opposite
directions from the cell body. One
process is called a dendrite, and
the other is the axon. Although
rare, these are found in the eye’s
retina and olfactory system.
◼ Unipolar (Pseudounipolar)
neurons have a single, short
process that extends from the cell
body and then branches into two
more processes that extend in
opposite directions.
(Pseudounipolar) One extends peripherally (peripheral process) and is associated with sensory
reception. The other extends toward the CNS (central process). Unipolar neurons are found
primarily in the afferent division of the PNS. 37
 The peripheral nerves
◼ The peripheral nerves comprise 12 pairs
of cranial and 31 pairs of spinal
nerves.
◼ Most of these nerves are composed of
motor and sensory fibres; therefore, they
are called mixed nerves.
◼ However, some cranial nerves are
composed of only sensory nerve fibres
(sensory nerves) or motor nerve fibres
(motor nerves).
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Cranial nerves
◼ 12 cranial nerves arise from the brain and leave the cranial cavity by
passing through the foramina in the skull.
◼ Three nerves (olfactory I, optic II, and vestibulocochlear VIII) are
composed entirely of sensory (afferent) nerve fibres. (Special
senses)
◼ Five of them (oculomotor III, trochlear IV, abducent VI, accessory
XI, and hypoglossal XII) are composed entirely of motor (efferent)
fibres,
◼ The remainder (Four) (trigeminal V, facial VII, glossopharyngeal IX,
and vagus X) are mixed.
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 Typical spinal nerve
◼ A typical spinal nerve arises from
the spinal cord by two roots: an
anterior root and a posterior
root
◼ The anterior root consists of
bundles of nerve fibres which
carry nerve impulses away from
the spinal cord; these fibres are
called motor (efferent) fibres.
Their cells of origin lie in the
anterior horn of the spinal cord.
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◼ The posterior root consists of bundles
of nerve fibres which carry impulses to
the spinal cord; (sensory (afferent)
fibres).
◼ The cell bodies of these nerve fibres
are located outside the spinal cord in a
swelling on the posterior root called
posterior root ganglion.
◼ The posterior root ganglion lie in the
intervertebral foramen.
◼ The spinal nerve roots unite to form a
spinal nerve. Thus, the spinal nerve
comprises both motor and sensory
fibres.
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 The Reflex Arc
• Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses
to stimuli
• Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an
interneuron, to an effector

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Simple Reflex Arc

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Classification of Peripheral Nerve Fibres
According to Function
◼ Efferent or motor fibres: carry impulses from the spinal cord or
brain to peripheral structures like muscles or glands. the cell bodies
of which are in the grey matter of the spinal cord or the brainstem
◼ Afferent fibres: carry impulses from peripheral organs to the brain
or spinal cord. Some afferent fibres are concerned with transmitting
sensations like touch, pain, etc.
 They are, therefore, also called sensory fibres and the processes are in the
sensory ganglia. In the spinal nerves, there are on dorsal nerve roots.

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Classification of Peripheral Nerve Fibres
According to Function
◼ The cranial nerve ganglia are similar to the dorsal root
ganglia, except that they are associated with the cranial
nerves.
◼ The sensory ganglions of cranial nerves are located on:
 The trigeminal nerve: trigeminal ganglion of Gasser
 The facial nerve: geniculate ganglion
 The acoustic nerve: spiral and vestibular ganglions
 The glossopharyngeal nerve: superior and inferior ganglions
 The vagus nerve: superior (jugular) and inferior (plexiform)
ganglions.

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 According to the Area of Innervation
◼ Somatic sensory fibres: They convey impulses
from skin, bones, muscles, and joints to the
CNS.
◼ Somatic motor fibres carry impulses from CNS
to the skeletal muscles.
◼ Visceral sensory fibres convey impulses from
visceral organs and blood vessels to the CNS.
◼ Visceral motor fibres: (aka autonomic motor
fibres) They carry impulses from CNS to the
cardiac muscle, glands, and smooth muscles
within the viscera. 46
NERVE FIBRES
◼ Axons (and some dendrites, which resemble axons in
structure) constitute what is commonly called nerve
fibres.
◼ The bundles of nerve fibres found in CNS are called
tracts, while the bundles of nerve fibres found in PNS are
called peripheral nerves.

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Structure of Peripheral
Nerve Fibres
◼ Each nerve has a central core
(axon), a plasma membrane
surrounding (axolemma) and a
myelin sheath surrounding the
axon.
◼ Myelin sheath form short
segments separated at intervals
(nodes of Ranvier). The space
between two consecutive nodes
is the internode.

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◼ Myelin sheath is formed by
one Schwann cell.
◼ Outside the myelin sheath is
a thin layer of Schwann cell
cytoplasm and an external
lamina called the
neurilemma.
◼ Neurilemma is important
in the regeneration of
peripheral nerves after Neurilemma is absent in oligodendrocytes
that form myelin sheath in CNS. Hence,
their injury. regeneration in the CNS is not possible.
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◼ Endoneurium is a loose, delicate
connective tissue surrounding individual
nerve fibres. It lies between the nerve
fibres within a nerve bundle.
◼ The perineurium surrounds each
fasciculus. The perineurium comprises
layers of flattened cells separated by
layers of collagen fibres. The
perineurium controls the diffusion of
substances in and out of axons.
◼ The epineurium holds together the
fasciculi. This is a dense layer of
connective tissue that surrounds the
entire nerve. It contains tiny blood and
lymph vessels. 50
• In the peripheral nervous system, a bundle of axons is
called a nerve.
• In the central nervous system, a bundle of axons is called
a tract.
• Each axon is surrounded by a delicate endoneurium layer.
• The course connective tissue layer, called perineurium, binds
the fibres into bundles called fascicles.
• A tough fibrous sheath called epineurium encloses all the
fascicles to form the nerve.
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Clinical Correlation
◼ The connective tissue of the epineurium, perineurium and
endoneurium is in continuity.
◼ The blood capillaries and lymphatics ramify in this
connective tissue. The major arterial occlusion in the
limbs may cause severe pain due to ischaemic neuritis.

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Clinical Correlation
◼ Injuries of the peripheral nerve can occur due to compression,
traction, trauma, injection, cuts, etc.
◼ The nerve injuries are of three types:
 Neurotmesis: In this, the axon and its myelin sheath are damaged.
 Axonotmesis: In this, the axon is damaged, but its myelin sheath is
preserved.
 Neuropraxia: In this, the axon and its myelin sheath are preserved.

◼ Recovery can occur in cases of neuropraxia and axonotmesis,

but functional loss is inevitable in the case of neurotmesis.
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 MYELINATED AND NONMYELINATED NERVE FIBRES
◼ Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS. A fold of the cell membrane of
the Schwann cell suspends the axon. This fold is called the
mesaxon.
◼ Lipids are deposited between adjacent layers of the
membrane. These layers of the mesaxon, along with the
lipids, and sphingomyelin, form the myelin sheath.

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NONMYELINATED NERVE FIBRES
◼ Nonmyelinated fibres are surrounded by Schwann cells but devoid of myelin
sheath. These unmyelinated axons invaginate into the cytoplasm of Schwann
cells, but the mesaxon does not spiral around them.
◼ Several such axons may invaginate into the cytoplasm, of a single Schwann
cell.
◼ In unmyelinated neurons, the impulse travels along the axolemma. Such
conduction is much slower than saltatory conduction and consumes more
energy.

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Conduction of Action Potential along an Axon
◼ Neuron maintains an ionic ◼ The conduction of action potential
gradient across its plasma along an axon. (A) In myelinated
membrane, thereby creating an axons, the action potential is
electrical potential called conducted from one node of Ranvier
to another (saltatory conduction).
resting membrane potential.
◼ (B) In a non-myelinated axon, the
◼ The action potentials are action potential is conducted along the
conducted more rapidly in entire length of the axon.
myelinated than nonmyelinated
axons.
◼ A myelinated nerve fibre can be
stimulated only at the nodes of
Ranvier.

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Myelinogenesis
◼ The myelination of peripheral motor roots is completed within
the first month of postnatal life; the sensory roots take longer
and complete their myelination in six months.
◼ The pyramidal tracts and the striatal pathways complete their
myelination in two to three years. However, the fine coordination
of movements which require the cortico-ponto-cerebellar
circuit, complete their myelination only by the fourth year.
◼ Teaching a nursery or play-school child to write, and expect
the writing to be neat, is against myelinogenesis!

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Myelinogenesis
◼ The fibres of the corticospinal tract, which control the
reflex emptying of the urinary bladder, get myelinated and
begin to function at 3-6 years of age. Therefore reflex
emptying of the bladder and enuresis (bed-wetting) is
normal in infants.

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Clinical Correlation
◼ A demyelinating disease is any condition that causes damage
to the protective covering (myelin sheath) surrounding nerve
fibres in your brain, the nerves leading to the eyes (optic
nerves) and the spinal cord. When the myelin sheath is
damaged, nerve impulses slow or even stop, causing
neurological problems.
◼ Multiple sclerosis
 Multiplesclerosis (MS) is the most common demyelinating disease
of the central nervous system. In this disorder, your immune system
attacks the myelin sheath or the cells that produce and maintain it.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
• CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
• The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
• The opening of the neural tube becomes the
ventricles
• Four chambers within the brain
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

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Organization of the Brain
◼ The basic parts of the brain are as follows:
 The cerebrum
 The diencephalon
 The brain stem
 The cerebellum
◼ The brain is organized into groupings of cell bodies (the gray
matter) and fibers (the white matter).
◼ The cerebrum and the cerebellum contain gray matter on the
outer edges with white matter below this surface.
◼ While the diencephalon and brain stem have the white matter
superficially surrounding internal pockets of gray matter 61
 Cerebrum
◼ Largest portion of the brain (>=80% mass) and responsible
for higher mental functions.
◼ Divided into left and right hemispheres by the longitudinal
fissure.
◼ The cell bodies in the outer cortex require more surface area
than the underlying white matter, which results in foldings.
◼ Unfolded, the brain is up to a total surface area of 1.2-2.6
m2

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The upfoldings are called gyri (gyrus, singular).
The infoldings are called sulci (sulcus, singular).
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General Appearance:
◼ Separated by a deep midline sagittal
fissure –longitudinal cerebral fissure
◼ The fissure contains falx cerebri and
the anterior cerebral arteries
◼ In the depth of the fissure, the corpus
callosum connects the hemispheres
across the midline
◼ Gyri – the folds of the surface of
hemispheres
◼ Sulci – the fissures separating the
gyri
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The Brain
◼ The brain, a bilaterally symmetric, soft, gelatinous structure
surrounded by its meninges and enclosed in its bony cranium,
is continuous with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum at
the base of the skull.
◼ At birth, the brain weighs less than 400 g, but by the
beginning of the second year of life, it has more than doubled
in weight to 900 g.
◼ The adult brain weighs between 1,250 and 1,450 g and
demonstrates a gender differential since the brains of males
generally weigh more than those of females.
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Exterior of the Cerebral Hemispheres
◼ Three major Fissures –
Deep grooves, generally
dividing large regions/lobes
of the brain
 Longitudinal Fissure – Divides
the two Cerebral Hemispheres
◼ Central Sulcus: Divides the
Frontal Lobe from the Parietal
Lobe

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Exterior of the Cerebral Hemispheres
◼ Transverse Fissure –
Separates the Cerebrum from
the Cerebellum
◼ Sylvian/Lateral Fissure –
Divides the Temporal Lobe
from the Frontal and Parietal
Lobes

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 Exterior of the Cerebral Hemispheres
◼ 1. Central sulcus: Indents
the superior medial border
of the hemisphere, 1 cm
behind the mid-point
◼ It runs downward, forward
and toward the lateral
sulcus across the lateral
aspect of the hemisphere
◼ It separates the frontal
lobe from the parietal lobe.
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 Lobes
◼ Each cerebral hemisphere is
divided into four (five) major
subdivisions or lobes.
◼ To consider the boundaries of
these lobes reference has to
be made to some sulci and
other features to be seen on
each hemisphere

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 Lobes of the cerebral hemispheres
◼ The four (five) lobes of the
cerebral hemispheres are the
 Frontal,
 Parietal,
 Temporal, and
 Occipital lobes, and the insula

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 Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
• Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from
the body’s sensory receptors
• Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal
muscles
• Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak

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73
 BRAIN
• Embryologically derived from 3
primary brain vesicles:
– Prosencephalon (Forebrain)
• 5th week,
• subdivide into :
– Telencephalon - Cerebrum
– Diencephalon - Thalamus

– Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
– Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain)
• subdivide into:
– Metencephalon - Pons,
Cerebellum
– Myelencephalon - Medulla

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DIENCEPHALON
◼ The diencephalon
“between brain,”
◼ It includes
 The thalamus proper
(or dorsal thalamus),
 The hypothalamus,
 The epithalamus, and
 The ventral thalamus
(or subthalamus).
.
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Thalamus

• Surrounds the third

ventricle
• The relay station for
sensory impulses
• Transfers impulses to
the correct part of the
cortex for localization
and interpretation
76
 Hypothalamus

• Under the thalamus

• Important autonomic
nervous system center
• Helps regulate body
temperature
• Controls water balance
• Regulates metabolism

77
Hypothalamus Epithalamus

• Forms the roof of

• An important part of the third ventricle
the limbic system • Houses the pineal
(emotions) body (an endocrine
gland)
• The pituitary gland
is attached to the • Includes the
hypothalamus choroid plexus –
forms cerebrospinal
fluid 78
 Brain Stem
• Attaches to the
spinal cord
• Parts of the brain
stem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata

79
Brain Stem Midbrain
• Mostly composed
of tracts of nerve
fibers
• Reflex centers for
vision and hearing
• Cerebral
aquaduct – 3rd-4th
ventricles

80
Pons Medulla Oblongata
• The lowest part of the brain stem
• The bulging
center part of the • Merges into the spinal cord
brain stem • Includes important fiber tracts
• Mostly composed • Contains important control centers
of fiber tracts • Heart rate control
• Includes nuclei • Blood pressure regulation
involved in the • Breathing
control of • Swallowing
breathing • Vomiting 81
Cerebellum
• Two
hemispheres
with
convoluted
surfaces
• Provides
involuntary
coordination
of body
movements
82
Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Scalp and skin
• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges

83
Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood brain barrier

84
 Meninges
• Dura mater
• Double-layered external covering
• Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
• Meningeal layer – the outer covering of the brain
•Folds inward in several areas

85
 CRANIAL MENINGES
◼ Made up of Three layers
1. Dura mater (dura): tough, thick
external fibrous layer.
2. Arachnoid mater (arachnoid):
thin intermediate layer.
3. Pia mater (pia): delicate internal
vasculated layer.

86
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Similar to blood plasma composition
• Formed by the choroid plexus
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
• Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord

87
Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

88
Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal
Fluid

89
Spinal Cord
• Extends from the medulla
oblongata to the region of T12
• Below T12 is the cauda equina
(a collection of spinal nerves)
• Enlargements occur in the
cervical and lumbar regions

90
Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Exterior white mater – conduction tracts

91
Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
• Dorsal (posterior) horns
• Anterior (ventral) horns

92
Spinal Cord Anatomy
• Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid

93
 Development Aspects of the Nervous System

• The nervous system is formed during the first month

of embryonic development
• Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful
effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain
to develop

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Development Aspects of the Nervous System

• No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth

and maturation continues for several years (new
evidence!)
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult
• However, we can always grow dendrites!

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