HES 102 - Biomechanics

Forces
Monday January 16, 2023

Using the equations from Lecture 1 (available on Canvas), take a

few minutes to solve for the unknowns:
Q1 Q2

4.5m θ b
a 4km
65° 5km
 Outline / learning objectives
• Define branches of rigid body mechanics
• Forces
– define force
– differentiate between various types of forces
– state Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

• Differentiate between weight, mass & inertia

• Friction
– define static, dynamic vs. limiting friction
– calculate friction force or coefficient of friction
– effects of reaction force and surface area
Branches of (Rigid-body) Mechanics
Mechanics

Statics Dynamics

Kinematics Kinetics
Branches of (Rigid-body) Mechanics
Statics – the mechanics of objects at rest or
moving at constant velocity

Dynamics – the mechanics of objects in

accelerated motion

Kinematics – the description of motion

Kinetics – the forces that cause changes in

motion
 Force
Defn – a push or a pull
– something that can cause an object to start,
stop, speed up, slow down or change direction
 Force
• SI unit of force is the Newton (N)

• 1N is the force required to accelerate a 1kg mass

at 1m/s2
i.e., Force = mass × acceleration (F = ma)

• Forces have:
– a point of application
– a direction
– a magnitude
 Internal vs. External Forces
Internal – forces that act within the object whose
motion is being investigated
External – forces that act on an object as a result
of its interaction with the environment
 Internal Forces
• Pulling forces are tensile forces (e.g., muscle)
• Pushing forces are compressive forces (e.g.,
bones)
• In the human body, internal forces can change
the motion of a body part but cannot cause a
change in the motion of the body’s centre of
mass
– an external force is required to change the motion
of the centre of mass
 External Forces
• Non-contact forces occur even when objects
aren’t touching each other (e.g., gravity)
• Contact forces occur between objects touching
each other
 Non-contact Force
Weight – the force of gravity acting on an object

recall:
Force = mass × acceleration (F = ma)
Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity (W = mg)
 Special note on direction
• For simplicity, you should always use the
following orientation when answering questions…
y+

x− x+

y−

• Thus, we will “always” treat gravity as negative

– to solve for potential energy (Ch. 4), gravity is
treated as a positive
 Special note on direction
• For example, what is the weight of a 15kg
turkey?
y+
x− x+
y−

W = mg
W = 15 × (−9.81)
W = −147.15 N
 Weight, Mass and Inertia
Weight – the force of gravity acting on an object
Mass – the quantity of matter composing an object
Inertia – property of matter related to the difficulty
in changing an object’s motion
– an object will exist in a state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line, unless
acted upon by an external force
 Weight, Mass and Inertia

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Z0X0yE8Ioc
 Weight, Mass and Inertia
Mass is the key
– it is the measure of inertia of a body
– it is used to determine weight (F = ma)
– it is constant at any location
Weight is dependent on the force of gravity

http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/
 Forces in Pairs
• Forces are paired such that the force exerted by
one object on another (action) is matched by an
equal and oppositely directed force by the
second object on the first (reaction)

*Newton’s Third Law of Motion

 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bTdMmNZm2M
 Contact Forces

Fig 1.3

• Force perpendicular to the surfaces of the objects

in contact is called normal contact (reaction) force

• In a simple system with a horizontal surface,

normal contact force (reaction force; R) is equal
and opposite to the weight of the object (+ value)
 Contact Forces

Fig 1.3

• Force parallel to the contact between two surfaces

is called friction
 Friction
• Friction is the result of the interaction between
molecules of the surfaces in contact
• Static friction occurs when two surfaces are not
moving relative to one another
• Dynamic friction occurs when two surfaces are
moving relative to one another
• Limiting friction refers to the maximal amount
of static friction just before the two surfaces
begin to move
 Calculating Friction Force
Friction force is proportional to the reaction force
(see Self-experiment 1.1/1.2)

static friction force (FS) = μS × R

where: μS = coefficient of static friction
R = reaction force

dynamic friction force (Fd) = μd × R

where: μd = coefficient of dynamic friction
R = reaction force
 Static vs. Dynamic Friction
• Static friction is greater than dynamic friction
(see Self-experiment 1.1)

Limiting friction
Friction force
Static
Dynamic

Applied force
 Coefficients of Friction
• Coefficients of friction (μ) vary by material and
can be solved if friction force and reaction
force are known
FS
FS = μS × R μS =
R
 Friction and Surface Area
• Friction force is unchanged by the surface area
in contact (see Self-experiment 1.3/1.4)
 Self-experiment 1.3/1.4

FS = μS × R

• The materials in contact haven’t changed so the

coefficient of friction won’t change

• The weight of the book hasn’t changed so the

reaction force from the desk is the same
 Textbook problems – Chapter 1
2nd edition
• Review Questions 2, 3, 5 on page 45
• Problems 1-7 on pages 45 & 46
3rd edition
• Review Questions 2-4 on page 45
• Problems 1-8 on pages 46-47
4th edition
• Review Questions 2-4
• Problems 1-8
 HES 102 - Biomechanics
Forces – part II
Wednesday January 18, 2023

Without looking at the notes from last day, try to answer:

Q1. In simple language, state Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion.
Q2. True or false, μs is greater than μd?
Q3. If the reaction force acting on an object triples, what
happens to the friction force?
 Outline / learning objectives
• Vectors
– differentiate between a vector and scalar quantity

• Net force
– define and understand what occurs when it = 0 or ≠ 0

• Vector addition
– differentiate between net force and resultant force
– co-linear forces
– concurrent forces (↔ or ↕)
 Outline / learning objectives
• Static Equilibrium
– how it helps us solve for unknown forces

• Free-body diagram (FBD)

– how to draw a FBD

• General steps to solving mechanics problems

– basic method to be used throughout the course
 Vector vs. scalar quantities
• A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude
(size) and a direction (e.g. velocity,
acceleration)

• In contrast, a scalar is a quantity that has only

magnitude (e.g. time, mass, speed)
 Force
• Recall that a force has:
– a point of application
– a direction represented graphically as a vector
– a magnitude (an arrow)

V1
 Force
• Recall that a force has:
– a point of application = tip of the arrowhead
– a direction = orientation of the arrowhead
– a magnitude = length of the arrow

V1
 Net Force
• Movement of an object depends on the sum of
all external forces acting on the object; i.e. the
net force (ΣF)

• If ΣF = 0, the object is at rest or in a state of

constant velocity (zero acceleration) and the
external forces are in equilibrium

• If ΣF ≠ 0, the object will accelerate in the

direction of the net force
 Vector Addition (Composition)
• To sketch a resultant force vector, we add the
component vectors tip-to-tail

V2 VR V2
+ =

V1 V1
 Vector Addition (Composition)
• The net force on an object is the vector sum of
all the external forces acting on it
– however, the numbers cannot simply be added up
because direction must be considered*

• The addition of ≥2 force vectors is termed

vector composition and will produce what is
called a resultant force
 Vector Addition (Composition)
• Net force = resultant force only if all forces are
included in the vector addition

+ + + =

Resultant force
= Net force
OR

Resultant force Resultant force

 Adding Co-linear Forces
• Simplest scenario: all forces acting on an object
have the same line of action (co-linear forces)

• Forces may act in the same direction or in the

opposite direction

© Bobcatnorth
http://www.flickr.com/photos/bobcatnorth/3029026016/
 Adding Co-linear Forces
* The only case of vector addition where forces
can simply be added together

• However, one has to keep in mind the direction

– choose one direction to represent a positive force
– all forces acting in this direction can be added
– all forces acting in the opposite direction are added
as negative numbers (i.e., subtracted)
 Tug-of-war Example
Team A has 4 players that pull with forces of 300,
250, 320 and 280N to the right. Team B has 4
players that pull with forces of 220, 370, 295 and
315N to the left. What is the net force?
− +
Team B Team A
 Adding Concurrent Forces
• Another scenario of vector addition involves
forces which do not have the same line of
action but act through the same point
(concurrent forces)

Fig 1.3

© McGinnis, PM (2013) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise,

Third Edition. Human Kinetics
 Adding Concurrent Forces
• If concurrent forces are directed only horizontally
and vertically, we can sum horizontal and vertical
forces (separately) to determine the horizontal
(Fx) and vertical (Fy) components of the resultant
force

• Then, we can use trigonometry to determine the

magnitude (Pythagorean Theorem) and direction
(tan ratio) of the resultant force
 Static Equilibrium
• If the object is at rest, we know that the net
force is equal to zero and the object is described
as being in a state of static equilibrium

ΣF = 0
 Static Equilibrium
• Knowing all horizontal and vertical forces sum
to zero (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0) allows us to solve for
unknown forces

F1 = 29N ΣFx = F1x + F2x + F3x

F3 = 50N
− + 0 = 29 + F2x + (−50)
F2x = 21N
F2 = ?
 Free-Body Diagram
Defn – a mechanical representation (drawing) of
the object (body) you are analyzing with all
external forces acting on it represented by
arrows (internal forces are not shown)
– arrows indicate the point of application,
direction and size of the forces

• Even if you are an artist, I recommend strongly

that you go with the simplest drawing possible
(e.g., a square, a circle, a stick figure)
 Constructing a Free-Body Diagram
1. From the question, select the appropriate body
or body segment to draw and create your
simple drawing
2. Draw all known external forces at their points
of application
– weight vector is drawn as a downward arrow at the
centre of gravity
3. Draw all unknown external forces at their
points of application
Steps for Solving Mechanics Problems
1. Draw free-body diagram of the object of
interest (sometimes you’ll need to draw >1)
2. Draw an appropriate axis system that defines
the positive directions
y+ 90°

x− x+ 180° 0°

y− 270°
Steps for Solving Mechanics Problems
3. Write out the equation(s) of motion applicable
to the problem
4. Expand equation(s) using information from the
free-body diagram and solve for unknown(s)
5. Write out the solution(s) with
(i) the direction and sign (+/−) based on axes drawn in
step 2
(ii) the correct level of accuracy
(iii) appropriate units
Sample Problem from textbook (p28-31)
A 50kg gymnast hanging from the high bar is
steadied by the coach pressing on the gymnast’s
front (20N) and back (30N). There is an upward
vertical reaction force of 550N exerted by the bar
on the gymnast’s hands. What is the net external
force acting on the gymnast?
 Solving the Problem
1. Draw free-body diagram of the object of interest
i. Select the appropriate body or body segment
ii.Draw all known forces at their point of application
550N
FBD
550N

20N 30N 20N 30N

500N
W = mg 490.5N
Fig 1.7 W = 50 × 10
© McGinnis, PM (2013)
*The textbook uses 10m/s2 for g, so W = 500N
Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise,
Third Edition. Human Kinetics W = 500N We would use 9.81m/s2 for g and get W = 490.5N
 Solving the Problem
2. Draw an appropriate axis system that defines the
positive directions

y+
550N
y+
550N
x− 20N 30N x+ 20N 30N
x− x+
500N
490.5N

y− y−
 Solving the Problem
3. Write out the equation(s) of motion applicable to
the problem

y+ ΣFx = F1x + F2x

550N

x− 20N 30N x+
500N ΣFy = F1y + F2y

y−
 Solving the Problem
4. Expand equation(s) using information from the
free-body diagram and solve for unknown(s)

y+ ΣFx = F1x + F2x

550N
ΣFx = 20 + (−30)
ΣFx = −10N
x− 20N 30N x+
500N ΣFy = F1y + F2y
ΣFy = 550 + (−500)
ΣFy = 50N
y−
 Solving the Problem
5. Write out the solution(s) – we need another
diagram before we get there y+
ΣFx = −10N ΣFy = 50N x− x+
y−

opposite
VR
a2+ =b2 c2 tanθ = adjacent
502 + 102 = VR2 50
50N tanθ =
2600 = VR 2 10
θ VR = √2600 θ = tan-1 5
10N VR = 51.0N θ = 78.7°
 Solving the Problem
5. Write out the solution(s) – the angle should be
described relative to an axis

The net force is 51.0N directed

left at 78.7° above the horizontal
OR
VR The net force is 51.0N directed
upward at 11.3° left of vertical
50N
θ2 = 90 − 78.7
θ = 11.3°
10N
 Textbook problems – Chapter 1
2nd edition
• Problems 8-13 on pages 45 & 46
3rd edition
• Review Questions 6, 7, 9, 10 on page 45
• Problems 9-15 on pages 47-49
4th edition
• Review Questions 6, 7, 9, 10
• Problems 9-15