Application

It is applied in automobile shock absorbers door closer mechanism and recoil

mechanism in gun.If the door closes without performing any oscillation, it is an example of
critically damped system.

Substituting for A in eq.( 3) dx Application

x  x0 ,  0 at t  0
Case 3 :  f   ( high driving frequency) dt
f0 . Sin ( f t   ) It is applied in automobile shock absorbers door closer mechanism and recoil
x From eq 5 we get x0  A1  A2
 2
 f
2
 4 2
f
2
A
f0
and A11  A2 2  0
mechanism in gun.If the door closes without performing any oscillation, it is an example of
critically damped system.
Application
The above equation shows that the system vibrates  2
f 
2 2 2
 4  f
2
x
Simplifyin g , A1   0 2 and A2 
x01
   (6) It is applied in automobile shock absorbers door closer mechanism and recoil
with the frequency of the applied periodic force 1   2 1   2 mechanism in gun.If the door closes without performing any oscillation, it is an example of
f0
When  f   and for low damping A x0 critically damped system.
and is having a phase lag of  . f
2
 Eq 5 reduces to x 
 e 2t   2 e1t
1   2 1

Different cases : Graph: Variation of Amplitude A with ω
Case(1)  f   low driving frequency 
f0
We have A This shows that x is always positive and decreases exponentially to zero without any
 2
f
2
 4 2
f
2
oscillations.The motion is called over damped or dead beat motion
F0
2 f0 m F0
Neglecting f , A  
2 k k
m
Amplitude does not depend on the mass of the oscillatin gbody,but depends on the
force constant.
case 2 :  f   (Resonance condition)
The particular frequency of the applied periodic force at which t he amplitude
becomes maximum is called rsonant frequency. when the frequency of the Sharpness of Resonance
Case 2: γ=ω
applied force is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator the smplitude When  f is increased or decreased from resonance frequency,the amplitude falls
from the maximum value. The roots of the auxiliary equation are real and equal each being equal to –γ. Period of oscillation T= =
will be maximum. This condition is known as resonance.
The general The oscillations are as shown in the figure.
f0 The term sharpness of resonance refers to the rate of decrease of amplitude with solution
the of eq (2) is then
Period of oscillation T= =
Amplitude at Resonance A max change in frequency of the applied periodic forceon either side of the resonant frequency. Equation (10) shows that the motion is oscillatory.The amplitude x 0 Is not a

x  ( A1  A2t ) e  t
2 f constant but decreases with time. The motion isThe
not periodic.are as shown in the figure.
oscillations
dx
Let Pr be the power absorbed at resonance and P , the power absorbed at any other x  x0 ,  0 at t  0
The amplitude of the forced oscillations at resonance is called resonant Here also if dt
frequency γ.
amplitude The constants A1 = x0 and A2 =γx0
The graph between P/ Pr and frequency is as follows Period of oscillation T= = 7
2 f  Hence the solution to the equation (2) is
Tan    ;   The oscillations are as shown in the Visit
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0 2 x  x0 (1   t ) e   t
 Effect of damping
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The displaceme nt lags the applied voltage by . Again x is always positive and decreases to zero.The nature of the motion is similar to
2 1. Amplitude of oscillations decreases exponentially with time.
that of case 1.But it is different from the non-oscillatory motion of case 1 .Hence this motion
The value of amplitude depends upon the Effectis of damping

4
is termed as critically damped. Here the particle acquires the position of equilibrium very 2.Equation
The time (10)
period of oscillation
shows that the of amotion
dampedisoscillator greater
oscillatory.The than the timex 0period of Is not a
amplitude
damping coefft,  .
3 10
At the frequency values the power absorbed is half of the maximum and these γ1 and γ2
values are called half power points.The frequency difference between these two half power
rapidly.

3
constantun damped(free)
but decreases oscillation
with time. The motion is not1.periodic.

undamped oscillation.
time the frequency
period of
of oscillation
un damped(free) oscillation 4
Amplitude of oscillations decreases exponentially with time.
3. The frequency of oscillation of a damped oscillator2.is less
The than of a damped oscillator is greater than the
Equation (10) shows that the motion is oscillatory.The amplitude x 0 Is not a
constant 3. time.
The frequency of oscillation of a damped oscillator is less than the frequ
points is called the bandwidth of the oscillator. 6 FORCEDbut decreases with
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR The motion is not periodic. 7
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TYPES OF WAVE MOTION
If an external For
force acts on a Visit
damped oscillatory system it is called a Forced
4

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Effect of damping FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
Here radius of the ring , r α ඥሺ૛࢔ െ ૚ሻ

There are two distinct types of wave motion. Harmonic Oscillator. The oscillations produced, under the action of external periodic force
on the body is calledEforced e 2 t
 E0oscillations.
The average energy over a cycle is given by If an external force acts on a damped oscillatory system it is calle
1.Transverse wave motion 1. Amplitude
The
t
 energy ofofoscillations decreases
a damped oscillator exponentially
decreases Harmonic withoftime.
Oscillator.
with the passage The oscillations
time. produced, under the action of externa
E The E0toetime For More Visit : ItKtuQbank.com
is
2.
possible periodfor
compensate ofthe
oscillation
energy lossofbyaapplying
damped oscillator
ona the
suitable
bodyexternal is greater
is called periodic than the time period of
forced oscillations.
When the
11 particle of the medium vibrate about their mean position in a direction force.Foreg: a 1 swing.
where undamped(free)
 is calledoscillation
the relaxation time( ) The energy of a damped oscillator decreases with the passage of
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves is called transverse wave. 2 
3. TheThe frequency
frequency of oscillation
of the of a damped
forced oscillation oscillator
will bepossible
different
tofrom isthe
less
compensate than
natural theenergy
for the frequency of
loss by applying a suitable external
For More Visit : KtuQbank.com Efrequency of the body.Let ωand
be the frequency of natural and ωf per
force.Foreg: the frequency
cycle. of the
a swing.
eg: Light wave, Ripples on the surface of water, waves produced in a stretched string 0 isthe initial energy E is the average energy
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT

forcedundamped
vibrations when oscillation.
the body is subjected to an oscillatory external force F 0sin ωf t.
under tension. The frequency of the forced oscillation will be different from the n
The Equation of motion is given by
Wavelength λ -distance between two consecutive crest or two consecutive trough d 2
x dx E0 FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR frequency of the body.Let ω be the frequency of natural and ωf the frequ
When m t   b, E  kx  F sin  t
e 0 f
forced vibrations when the body is subjected to an oscillatory external forc
dt 2 dt The Equation of motion is given by
( where Ifthe
anbase
external force acts on a damped oscillatory system it is called a Forced
d 2 x e bisdx k F0 natural log arithm.)
of 2
Harmonic Oscillator.
 x  The sin oscillations  (1) m dunder
 f t      produced, x the dx
 b action
kx  F0ofsin external
f t periodic force
2
dtthe m dt m m dt 2 dt
on body
Hence the relaxation
is called forced oscillations.
time of an oscillating system may be defined as the time taken by the
b 2 d 2k F
Let
system to reduce  2 where  is the damping coefft and
its average total energy to 1/e (1/2.72 =37%)   x ofbitsdxinitial
k
 energy.
x  0 sin  f t        (1)
m The energy of a damped oscillator decreases dt m
2
m dtwithmthe passage
m of time. It is
possible
Quality d 2x todx
Factor
 2
compensate
(Q2
x - factor)
for the energy loss by applying a suitable external periodic
f 0 sin  f t        (2) Let b  2 where  is the damping coefft and  2  k
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force.Foreg:
dt 2 dt a swing. m m
2. Longitudinal wave motion Quality factor represents the efficiency of the oscillator .
F0 d 2x dx 8
where f 0The frequency of the forced oscillation 2will  2be
 different
  2 x  ffrom
m 0 sin the
f t  natural
      (2)
When the particle of the medium vibrate about their mean position parallel to the Q - factor is defined as 2  times the energy stored
dt in the dt oscillator to the
direction of propagation of waves is called longitudinal wave. frequency of the body.Let
This is the differenti al eqn forω
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damped
: frequency
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harmonic of natural and ωf the frequency of the
oscillator
energy dissipated perwhen
cycle. F0
forced vibrations the body is subjected where to an foscillatory
0  external force F 0sin ωf t.
3

m
eg: sound waves. ie The Equation of motion is given by For More Visit : KtuQbank.com
This is the differential eqn for damped harmonic oscillator
2
Wavelength λ -distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions 2 dEnergy
x dx
stored in the oscillator
Q m  b  kx  F0 sin  f t
dt 2Energy dt lost per cycle
d 2 x b stored F
dx ink the oscillator
Here radius of the ring , r α ඥሺ૛࢔ െ ૚ሻ


2  Energy
  x  0 sin  f t        (1)
its ruled surface facing the collimator . The grating table alone is rotated until the reflected image of
dt 2
m per
Energy lost dt secm m
 Time period
RADIUS OF THE nth BRIGHT RING

the slit is obtained at the cross wire of the telescope.The vernier table is unclamped and rotated b 2E dE coefft and  2  k
through exactly 45 degree in the proper direction so that the surface of the grating becomes normal Let   2 where where Eis is
thethe damping
energy.  is the power dissipated per sec, P. But P  2E
to the collimator. The vernier table is clamped. Now the grating is set for normal incidence.
m dE dt m
Similarly in the simultaneous measurement of energy and time, if ΔE and Δt are the uncertainties we 2  T
d x dt dx
have ΔEΔt =¾ WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT GENERAL EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION  2    2
x  f 0 sin  f t        (2)
dtQ2  2E dt2E      
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT

The telescope is unclamped. The direct image of the slit is obtained in the telescope. From Consider a transverse pulse move in the positive direction of X-axis with a velocity v. PT 2ET T 2 2
Energy & time F  8
this position, the telescope is rotated slowly to the left until the first order image of the slit is After a time t , the pulse has travelled through a distance vt where f 0  0 
observed. The telescope is adjusted so that the vertical cross wire coincides with the line. Readings m
h of both verniers are taken. The telescope is now moved to the right and the cross wire is made to
This is the Q
 differentiFor
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E t  coincide with the line of the first order on the right side. The vernier readings are again taken. The 2 al eqn for damped harmonic oscillator
2 difference between the readings of the corresponding vernier on the left and right sides is
1
determined. The mean value of this difference is 2θ .The angle of diffraction θ for the first order (m=   , relaxation.time
1) is thus determined. Knowing the value of N ,wavelength of sodium light is calculated from the 2
Angular position and angular momentum

5
formula 2 2
h D  Dn
J 
2
ૃ ൌ ‫ܖܑܛ‬દn. k
࢓‫ۼ‬ 4kR
This is repeated for the second order (m=2) and then mean value of ૃ is calculated. 15
12
APPLICATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
MEASUREMENT
RAYLEIGH’S CRITERION OF WAVELENGTH
FOR RESOLUTION OFLINES
OF SPECTRAL LIGHT For More Visit : KtuQbank.com
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According to Rayleigh’s criterion for resolution ,two neighbouring spectral lines will be just From triangle ACK TYPES OF DIFFRACTION
1. Uncertainity in frequency of light emitted by an atom resolved when the principal maximum of one in any order falls on the first minimum of the other in
the same order Sin θ = AK/AC There are two classes of diffraction, namely ,Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction
An electron exists in an excited state only for a short interval of time.Thus Δ t is small ,then
Δ E must be large AK=AC sinθ FRESNEL DIFFRACTION
AK = (a+b) sin θ Either the source of light or the screen or both are at finite distance from the obstacle causing
Δt=10-8s
diffraction. Wavefront falling on the obstacle is spherical .Lenses are not used.
ΔE*Δt=ħ If (a+b) sin θ =nλ …….(1)

The uncertainty in energy, ΔE=ħ/10-8 where n=0,1,2,3….. two waves interfere constructively. This is called principle
E=hϑ maximum. For different values of n , there are different values of θ.
Let ȢandȢ+dȢ be the wavelengths corresponding to two neighbouring spectral lines of the From triangle ACK
ΔE=hΔϑ same order. Then, thetwo spectral lines are visible as separate when the principal maximum of If n=1, it is the first order principle maximum, if n=2, it is the second order principal
wavelength Ȣ+dȢ falls on the first minimum of wavelengthȢof the same order. maximum and so on. Thus on either side ofSin θ = AK/AC
central maximum ,a number of principal maxima
Δϑ=ΔE/h
are obtained.
RESOLVING POWER OF GRATING AK=AC sinθ
 h 
  1 =1.67*107Hz If there are N lines/unit length of the grating , there are N slit also.
   2
8 
* It is the ability to show two neighboring spectral lines in a spectrum as separate. AK = (a+b) sin θ
10  h N(a+b) =1 (unit length)
  The resolving power of a grating is defined as the ratio of wavelength of any spectral line to If (a+b) sin θ =nλ …….(1)
the difference in wavelength between two spectral line. If Ȣ and Ȣ+dȢ are the wavelengths (a+b)=1/N
where n=0,1,2,3….. Example
two waves interfere constructively. This is called :Diffraction at a straight edge
principle
of two neighbouring spectral lines, the resolving power of the grating is defined
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Substitute in equation (1)maximum. For different values of n , there are different values of θ. FRAUENHOFER DIFFRACTION
Ȣ/dȢ = nN1 N1-- total number of lines
The nuclear diameter is of the order of 10-15m .If an electron exists in the nucleus, the 1/N sinθ=nλ If n=1, it is the first order principle maximum, if n=2, it is the second order principal
The source of light and the screen are at infinite distance with respect to the obstacle causing
maximum uncertainity, Δx,in position is of the order of the diameter . The resolving power of the grating, maximum and so on. Thus on either side of central maximum ,a number of principal maxima
Sin θ=Nnλ diffraction. Wavefront falling on the obstacle is plane. Lenses are used
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= nN1
So the uncertainly in the momentum, 
d
This is known as grating law or grating equation.
If there are N lines/unit length of the grating , there are N slit also.
It is proportional to the order n and total number of lines N1 on the Grating.
 6.626 x10 34 N(a+b) =1 (unit length)
p   DISPERSIVE POWER OF A GRATING
x 2 x3.14 x10 15
The dispersive power of a grating is defined as the ratio of the change in the angle of (a+b)=1/N
 1.055 x10 19 kgm / s
diffraction to the corresponding change in wavelength.
Substitute in equation (1)
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Then the dispersive power of the grating is 1/N sinθ=nλ
For a grating θ is different for different colours (λ), for each value of n.If white light is used ,it
get split up in to different colours.
Sin θ=Nnλ
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d Nn
Dispersive Power, d  Cos  This is known as grating law or grating equation.
Example:Diffraction at a grating
For small values of θ, Cosθ= 1

d
 Nn
d
Dispersive power is proportional to the order n and the number of lines per unit length N.

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MEASURMENT OF WAVELENGTH For More Visit : KtuQbank.com
A spectrometer is a device to measure wavelengths of light accurately using diffraction
grating .

PRINCIPLE

At normal incidence,

Sin θ=Nnλ

Downloaded from Where , θ = the angle of diffraction

Ktunotes.in
N = the no. of lines per metre of the grating
n = the order of the spectrum