Dr. N.G.P.

Institute of Technology
An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Anna University,
Chennai

22UEN101- COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH

Notes

2023 – 2024

Department of English
Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
Dr. N.G.P. – Kalapatti Road
Coimbatore – 641 048
Tamil Nadu
India.
 Unit 1

INTERPERSONAL EXCHANGE AND

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

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 UNIT 1
INTERPERSONAL EXCHANGE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Autobiography

Autobiography is more than just telling stories!

It's speaking truthfully about who you are inside while also sharing your lives with others on the
outside. When deciding what kind of autobiography to write, it's important to know that not all
autobiographies have the same purpose, structure, or even tone!
There are many types of autobiography, and there are also different ways one can write them.
This essay will discuss 6 major types of autobiographies and compare them to help you decide
which type best suits your needs. You can also read other types of autobiographies in literature
further on.
A person's life is a story worth telling, and there are many different ways to do so. The 6 major
types of autobiography that you can use to write your life story are described below:

1. Full Autobiography
In a full autobiography, you tell all about your life from birth to the present. Authors choose this
type of autobiographical writing if their whole life is different from other people's lives.
In a full or traditional autobiography, you share information that only you know with readers and
let them see who you really are.
Example: An example of a full autobiography is 'A Life' by Elia Kaza. Another one is the
autobiography of Benjamin Franklin.

2. Memoir
A memoir is written by someone about a specific incident or time of their life. It discusses the
whole time period or incident in detail.
Memoirs are often written in the first-person point of view. The authors limit the narration to
what happened to them, not other people's stories.

Example: One famous memoir is "Walden" by Henry David Thoreau, which talks about his time
at Walden Pond.

3. Personal Essay
A personal essay is a type of writing that tells some story about you. It has to be just the right
amount of details for people to understand, or it will not be very good. You need to put your
emotions, thoughts, and what you learned into it.
Example: Some examples are "A Natural History of the Senses" by Diane Ackerman and "The
Road Not Taken" by Robert Frost.

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4. Confession
This type of autobiography is written by those who have done something bad. They want other
people to learn from their mistakes, so they write about them in an autobiography.
Example: Confessions by Jean-Jacques Rousseau is a good example of this type of work.

5. Psychological illness
Depression and other mental illnesses can be very hard. It is helpful to write down your thoughts
when you have them so that the feelings go away. In this book, people who have had depression
or other mental illnesses found it therapeutic to write their thoughts down, so they feel better.
Example: The Collected Schizophrenias by Esmé Weijun Wang is a good example of how
writing about these things can help people in the long run.

6. Overcoming Adversity
Some people have a hard life. They might have an accident or be kidnapped, or they might even
get killed. Sharing stories can help other people, and it also makes them feel better because they
can express their emotions about what happened.
Example: One example of this is The Center of the Universe by Nancy Bachrach.

In order to make your writing more interesting, you should follow the correct format for each
type of autobiography. You should choose which type of autobiography to write depending on
the purpose you want it for.

Comparison of the Major Types of Autobiography

Different people write about their lives differently. There are six different types of
autobiographies. You need to know the difference between them so you can follow the correct
type in your writing.

Here is a chart that shows what is different about each type of autobiography.

Full Memoir Personal Confession Psychological Overcoming

Autobiography Essay Illness Adversity

Written about The memoir Is about an Written Written by Written to tell

the author‘s own focuses on a important about life people who how people
life specific time part or decisions experienced a overcame
in someone‘s aspect of and mistakes mental trauma their life
life your life or illness challenges

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Includes facts Includes The major The major Details about Includes
and experiences facts and focus is not focus is to the story of the details that
of the author‘s experiences on the style convey a illness or the inspire people
life of the and tone message that trauma towards a
specific part rather than people can change
of your life the story learn from

Written in the It can be It can be It can be It can be It can be

later stages of written at written at written at written at any written at any
life any stage of any stage of any stage of stage of life stage of life
life life life

Written in the Written in Written in Written in Written in the Written in the

first-person the first- the first- the first- first-person first-person
perspective person person person perspective perspective
perspective perspective perspective

Focuses on the It can be Can be Can be about Can be about Focuses on the
life of a famous about any about any any person any person life of a
person mostly, person person famous person
but can be about mostly, but
an ordinary can be about
person also an ordinary
person also

Types of Autobiography in Literature

In literature, autobiographies can be divided into four broad categories. These are further
explained below:

1. Thematic
Thematic autobiographies are often not just a story of one's life but instead have an underlying
theme. The author may be trying to convey certain messages or beliefs that they believe should
be told through this form of storytelling.

In a thematic autobiography, there is more of a focus on what the author thinks of the subject.
For example, they might not just write about facts but also how they feel about the person. The
goal is to share what you think and what your opinion is.

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2. Religious/Spiritual Autobiography
A religious autobiography is written by someone who has or had a connection with God. The
person goes through many events and experiences until they get saved by God. They also might
tell about what they did before they got saved.

An example would be The Seven Storey Mountain by Thomas Merton.

3. Intellectual
Intellectual autobiography is about telling people your journey and what key experiences led you
to where you are now. You think about what has shaped your thinking, and you tell them to the
reader. A person who reads this is interested in what has made you who you are.

4. Fictional
Fictional autobiography is about telling the author's truthful experience. It has some parts that are
fictionalized to protect the identity of people.

In this type of autobiography, events can be exaggerated or changed for artistic purposes.
Everyone has a story worth telling, but not everyone is good enough to put those into meaningful
words.

For your story to be accurate, it's important not only to have details in mind but also to convey
them through a specific tone, so readers will find themselves engaged from the start until the
finish!

The best way to write an interesting and captivating autobiography is by hiring experienced
writers who can assist you with the technicalities of dates, facts.

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 Prefixes & Suffixes

Prefix and Suffix are common in English and their correct use can help enhance the language
skills and deal with the unknown vocabulary easily. Let us understand what does prefix and
suffix mean.
What is Prefix?
A Prefix is a word that is added at the beginning of the root word to form a new word. A prefix
word does not have any meaning of its own but when added to a root word it modifies the
meaning of the word. Prefix makes a word negative, indicate opinion or show repetition.
Prefix examples:
● Un (Prefix) + Happy (Root Word) = Unhappy (new word)
● Dis (Prefix) + Organised (Root word) = Disorganised (new word)
What is Suffix?
Like Prefixes, Suffixes are also words that are added to the root word to form a new word but
suffixes are added at the end of the root word. Suffix does change the meaning of the word it is
added to but not make the word opposite or negative as prefix do, it simply changes the class of
the root word like a verb is changed into an adjective by adding a suffix.
Suffix examples:
● Forget (root word) + Ful (Suffix) = Forgetful (New word)
● Happy (root word) + Ness (Suffix) = Happiness (New word)

Rules to Add Prefixes & Suffixes

● Use a hyphen (-) when adding a prefix to a common noun. For example Pro-American,
Anti-religion, etc.
● Hyphen is must to be used after prefixes Self and Ex, example, Self-dependant, self-
esteem, Ex-husband, Ex-employee, etc.
● When adding a Prefix, do not change the spelling of the original word or root word;
Examples: Undo, disappear, irrelevant, cooperation, irrational, etc.
● Repetition of letters is possible when adding a prefix. Basically, point number 3 (do not
change spelling) is to be followed even if the spelling results in double consonants
after adding the prefix.
● There are certain words that start with prefix but do not have any prefix added to them
like the word Uncle.
● Many Prefixes can have the same meaning such as ‗in‘ ‗im‘ ‗un‘ all these prefixes mean
‗opposite of‘ or ‗not‘.
● Similarly, many Suffixes also have the same meaning. Like the suffix, ‗er‘ when added to
any word will denote the action performed by the person. Example – Teacher, Gardener,
Performer etc.
● Suffix ‗er‘ is also added towards the end of adjectives or adverbs to help compare two
things. Example- Slow becomes slower, soon becomes sooner, fast becomes faster etc.

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 ● When suffix is added, the spelling of the base word can change. This is mostly the
case when the base words end with y or e. For example – happy becomes happier, costly
become costlier with the suffix ‗er‘, manage becomes managing, make becomes making
with the suffix ‗ing‘.
● The Prefix that ends in a vowel, ‗a‘ than the base word starting with a consonant will use
it as it is, like atypical, amoral, etc.

List of Suffixes & Prefixes

The Prefixes and Suffixes are based on English vocabulary which is asked in the form of fill in
the blanks under the Verbal Ability section of competitive exams. Check the list of Suffixes and
prefixes with examples and download the Prefix and Suffix PDF for reference.

List of Prefix in English

Prefix Meanings Prefix Examples

Word

a without amoral, apolitical, atypical

ante before antecedent, antedate

anti against, opposing anti-war, anti-bacterial

arch more, extreme arch-capitalist, arch-rebel

auto self auto-dial, auto-rotate

bi two, twice bilingual, bisect, bi-monthly

circum round circumnavigate, circumvent

co with co-author, co-edit

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col, com, with collaborate, combine, connect
con

contra, against, opposing contraception, counterclaim, counteract

counter

de opposite action declassify, destroy

dia across diagonal, diameter

dis not, opposite of disagree, disprove, distrust, disbelief

dys abnormal dyslexia, dysfunctional

e electronic e-book, e-mail, e-governance

eco related to environment eco-tourism, eco-disaster

en(m) cause to encode, embrace

equi equal equidistant, equilateral

ex previously, former ex-president, ex-student

extra very extra-bright, extra-strong

extra outside extra-curricular, extrasensory,

extraordinary

fore before Forecast, forelimb,

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hyper too much hyperactive, hypersensitive

il, im, in, ir not, opposite of illogical, impossible, indistinct, irrational

in(m) movement to, in input, inset, intake, implant, import

inter between, connected interrelated, interact

intra within intra-generational, intramuscular

kilo thousand kilogram, kilometer, kilowatt

macro large macroeconomics, macro-scale

mal bad, badly malfunction, malpractice

micro small micro-economics, micro-scale

mid middle midway, midsummer

mis wrongly, incorrect mistake, mistranslate, misunderstanding

mono one mono-centric, monoculture

multi many multicultural, multi-level

neo something old in new form Neoclassical,

non not non-believer, non-competitive, nonsense

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out more, to a great extent outnumber, outlive, outburst, outrage

over over, above, too much overlook, overcook, overhead, overheat

post after post-examination, post-modern, post-

independence

pre before pre-industrial, preview, pre-war, pre-

independence

pro in favour of pro-feminist, pro-liberal, proactive

pseudo false, pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-science

quasi almost, not quite quasi-academic, quasi-legal

re again rediscover, redefine, rename, return,

rejuvenate

retro backwards retrogressive, retrospective

semi partly, half semicircle, semi-organic, semi-precious,

semifinals

sub part of something, under, subway, submarine, subsection

beneath,

super above or bigger superpower, supersonic, superstar

trans across transcontinental, transcribe, transport,

transit

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ultra extreme ultra-sensitive, ultrasound, ultramodern

un not unusual, uncertain, unusual, unscrew,

unplug, unfriendly

under under, beneath, insufficient underpower, underemployed, undersea

well useful, successful well-designed, well-written. well-

established

List of Suffix in English

Suffix Meaning Suffix Examples

Word

-able, ible can be done doable, identifiable, predictable, possible

-al, ial has property of personal, partial, legal,

-ant having an effect disinfectant, coolant, accelerant

–based performing a major part of computer-based, oil-based, genetic-based

–cy state or quality accuracy, literacy, urgency,

-ed past tense of verb turned, ruined, cooked, cleaned

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–ee person affected by something employee, interviewee, trainee, addressee

-en made of, being made golden, broaden, lighten

-er comparative higher, lighter, sooner, later

-er one who perform or do doer, painter, singer, performer

something

-est superlative slightest, lightest, best, biggest

–free without hasslefree, carefree, debt-free, pain-free

–ful full of grateful, forgetful, fearful, careful, joyful

–hood condition, period, state childhood, brotherhood, adulthood,

motherhood

–ic having property of linguistic, photographic, electric,

democratic, heroic

–ics study of genetics, electronics, aeronautics

–ify giving quality to something defy, clarify, purify, solidify, classify

–ing present participle cooking, dancing, running

–ism behaviour or belief liberalism, modernism, heroism

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-ist one who follows certain Philanthropist, anarchist, optimist,
behaviours or belief activist

–(t)ion act or process reaction, action, projection

–(i)ty state of extremity, infinity, sanity

–(t)ive adjective active, motive, positive

–ize, -ise bring about a condition or modernize/modernise, colonize/colonise

state

–less without fearless, careless, meaningless

–like resemble another alike, bird-like, child-like

–ly, -y having \quickly, quietly, wordy, handy

–ment action, process fulfilment, enjoyment, development

–ness state of, quality Happiness, newness, kindness,

effectiveness, openness

–ocracy type of ruling body democracy, autocracy, meritocracy,

bureaucracy

–ocrat person ruling autocrat, technocrat, democrat

–ology, - study of archaeology, geology, biology,

ological physiological, biological,

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–ous having callous, joyous, religious

–proof safe, protected against stain-proof, waterproof, dustproof,

soundproof

–ship state or experience of specific partnership, entrepreneurship,

position professorship, leadership

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 Nouns

Nouns, also called naming words, would probably be the very first part of speech you would
have learnt in your English grammar classes. Anything we can touch, see, smell, taste, hear and
hold can be referred to as nouns.
Here is what we will be covering in this article about nouns:
● What Is a Noun?
● Examples of Nouns
● Types of Nouns
● Nouns Used as Different Components of a Sentence
● Nouns Used as a Subject
● Nouns Used as an Object
● Nouns Used as a Complement
● Multifunctional Nouns
● Nouns Used as Verbs
● Nouns Used as Adjectives
● Frequently Asked Questions on Nouns

What Is a Noun?
Nouns are a part of speech that comprise words that are used to name people, places, animals,
objects and ideas. Almost every sentence will definitely have a noun, and they perform different
roles in a sentence. Nouns can act as the subject, an indirect object, a direct object, a subject
complement and an object complement. Nouns can also function as adjectives and verbs.

Examples of Nouns:
● People – Rahul, Sheela, Man, Person, Tommy, Women, Girl, The Prime Minister
● Places – Bangalore, India, Mexico, North Pole, South Africa, The Nile River, Classroom,
Bedroom, Basketball Court, Cricket Ground, Swimming Pool
● Animals/Birds/Aquatic Animals/Reptiles – Lion, Zebra, Snake, Ostrich, Flamingo,
Bear, Cat, Fish, Shark
● Ideas – Evolution, Invention, Extinction, Argument, Destruction
● Objects/Things – Bat, Cycle, Curtains, Paper, Bag, Blackboard, Cupboard

Types of Nouns
Nouns can be broadly classified into:
1. Proper Nouns: Nouns that are used to name a person, place or thing specifically are called a
proper noun. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
Examples:
● My name is Rose. (Name of a particular person)
● This is my dog, Bruno. (Name of a specific pet animal owned by
someone)

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 ● David came back from Minsk. (Name of a specific place)
● Louis Philippe is a famous brand of men‘s clothing. (Name of a particular
clothing brand)
2. Common nouns: Common nouns are those nouns that refer to a generic item, group or place.
This means that, unlike proper nouns, they are not used to identify specific people, places or
objects. Common nouns are not capitalised unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples:
● I bought a pen yesterday. (Common object)
● I am going to school. (Common place)
● Only ten employees showed up to work today. (Common group)
● The car is out of fuel. (Common items)
3. Singular nouns: These are words that are used to name a single person, place, animal, bird or
object.
Examples:
● There is a little boy in front of our house. (Single person)
● That is my daughter. (Single person)
● I found a wounded sparrow in the bush. (Single bird)
● A red van has been following us for a long time. (Single object)
4. Plural nouns: Plural nouns refer to a number of people, places, animals or things. Nouns are
made plural by adding an ‗s‘ or ‗es‘ or ‗ies‘ or ‗ves‘ to the existing root word. Nouns that end
with an ‗s‘ remain the same. Some nouns remain the same in both their singular and plural
forms, and some others have totally different spelling.
Examples:
● I need some apples.
● Did you find the boxes you were looking for?
● I bought mangoes from the market.
● We took photos of some deer on our way.
5. Countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted or measured.
Examples:
● Tom brought ten packets of lays for the trip. (specific number – ten)
● Mom asked me to buy a dozen eggs. (specific – dozen means twelve)
● I saw an aeroplane around seven in the morning. (specific – an means
one)
6. Uncountable nouns are those nouns that cannot be counted. This category of nouns includes
both concrete and abstract nouns.
Examples:
● I have a lot of homework to do. (Not specific)
● I have a cup of tea. (Cannot count)
● We are facing terrible weather today. (Cannot count)

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7. Collective Nouns: A collective noun is a naming word that is used to denote a group of
objects, animals or people.
Examples:
● Collective nouns for groups of animals
● A pride of lions
● A flock of sheep
● A swarm of bees
● A herd of elephants
● Collective nouns for groups of people
● A band of musicians
● A board of directors
● A crew of sailors
● A company of actors
● Collective nouns for a number of things/objects
● A pair of shoes
● A chain of mountains
● A fleet of ships
● A bunch of grapes
8. Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun refers to objects that are material and can be perceived by
the human senses.
Examples:
● The book is on the table.
● I had a cup of coffee.
● Sharon opened the windows.
● Hardy goes to school by bus.
9. Abstract Nouns: Any entity that cannot be perceived by the five senses of the human body
are called an abstract noun.
Examples:
● Love is a strong emotion.
● Honesty is the best policy.
● It takes a lot of courage to raise your voice and stand up against injustice.
● You should not misuse the freedom you are given.
Also Explore: Compound Nouns | Possessive Nouns | Noun Phrases | Noun Exercises

Nouns Used as Different Components of a Sentence

Nouns Used as a Subject

When used as a subject, noun mostly appears at the beginning of a sentence. It can be identified
by asking the question ‗who‘.
Examples:
● Bruno went to the playground.

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 ● The teacher asked the students to submit their assignments.
● The elephant was rescued safely after ten long hours.

Nouns Used as an Object

When nouns are used as objects, they appear in the latter part of a sentence. It can be identified
by asking the question ‗what‘.
Examples:
● I bought a pen.
● Where is your book?
● I cannot find today’s newspaper.
Nouns can be used as a direct object and an indirect object.

Nouns Used as a Direct Object

You can identify a noun used as a direct object by asking the question ‗what‘.
Examples:
● Do you want a lollipop? (What do you want? – a lollipop)
● I loved my dress. (What did you love? – my dress)

Nouns Used as an Indirect Object

You can ask the question ‗for whom‘ to identify a noun used as an indirect object.
Examples:
● Dan bought his sister a Mini Cooper. (For whom did Dan buy a Mini Cooper? – his
sister)
● Megha baked Julie a cake. (For whom did Megha bake a cake? – Julie)

Nouns Used as a Complement

When a noun is used to modify or describe another noun, it acts as a complement.
Nouns Used as a Subject Complement
Professions and positions can perform the role of a subject complement.
Examples:
● My brother is an engineer.
● Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.

Nouns Used as an Object Complement

Object complements are nouns that follow the noun they modify. Names, professions and
positions can perform the role of an object complement.
Examples:
● We named our dog, Shadow.
● The teacher made Tabitha, the class leader.

Multifunctional Nouns

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 Nouns Used as Verbs
There are some nouns which can also be used as a verb. Some nouns can be used as verbs with a
slight change in the spelling of the original word.
Examples:
● His divorce is final. (Used as a noun)
I am divorced. (Used as a verb)
● Do you like my new dress? (Used as a noun)
I am dressed and ready to go. (Used as a verb)
● Derrick had come to collect some ice. (Used as a noun)
My mother iced the fish so that it did not stink. (Used as a verb)
● I have dance practice today. (Used as a noun)
Did you practise the song? (Used as an adjective)

Nouns Used as Adjectives

With a slight change in the spelling or adding a suffix to the root word, nouns can sometimes be
used as adjectives.
Examples:
● I have no money. (Used as a noun)
There has been a change in the monetary policy of the country. (Used as an adjective)
● Javed sensed some danger. (Used as a noun)
What you are trying to do is dangerous. (Used as an adjective)
● She is excited about magic. (Used as a noun)
The experience was completely magical. (Used as an adjective)
● Speaking against another religion is a legal offence. (Used as a noun)
What you did was offensive. (Used as an adjective)

Frequently Asked Questions on Nouns

What is a noun?
A noun is a part of speech that is used to name or identify a person, place, thing or idea. There
are different types of nouns like common nouns, proper nouns, abstract nouns, collective nouns,
concrete nouns and so on.

What are the different functions of nouns?

Nouns can also function as verbs and adjectives with a slight change of spelling or by adding a
suffix. For example, divorce can be used as a noun and a verb; money is a noun, while monetary
is the adjective form of the verb. Nouns can also function as different components of the
sentence as well.

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 Pronoun
A pronoun is used in the place of a noun. It substitutes the noun in a paragraph or piece of writing to avoid
repetition of the noun. Pronouns can be used in singular and plural forms. The verb used in the sentence should
be used in accordance with the particular form of the pronoun used.
Pronouns are generally classified into three main kinds.

Person Singular Pronoun Plural Pronoun

First Person Pronoun I, Me We, Us

Second Person Pronoun You, Your You

Third Person Pronoun He, She, It, Him, Her They, Them, Their

Definition of a Pronoun
A pronoun is defined as ‗a word that is used instead of a noun or a noun phrase‘, according to the Cambridge
Dictionary. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines pronouns as ‗any of a small set of words (such as I, she,
he, you, it, we, or they) in a language that are used as substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and whose referents
are named or understood in the context‘. According to the Collins Dictionary, ‗A pronoun is a word that you
use to refer to someone or something when you do not need to use a noun, often because the person or thing
has been mentioned earlier. Examples are ‗it‘, ‗she‘, ‗something‘, and ‗myself‘.‘

Types of Pronouns with Examples

Pronouns can be classified into different types based on their functions. Given below are the various types of
pronouns. Go through the examples carefully to have a clear understanding of each type of pronoun and its
function.
● Relative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to relate one part of the sentence to another. Some
examples of relative pronouns are that, which, where, when, why, what, whom and whose.
● Possessive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to show possession. Some examples of possessive
pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, theirs and its.
● Reflexive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer back to the subject in the sentence. Some
examples of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, oneself, itself, ourselves,
themselves and yourselves.
● Demonstrative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to point to specific objects. Some examples of
demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those.
● Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to ask questions. Some examples of interrogative
pronouns are who, what, when, why and where.
● Indefinite Pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any particular person, place or thing. Some
examples of indefinite pronouns are someone, somebody, somewhere, something, anyone, anybody,

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 anywhere, anything, no one, nobody, nowhere, everyone, everybody, everywhere, everything, each,
none, few, and many.
● Personal Pronouns are simple pronouns that are used to substitute proper names. Some examples of
personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, him, her, he, she, us and them.
● Subject Pronouns are pronouns that perform the action in a sentence. Some examples of subject
pronouns are I, you, we, he, she, it, they and one.
● Object Pronouns are pronouns that receive the action in a sentence. Some examples of object
pronouns are me, us, him, her and them.
● Reciprocal Pronouns are pronouns that are used to express a mutual relationship. Some examples of
reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.
● Intensive Pronouns are the same as reflexive pronouns, with the only difference being that you can
remove the intensive pronoun from the sentence, and the sentence would still make sense.

Test Your Understanding of Pronouns

I. Identify the pronouns and the type of pronoun in the following sentences:
1. I am going home today evening.
2. Her aunt will be vacating next week.
3. She is the girl I was talking to you about.
4. This is the place where I found my missing bag.
5. Did you do it yourself?
6. It was a time when I was so happy.
7. We always help each other out.
8. Has everyone completed the work that was assigned for today?
9. That dog down the street is his.
10. All my friends are coming home for my parents‘ 25th wedding anniversary celebration.
Now, let us check how far you have got it right.
1. I am going home today evening. Personal Pronoun/Subject Pronoun
2. Her aunt will be vacating next week. Possessive Pronoun
3. She is the girl I was talking to you about. Personal Pronoun
4. This is the place where I found my missing bag. Relative Pronoun
5. Did you do it yourself? Personal Pronoun, Intensive Pronoun
6. It was a time when I was so happy. Relative Pronoun
7. We always help each other out. Reciprocal Pronoun
8. Has everyone completed the work that was assigned for today? Indefinite Pronoun
9. That dog down the street is his. Possessive Pronoun
10. All my friends are coming home for my parents‘ 25th wedding anniversary celebration. Possessive
Pronoun
II. Use suitable pronouns to substitute the underlined nouns in the following sentences:
1. Josh and Derrick visited Disneyland last month.
2. Sarah did not come home last evening.
3. My mom could not find her cupboard keys.
4. Yesterday was my parents‘ wedding anniversary.
5. The cat drank all the milk that was left in the kitchen.

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 6. Sheela and Teena found it hard to move the sofa set across the hall as the sofa set was too heavy for
Sheela and Teena to carry.
7. Divya is Danny‘s sister.
8. That silver Brezza belongs to Emmanuel and Usha.
9. My pet dog just lay on the floor the whole day.
10. The teacher asked the students if the students had submitted the students‘ assignments.
Check your answers here.
1. They visited Disneyland last month.
2. She did not come home last evening.
3. She could not find her cupboard keys.
4. Yesterday was their wedding anniversary.
5. It drank all the milk that was left in the kitchen.
6. Sheela and Teena found it hard to move the sofa set across the hall as it was too heavy for them to
carry.
7. She is his sister.
8. That silver Brezza belongs to them.
9. It just lay on the floor the whole day.
10. The teacher asked the students if they had submitted their assignments.
Also try out exercises on personal pronouns, relative pronoun exercises and pronoun exercises.

Frequently Asked Questions on Pronouns in English Grammar

What is a pronoun?

A pronoun is used in the place of a noun. It substitutes the noun in a paragraph or piece of writing to avoid

repetition of the noun.

What is the definition of a pronoun?

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines pronouns as ‗any of a small set of words (such as I, she, he, you, it,
we, or they) in a language that are used as substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and whose referents are named
or understood in the context‘. According to the Collins Dictionary, ‗A pronoun is a word that you use to refer
to someone or something when you do not need to use a noun, often because the person or thing has been
mentioned earlier. Examples are ‗it‘, ‗she‘, ‗something‘, and ‗myself‘.‘

What are the types of pronouns?

There are ten main types of pronouns. They are:
● Relative pronouns
● Reflexive pronouns
● Object pronouns
● Personal pronouns / Subject pronouns
● Reciprocal Pronouns
● Possessive pronouns

23
 ● Demonstrative pronouns
● Interrogative pronouns
● Indefinite pronouns
● Intensive pronouns

Give some examples of pronouns.

Some examples of pronouns are I, he, him, you, we, him, her, yours, theirs, someone, where, when, yourselves,
themselves, oneself, is, hers, when, whom, whose, each other, one another, everyone, nobody, none, each,
anywhere, anyone, nothing, etc.

24
 Verbs
I that. You this? Not able to figure out what it means?
I did that. Did you do this?
Better?
Have you ever wondered what life would be like if you could not do anything or could not speak about
anything you did just because you do not have the words to represent those actions? Well, that would never
happen because that is what verbs are for. Learn everything you should know about verbs, the types of verbs
and how to use them in everyday communication by going through the following topics.

● Verbs in English Grammar

● Definition of a Verb
● General Classification of Verbs According to What They Signify
● Verbs Referring to Actions
● Verbs Referring to Experiences or Feelings
● Verbs Referring to a State or Condition
● The Various Types of Verbs with Examples
● Different Categories of Verbs
● Verb Forms
● Conjugating Verbs in the English Language – Tense Forms
● Points to Remember
● Frequently Asked Questions on Verbs

Verbs in English Grammar

In the English language or any language for that matter, verbs happen to be an essential part of speech, without
which it would be impossible to indicate what the subject is doing. It refers to all actions, including those
related to feelings and emotions. Verbs come in different types and forms so that they can perform differently
in order to provide complete meaning. Before we look into the types of verbs and the verb forms, let us look at
how various dictionaries define the term ‗verb‘.

Definition of a Verb
The Oxford Learners‘ Dictionary defines a ‗verb‘ as ―a word or group of words that express an action (such as
eat), an event (such as happen) or a state (such as exist)‖. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a ‗verb‘ is
defined as ―a word or phrase that describes an action, condition, or experience‖. The Collins Dictionary
provides a much more elaborate definition of a verb. According to them, ―A verb is a word such as ‗ sing‘, ‗
feel‘, or ‗ die‘ which is used with a subject to say what someone or something does or what happens to them,
or to give information about them‖.

General Classification of Verbs according to What They Signify

Before we get into a broad classification, let us first have a look at how verbs can be classified generally
according to what kind of action they signify.

25
Verbs Referring to Actions
Verbs referring to action (action verbs) are those that involve the movement of one‘s body in one way or the
other. Some examples of verbs referring to actions are as follows:
● Walk ● Cough ● Build
● Run ● Sleep ● Break
● Talk ● Jump ● Tow
● Sit ● Sing ● Toss
● Read ● Drink ● Hug
● Write ● Teach ● Fight
● Jog ● Present

Verbs Referring to Experiences or Feelings

These are verbs that refer to something that you can feel or experience and do not necessarily involve a
movement of any kind. Some examples of verbs referring to feelings and experiences are as follows:
● Love ● Experience ● Comprehend
● Hate ● Care ● Like
● Envy ● Cherish ● Need
● Believe ● Sense ● Adore
● Trust ● Know ● Loathe
● Feel ● Recognise ● Appreciate
● Entrust ● Understand

Verbs Referring to a State or Condition

These verbs are those that refer to situations or the state of being. All forms of ‗to be‘ verbs belong to this
category. Some examples of verbs referring to a state or condition are as follows:
● Am ● Have ● Become
● Is ● Has ● Been
● Are ● Will be ● Being
● Was ● Appear
● Were ● Seem

The Various Types of Verbs with Examples

Verbs can be classified into numerous types according to their function or role in a sentence or context. Let us
look into the various types of verbs and some examples of each type of verb.

Auxiliary Verbs/Helping Verbs

Auxiliary verbs or helping verbs, as the name suggests, is a verb that is used to help another verb sound
sensible and meaningful. It is used to change the other verb‘s tense, mood or voice. So, every time an auxiliary
verb is used, you always have one more verb, which acts as the main verb in a sentence.

26
Examples of auxiliary verbs are as follows:
● Am ● Were ● Will
● Is ● Have ● Can
● Are ● Has
● Was ● Do

One point you have to take care of when you use auxiliary verbs is that you should conjugate the auxiliary verb
correctly according to the tense form of a sentence. Another specific fact about auxiliary verbs is that they can
also be used as a main verb. Also, there are verbs called modal verbs that can be used as a helping verb.
Work out exercises on auxiliary verbs to practise.

Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are those verbs that are used to denote the possibility, probability, capability or necessity of
something happening. Modal verbs, unlike other auxiliary verbs, cannot be used as a main verb in a sentence.
Examples of modal verbs are as follows:
● Can ● Might
● Could ● Should
● Will ● Must
● Would ● Ought to
● May

Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs include phrases that are formed by combining two or more parts of speech that performs the
same function as a verb in a sentence. In most cases, a phrasal verb results from a combination of a verb and a
preposition.
Some examples of phrasal verbs are as follows:
● Go by ● Think through ● Look up
● Lay off ● Fed up ● Mix up
● Log in ● Taken aback ● Opt out
● Get off ● Act on ● Pop in
● Run out ● Back away
● Go all out ● Back up

Check out the list of phrasal verbs and exercise on phrasal verbs.

27
Linking Verbs

A linking verb, just like the name suggests, is a type of verb that is used to link the subjects in a sentence to the
other parts of the sentence so that it is meaningful. It connects the subject to the object, an adjective and even a
prepositional phrase. All ‗to be‘ forms of verbs and verbs like ‗seem‘ and ‗become‘ can act as linking verbs.
Have a look at the following examples to understand how verbs perform the role of a linking verb in sentences.

Example 1: Connecting Nouns to Other Nouns in a Sentence

Danny is my brother.
In the above example, the verb ‗is‘ is used to connect the subject ‗Danny‘ as the ‗brother‘ of the speaker. In
this sentence, the words ‗Danny‘ and ‗brother‘ are used to refer to the same person.

Example 2: Connecting a Noun to a Prepositional Phrase in a Sentence

The children were in the park.
In Example 2, the verb ‗were‘ is used to connect the subject ‗the children‘ to the prepositional phrase ‗in the
park‘.

Example 3: Connecting a Noun/Subject to an Adjective

Your presentation of the life cycle of the silkworm was excellent.
In the above example, the verb ‗was‘ is used to link the subject ‗Your presentation of the life cycle of a
silkworm‘ to the adjective ‗excellent‘.

Example 4: Connecting the Subject/Noun to the Predicate using Seem/Become

This book on a treasure hunt seems interesting.
In this sentence, the subject ‗This book on a treasure hunt‘ is connected to the adjective ‗interesting‘ with the
linking verb ‗seem‘.

The students became bored after two continuous hours of classes and were not ready to take another hour of
class without a break in between.
In the above sentence, the subject ‗The students‘ has been linked to the rest of the sentence with the linking
verb ‗became‘.

Different Categories of Verbs

Verbs can be divided into different categories according to their behaviour when used in a context. Let us look
at the categories explained below.

Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs

As you can see, verbs are used to denote actions, and they can be used in different forms to indicate when the
subject in a sentence is carrying out an action. A regular verb can be conjugated to show if the action takes
place in the past or if the action is taking place continuously.

28
In most cases, the past form of the verb is formed by adding an ‗ed‘ to the root verb for regular verbs. On the
other hand, there are other verbs that do not follow this rule. They are called irregular verbs. These verbs have
their own unique forms. If you are wondering how to learn these irregular verbs, read the article on irregular
verbs to find out how.
Have a look at the examples given below.
● Dileep searched for his white shirt in his cupboard, but he did not find it. (Root verb – search)
● Did you find the book you were looking for?
In the above examples, the verb ‗searched‘ is the past form of the regular verb ‗search‘ by adding an ‗ed‘ and
the verb form ‗looking‘ indicates the continuous form of the regular verb ‗look‘ by adding an ‗ing‘ to the end
of the root verb.
● Selena read the book on the evolution of life on earth.
● Vineeth found the keys that went missing yesterday.
In the above examples, the verb ‗read‘ stays the same in the past form and when used as a past participle.
‗Found‘ is the past form of the root verb ‗find‘.

Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive and intransitive forms of verbs are used to denote how a verb acts when used with a direct object
and an indirect object. Let us look at a few examples.
● Vincent gave a box of chocolates to his brother. (Indirect object – his brother, Direct object – a box of
chocolates)
● Garry passed the water bottle to Kevin, who was sitting in the first row. (Indirect object – Kevin,
Direct object – the water bottle)
● The little girl ran around the park for two hours.
● Francey walked to school every day.
● My mom cleaned the house today. (Direct object – the house)
● Seena did not like the movie. (Direct object – the movie)
In the above examples, the verbs ‗gave‘ and ‗passed‘ in the first two sentences are seen to take a direct object
and an indirect object, whereas the verbs ‗ran‘ and ‗walked‘ take no object at all. In the last two sentences, the
verbs ‗cleaned‘ and ‗did not like‘ take a direct object and no indirect object.
Verbs that take a direct object alone are called transitive verbs, and those verbs that do not take either a direct
object or an indirect object are called intransitive verbs. There is yet another category of verbs that take both
the direct object and the indirect object, and they are called ditransitive verbs.

Verb Forms
A verb is used in different ways to indicate the time in which the subject is performing an action. There are
various verb forms that are used to do the same. Let us look at the different verb forms explained below.

29
Root Verb
The raw or original form of the verb, how it originally exists in the English language, without any inflexions or
conjugations, is called the root verb.
Some examples of root verbs are as follows:
● Eat
● Sit
● Stir
● Type
● Read
● Fry
● Tick
● Shift
● Trick
● Sing

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Simple Present – Third Person Singular
The third person singular form of the verb in the present tense is mostly the verb in the singular form. When
using the third person singular pronouns such as he, she and it, and the nouns that can be substituted by the
third person singular pronouns, the verb is singular (mostly done just by adding an ‗s‘ to the root verb) so that
it agrees with the subject in the sentence.
For example:
Kenny likes to have mangoes after every meal. (The noun ‗Kenny‘ can be substituted with the third person
singular pronoun ‗he‘)
The cat chases every rat it catches sight of. (The noun ‗The cat‘ can be substituted with the third person
singular pronoun ‗it‘)
She hates going to work on Saturdays and Mondays.

Present Participle
The present participle is used in the continuous form of tenses to indicate an action that is continuing or in
progress at that particular moment or sometime in the past or in the future. These words are formed just by
adding an ‗ing‘ to the root verb. For verbs ending with an ‗e‘, in most cases, the present participle is formed
by removing the ‗e‘ and then adding ‗ing‘ to the remaining portion of the verb.
For example:
Jhanvi is watching a movie along with her cousin. (Present Continuous Tense)
My mother is baking cakes (Present Continuous Tense)
All my brothers were playing dodgeball in the evening. (Past Continuous Tense)

Simple Past
There is a change in the spelling of the root verb when it is used to indicate the simple past tense form of the
verb. There is no one rule to write a verb in the simple past tense; it changes for each verb – some verbs like
‗give‘ and ‗bring‘ take a different spelling, and some verbs like ‗cut‘ and ‗put‘ remain the same when used in
the past tense. However, most verbs can be made into the past tense by adding an ‗ed‘ at the end of the root
verb.
For example:
● The doctor asked me to take tablets for ten days. (The rook verb here is ‗ask‘)
● Nelson bought the car he checked out last week. (The root verbs here are ‗buy‘ and ‗check‘)
● The baby drank the milk completely. (The root verb here is ‗drink‘)

Past participle
The past participle form of the verb is used to denote the perfect tense forms in a sentence. In some cases, the
past tense and the past participle remain the same, but there are a number of verbs that have different
spellings when used as a simple past tense verb and a past participle.
For example:
● I have searched the entire loft for that box, but I did not find it. (The root verb here is ‗search‘, ‗have
searched‘ is the verb in the sentence that indicates the perfect tense and ‗searched‘ is the past
participle)
● Dylan had read the book already.

31
In the above example, the root verb here is ‗read‘, ‗have read‘ is the verb in the sentence that indicates the
perfect tense and ‗read‘ is the past participle. In this case, all forms of the verb take the same spelling but
have a different pronunciation.

Gerunds
Any verb can be transformed into a gerund by adding ‗ing‘ to the root verb. Gerunds, when it stands by
themselves, can be used as nouns. A gerund can be used as a verb when used with an auxiliary verb to
indicate an action that is continuing at a particular period of time.
For example:
● He is eating an apple.
● Joy will be coming home next week.
● Walking every day is good exercise.
● Drinking and driving is dangerous.

Infinitives
Infinitives, like gerunds, can be used to turn verbs into nouns by adding a preposition ‗to‘ in front of the root
verb.
For example:
● Would you like to have something?
● I like to dance in my free time.
● I am going to talk to my friend.

Active Voice and Passive Voice

According to the position of the subject and object in a sentence, the voice of the verb can be determined. A
sentence in which the subject does the action is called the active voice, and a sentence in which the indirect
object or the direct object is switched to make it the subject is called the passive voice.
For example:
● Active Voice – The doctor checked the patient.
● Passive Voice – The patient was checked by the doctor.

Conjugating Verbs in the English Language – Tense Forms

Verbs can be conjugated to denote the tense you need. There are four tense forms, namely the simple tense,
the continuous tense, the perfect tense and the perfect continuous tense. These tense forms are used to
represent three time periods such as the present, past and future, thereby forming twelve main tense forms in
total.
You can learn more about tenses and how to conjugate them in detail by reading the article on tenses.

Points to Remember
Here are some points for you to keep in mind when using verbs in your speech or writing.
● Always try to use an active voice in your speech and writing as it is preferred widely and conveys the
message in a quick and simple manner. Do not use the passive voice unless it is absolutely necessary.
32
● When you conjugate verbs to indicate different tense forms, see to it that the subject and the verb
agree with each other.
● Improve your vocabulary. Try to learn the specific verbs for every action instead of modifying other
verbs to convey the same. For example, stroll means a leisurely walk, and jabber means to talk in a
very excited, rapid and incomprehensible manner, yelp means a short and sharp cry to indicate pain
or an alarm

33
 Adjectives

Crazy, intelligent, fun, interesting! Does it sound like you or someone you know? Do you know what these
words mean or what part of speech they belong to? Did you say ‗adjectives‘? You guessed it right. Let us
learn more about adjectives, its meaning, definition and types. Check out the examples and see how they can
be used in sentences effectively.

● What Is an Adjective?
● Definition of an Adjective
● Forms of Adjectives
● Types of Adjectives
● How to Use Adjectives in Sentences?
● Examples of Adjectives
● Check Your Knowledge of Adjectives
● Frequently Asked Questions on Adjectives in English

What Is an Adjective?
An adjective is a part of speech that can be used to describe or provide more information about a noun or
pronoun that acts as the subject in a sentence. Adjectives are found after the verb or before the noun it
modifies.

Definition of an Adjective
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, an adjective is defined as ―a word that describes a noun or pronoun.‖
The Collins Dictionary gives a more elaborate definition. According to it, ―an adjective is a word such as
‗big‘, ‗ dead‘, or ‗ financial‘ that describes a person or thing, or gives extra information about them.
Adjectives usually come before nouns or after link verbs.‖
The Oxford Learner‘s Dictionary defines an adjective as ―a word that describes a person or thing, for example
‗big‘, ‗red‘ and ‗clever‘ in a big house, red wine and a clever idea.‖ An adjective is ―a word belonging to one
of the major form classes in any of numerous languages and typically serving as a modifier of a noun to
denote a quality of the thing named, to indicate its quantity or extent, or to specify a thing as distinct from
something else‖, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.

Forms of Adjectives – Degrees of Comparison

Did you know that adjectives can be used to compare similar qualities of different subjects that perform the
same action. There are three forms of adjectives or rather three degrees of comparison. The are:
● Positive or Absolute Form
● Comparative Form
● Superlative Form

Positive Degree of Comparison:

The positive form or the positive degree of comparison is the form of the adjective used in the original form.
For example: This book is interesting. This form of adjective is used when there is no other subject to be
compared.
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 Comparative Degree of Comparison
The comparative form of the adjective is used when two subjects performing the same action or possessing
the same quality are compared. For example: The book I read yesterday was more interesting than the one I
read today.

Superlative Degree of Comparison

The superlative degree of comparison is used when comparing the same quality of two or more subjects and
to represent that a subject is superior to two or more subjects in performing an action. For example: This
fantasy novel is the most interesting book that I have ever read.

Types of Adjectives
Adjectives can be divided into different categories based on their functions when used in a sentence. The
different types of adjectives are:
● Possessive Adjectives
● Interrogative Adjectives
● Demonstrative Adjectives
● Compound Adjectives

Possessive Adjectives:
These adjectives, like possessive pronouns, are used to show or represent possession of a quality. For
example: my, your, his, her, their, its, whose, etc.

Interrogative Adjectives:
An adjective that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun by asking a question is called an interrogative
adjective. There are only a few adjectives that can be termed as interrogative adjectives. They are whose,
what and which.

Demonstrative Adjectives:
Demonstrative adjectives are mainly used to describe the position of a subject (a noun or pronoun) in space or
time. This, that, these and those are the demonstrative adjectives in English.

Compound Adjectives:
Compound adjectives consist of two or more adjectives that are combined together to form an adjective that
can be used to modify the subject. Some examples of compound adjectives are cotton-tailed, curly-haired,
absent-minded, happy-go-lucky, etc.

How to Use Adjectives in Sentences?

Adjectives are known to give your writing and speech a very flowery look. It aids in making it descriptive
and also in giving your readers and listeners a visual treat. However, stuffing it with too many adjectives can
make it look or sound vague and unclear. This would only lead to misunderstanding of your content.
Knowing when, where and how to use adjectives is a skill that you should master.
Any piece of writing should be clear and precise. Find out if there is a word that specifically means whatever
you are trying to convey. For example: quick, swift, hasty, fleet, etc. are all adjectives that mean ‗very fast‘.
Likewise, contented, cheerful, merry, joyful, ecstatic, delighted, etc. are all words that describe different
degrees of happiness. There is also another concept that you should know. There is a particular order in which

35
you should place adjectives when you are using two or more adjectives to describe the same subject or object.
Check out the order of adjectives to learn more.

Examples of Adjectives
If you are wondering what part of speech a colour or a number belongs to, do not waste any more time
thinking about it. All colours and numbers are classified as adjectives. Adjectives are words that modify
nouns but in most cases, they can be seen to be doing much more than that. Given below are the various ways
in which adjectives can function and be used.

Adjectives as Complements
Adjectives can act as complements that modify nouns that act as subjects and objects. When the adjective
describes the object in a sentence, it is called an object complement and when it is used to describe the subject
in a sentence, it is referred to as a subject complement. They are seen to be used in sentences which are seen
to use the following patterns:
● SVC – Aaron is good.
In the above example, the adjective is ‗good‘ and it is used to describe the subject ‗Aaron‘ and so it is called a
subject complement.
● SVOC – The movie made Karthik sleepy.
Here, the adjective ‗sleepy‘ describes the object ‗Karthik‘ and so comes under the category of object
complements.

Adjectives as Coordinates
When two or more adjectives are used to describe the same noun in a sentence, they are called coordinate
adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are often separated by a comma or the conjunction ‗and‘.
For example:
● The mobile phone is easy to use and handy.
● My cousin is tall and thin.

Multifunctional Adjectives
Adjectives can be made to function like or take the role of nouns in a sentence, and sometimes, a noun, when
used to describe or provide more information about another noun, can perform the role of an adjective.
For example:
● I like my English teacher.
In the above example, the word ‗English‘ is generally considered a noun as it represents a language and it is a
proper noun. But here, it is used to describe the noun ‗teacher‘ which makes it an adjective.
● It is our duty to tend to the poor and the oppressed.
In this sentence, the words ‗the poor‘ and ‗the oppressed‘ pass off as nouns as it refers to ‗poor people‘ and
‗oppressed people‘. So, when adjectives are preceded by the article ‗the‘, it often refers to a category of
people which makes the adjective a noun.
In addition to these types of adjectives, there are also phrases and clauses which act just like an adjective. To
know what they are and how they work in a sentence, check out the articles on adjective phrases and adjective
clauses.

Check out the adjectives list for an extensive list of adjectives that you can make use of in your daily
communication and work out exercises on adjectives to brush up your knowledge of it.

36
Check Your Knowledge of Adjectives
Identify the adjectives in the following sentences:
1. I bought a red dress for the wedding.
2. I have eight apples.
3. The food is delicious.
4. My brother is naughty.
5. The movie we watched last night was boring.
6. Pablo Picasso is a fine artist.
7. The weather in Chennai is sultry all round the year.
8. Now is a great time to visit the United States.
9. It was a fabulous drive.
10. The Marina Beach is the longest beach in India.

You should have definitely got it all right. Check them out.
1. I bought a red dress for the wedding.
2. I have eight apples.
3. The food is delicious.
4. My brother is naughty.
5. The movie we watched last night was boring.
6. Pablo Picasso is a fine artist.
7. The weather in Chennai is sultry all round the year.
8. Now is a great time to visit the United States.
9. It was a fabulous drive.
10. The Marina Beach is the longest beach in India.

Frequently Asked Questions on Adjectives in English

What is an adjective?
An adjective is a part of speech that can be used to describe or provide more information about the noun or
pronoun that acts as the subject in a sentence. Adjectives are found after the verb or before the noun it
modifies.

What is the definition of an adjective?

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, an adjective is defined as ―a word that describes a noun or pronoun.‖
The Collins Dictionary gives a more elaborate definition. According to them, ―an adjective is a word such as ‗
big‘, ‗ dead‘, or ‗ financial‘ that describes a person or thing, or gives extra information about them. Adjectives
usually come before nouns or after link verbs.‖
The Oxford Learner‘s Dictionary defines an adjective as ―a word that describes a person or thing, for example
‗big‘, ‗red‘ and ‗clever‘ in a big house, red wine and a clever idea.‖ An adjective is ―a word belonging to one
of the major form classes in any of numerous languages, and typically serving as a modifier of a noun to

37
denote a quality of the thing named, to indicate its quantity or extent, or to specify a thing as distinct from
something else‖, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.

What are the forms of adjectives?

There are three forms of adjectives in English grammar. They are also called the degrees of comparison. The
three forms of adjectives are:
● The Positive or Absolute Form
● The Comparative Form
● The Superlative Form

What are the types of adjectives?

Adjectives can be divided into different categories based on their functions when used in a sentence. The
different types of adjectives are:
● Possessive Adjectives
● Interrogative Adjectives
● Demonstrative Adjectives
● Compound Adjectives

Give some examples of adjectives.

Happy, depressed, hardworking, successful, skilled, sloppy, green, tampered, dilapidated, fixed, healthy, etc.
are some examples of adjectives.

38
 Verb Tenses
Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe

things that have already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three

years ago). The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now,

or things that are continuous. The future tense describes things that have yet to

happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week, next year, three years from now).

The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:

Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

I read nearly every day. Last night, I read an I will read as much as I can
entire novel. this year.

Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous

I am reading Shakespeare I was reading Edgar I will be reading Nathaniel

at the moment. Allan Poe last night. Hawthorne soon.

Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect

I have read so many I had read at least 100 I will have read at least 500
books I can‘t keep count. books by the time I was books by the end of the
twelve. year.

Present Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect

Continuous Continuous

I have been reading since I had been reading for at I will have been reading for
I was four years old. least a year before my at least two hours before
sister learned to read. dinner tonight

39
 UNIT II

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

40
 UNIT II: INFORMATION PROCESSING AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

FORMAL LETTERS (Letter/E-Mail/Blogs)

Letter Writing falls under three categories, namely, formal, informal and semi formal letters. Formal
letters are written in official situations. Semi formal letters are midway between formal and informal
letters. Informal letters are also known as personal letters. They are written to relatives and friends in
contexts like inviting to functions, thanking for greetings and gifts, sharing personal information and
congratulating over achievements. No rigid methodology or organisational structure is followed while
writing informal letters.

Sample: 1

A.Anand 26.07.2013

CSE I year

PPR Engineering College

Villupuram.

The Principal

PRR Engineering College

Villupuram.

Respected Sir/Madam,

Sub: Requisition for bonafide certificate-reg.

I am doing my Ist year in CSE Department in our college. As I have applied for bank loan for educational
purpose, the bank is requesting me to produce a bonafide certificate along with the fee structure from
our college for the approval of educational loan. Kindly provide me the same at the earliest.

Thank you Yours faithfully,

(A.ANAND)

Sample: 2

41
Write a letter to the Head of the Department seeking permission to take leave for two days.

B.Raju 26.07.2013

EEE I year

ABS College of Engineering

Madurai.

The Head of the Department

EEE department

ABS College of Engineering Madurai

Respected Sir/Madam,

Sub: Seeking permission to take two days leave-reg.

I wish to bring to your kind notice that my educational loan has been approved and my presence for
receiving the loan is mandatory. So kindly grant me permission to go to my native for the same on
(29.07.2013 & 30.07.2013).and I will be back after finishing all the bank formalities within two days.

Thank you

Yours faithfully,

(B.RAJU)

3. Write a letter to the Principal requesting him/her to avail on duty to participate and to present paper
in an International Conference.

S.Bharath 27.07.2013

CSE II year

VSB Engineering College

Dindugal.

The Principal

VSB Engineering College

Dindugal.

42
Respected Sir/Madam,

Sub: Requisition to avail on duty to participate and to present paper in an, International Conference-
reg.

I would like to bring to your kind notice that my paper has been selected for an International
Conference at Anna University. The title of the conference is “Zest for New Software” This falls on
29.07.2013. I am confident that this conference will equip me with the latest trends in this field. So
kindly grant me on duty to participate in this International Conference.

Thank you

Yours faithfully,

(S.BHARATH)

EXERCISE

1. Write a letter to the Bank Manager requesting him to issue the new pass book replacing the
old pass book of your account.

2. Write a letter to the Head of the Department requesting him to grant permission for two day
tour to an Industrial place.

3. Write a letter to the Head of the Department requesting him to grant permission to avail two days
leave for attending your sister’s wedding.

43
 Letter of Introduction
A letter of introduction is a type of correspondence, usually email, used to introduce someone
you know to someone else. Introduction letters can help build professional relationships that
lead to job opportunities, business growth and collaboration.

In this article, we‘ll provide instructions for how to write a quality letter of introduction that can
be helpful for you, clients and colleagues alike.

Types of introduction letters

During your career, you might need to write a letter of introduction for a variety of reasons,
including introducing:

One colleague to another

Clients or customers

New team members

A contractor or freelancer

A job candidate

One professional contact to another

A professional, clearly communicated letter of introduction can help give people the context
and information they need when meeting someone new. Writing this type of letter can help
move projects forward, onboard a team member, connect someone to gain new skills and more.

Before sending a letter of introduction, make sure that both parties are aware and consent to the
introduction. For example, if a former coworker reaches out and asks you to introduce them to a
recruiter at your current company, you‘ll want to confirm with the recruiter that this is okay
with them before sending a formal introduction.

How to write an introduction letter

While you can write a letter of introduction for several different situations, there are a few
common elements you should include in any letter. You should include the following pieces of
information in a letter of introduction:

1. Write a greeting

To start, write a short greeting that opens the letter in a thoughtful way. Here, you will include
their name on the first line, followed by a friendly start. For example:
44
―Hi Linda,
Hope you had a lovely weekend!‖

2. Include a sentence on why you‘re writing

Next, explain your purpose for emailing them. Provide any necessary context that will help the
reader understand why you're making an introduction and why it involves them.

―I‘m writing as a follow-up from our meeting about defining better processes for billing and
reporting inquiries for our physical therapy patients.‖

3. Present the full name of the person you‘re introducing

Be sure to include their first and last name and any important titles that might help the reader.

―I‘d like to introduce you to Alberto Ruiz.‖

4. Explain their role and how it is relevant to the reader

Write a short summary explaining the position and function of the person you‘re introducing.
Include their title, then a brief overview of what they do and how they have been successful as it
relates to the reader.

―Alberto is the HR representative that supports all therapy departments for our branch. He has
been instrumental in developing streamlined processes for other teams that have reduced
payment time by 20%.‖

5. Provide information on how they might work together or be helpful for each other

Next, briefly explain how and why you're making the introduction. For example, they might be
working closely in the future or could find the other‘s expertise helpful in their own work.

―I‘ve spoken with Alberto in-depth about our project. He explained that he has extra time this
quarter to help us brainstorm ideas to better our administrative processes. He is willing and
ready to meet with us at the beginning of next week.‖

6. Include any necessary contact information

If you're emailing, it is a good idea to include the email of the person you‘re introducing in the
―CC‖ line so your audience can reference it. If you feel there is additional contact information
that is necessary, you should include it here as well.

45
―Feel free to reach out to Alberto via email (he is cc‘d here), or on his work phone at (333) 222-
4444. He is expecting to hear from you.‖

7. Close with any next steps or other necessary details

Conclude your introduction letter with any actions that need to be taken by you, the reader or
the person you‘re introducing. Make sure you are clear by referencing the person you‘re
speaking to by name.

―I‘ll go ahead and set up our meeting to get started next week. Thanks for your teamwork on
this project! Thank you in advance, Alberto, for your help.‖

8. Sign off with your name and title

End your email with a professional sign-off like ―Thanks,‖ or ―Sincerely.‖ Then, include your
full name, title and contact information as needed.

―All the best,

Henry Thomas
Accounts Payable Coordinator‖

46
Letter of introduction examples

Here‘s an example of a letter of introduction introducing a new team member:

Hello Cecilia,

I hope the week has been good for you! I‘m writing to introduce you to our new project
manager, Patricia Jefferson. Patricia comes to us with several years of project management
experience, specifically in managing large, long-term construction projects for multifamily
residences. Her background will be extremely helpful for our team as we launch our plans for
next year.

While you will not be working with Patricia on a daily basis, she will be able to provide you
with regular timeline updates as you present our progress in the quarterly company meetings.
You can find her email at the top of this note, feel free to reach out directly as needed.

We‘re excited about having Patricia on board, and I look forward to your new working
relationship. Please let me know if you need any additional information moving forward.

Thanks for your time,

Gertrude Petty

Here‘s an example of a letter of introduction introducing one professional contact to another:

Hi Tim,

I hope you‘ve been well since we last spoke! I‘m reaching out as my former coworker, Haley, is
interested in working at XYZ Company. I remembered that you joined the company a few years
back.

Haley has four years of experience in customer service and is looking to continue her career at
XYZ Company, but would like to learn more about the company before applying. I thought I
could connect you two for an informational interview, if you have time. If there is someone else
at your company who you feel could better answer Haley‘s questions, feel free to forward the
request.

Haley is copied on the email and will be reaching out to follow up. Thanks in advance for your
assistance Tim!

Have a great evening,

Sally Johnson

Tips for writing a letter of introduction

47
 Tailor your introduction. Make sure the introduction is tailored to the situation and
includes information that will be helpful to both parties.
 Set expectations. Use language that is clear and concise so that both parties know what
the end goal of the introduction is and how they should move forward.
 Be brief. Most people receive many emails a day and may only have a small amount of
time to read through them. Prioritize the most important and helpful information.
 Follow up. Optional—there may be instances where you feel helpful or necessary to
follow-up the introduction to make sure there has been progress.

48
 E-Mail Communication
Communication via e-mail or electronic mail has become possible with the advent of the
computer. Through e mail, communication takes place faster, more efficient, and less
expensive. There are minor drawbacks like getting junk mail and being exposed to hacking but
if it is used with e-mail etiquettes in mind, it becomes the best way to communicate.

If you want to use e mail, you should have a desktop or laptop or a cellular phone, an Internet
connection and an email account. To have an account, you can sign in (=register) with any of
the free email service providers. When you get an account, your address will have:

 User ID – user identification

(You should provide the ―letters and numbers‖ to the service provider as the identification)
• @ - at
• .Domain – the name of the server where you have the account.
You‘ll get something like ‗[email protected]‘ and using this you can start sending mail.

While writing emails in business communication, observe the following rules:

a) Provide the necessary information in brief.

b) Language need not be as formal as in letters.

c) Greetings and salutations can be minimized.

d) Observe the appropriate tone.

e) Avoid excessive use of emoticons, particularly when you do not know the receiver very
well.

f) Avoid writing the complete mail in capitals: do not scream for attention.

g) Always write a subject heading. This gives the receiver a good idea of what to expect in
the mail.

h) Before Sending, check the e-mail address.

i) Proof-read for grammar and spellings.

j) As in all writings, check before dispatch. Since e-mails cannot be called back,
it is very important topay attention to every detail before sending.

49
Writing an e mail Short mail Example 1:

Imagine that you are a Team Leader in a company. Send an e-mail to all your team members
congratulation them on the success of the project.

From: [email protected] To:[email protected]

Subject: Congratulating successful completion of project. Cc: All the Team Members Dear friends,

My congratulations to you all, on the successful completion of the project. You’ll all be happy to know
that it has been accepted by our client. Your efforts and cooperation were the major contributors to
our success. Let’s all meet at The Star Hotel at 7.30 pm to share our joy.

Team Leader Long mail

Example 1:

From: [email protected] To: [email protected]

Subject: Unconfirmed presenters for 0304 seminar Kumar,

I am attaching a preliminary agenda of sessions for the April 3rd conference (attachment is an Excel
spreadsheet’s pages). It includes all the confirmed presenters, as of this date. Each has submitted an
abstract that can be published with the program.

Sessions without a confirmed presenter are marked TBD. They include the following: 10:00 Evaluation
technique 01:30 Trends in employment testing 02:00 Using the internet for recruiting

Please increase your efforts to confirm a presenter for these sessions. So, I can send the agenda to the
printer by March 11. I realize that you might have made some confirmations late last week that I
haven’t received from Ragunathan, your committee chairman. From this point on, please send the
information and status reports directly to me, instead of through Raghunathan.

Generally, the other arrangements for the seminar (lunch, reservations, vendor displays, and A/V
equipment) are completed, and all the committee is confident that this year’s seminar will go off
without a hitch.

Please let me know your progress. If I can be of any assistance, just let me know. Karthi.

EXERCISE

Short

1. Write an e-mail to your friend expressing your inability to participate in his birthday party.

2. As a team leader congratulate your team members for the successful completion of the
project work.

50
3. Imagine that you are the co-ordinator of your department Association Secretary. You are
hosting a technical symposium in your college. Inform the paper presenters that their papers
have been selected for presenting, through e-mail.

Long

1. Prepare a job announcement mail for a portal to inform about vacancies and the
designation for which the recruitment will be taking place in an organization.
2. You are not satisfied with the service from a particular company. Prepare a complaining e-
mail.
3. Send a mail to your friend describing the educational tour you participated recently.

51
 WORD FORMATION USING PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
An English word can be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem, and a suffix. The ‗stem‘ is the
root or main word. Pre-means 'before‘. A prefix, therefore, is what comes before the stem. ‗A
suffix‘ is what is attached to the end of the stem. Consider, as an example, the word
‗demagnetize‘ (meaning 'to deprive of magnetism'). The prefix is de- meaning 'reduce' or
'reverse'. ‘Magnet‘ is the stem or main word. ‗ize‘ is the suffix.

Suffixes change the word from one part of speech to another. For example, -ly added to the
adjective quick gives the adverb quickly.

Prefixes, on the other hand, usually change the meaning of the word. For example, un- changes
a word to the negative. Unmagnetizable means 'not capable of being magnetized'. Let us now
consider some prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the meanings of English
words.

Part 1: prefixes

Prefixes:
Negative & positive Size Location Time & order Number
un- semi- inter- pre- mono-
non- mini- super- ante- bi-
in- micro- trans- fore- hex-
dis- ex- post- oct-
re- extra- multi-
peri-

Study these tables. Try and find additional examples using your dictionary:
1. Negative and positive prefixes:
Prefix Meaning Examples
Negative: un- Not Unmagnetized
in- Not Incomplete
im- Not Impossible
il- Not Illegal
ir- Not irregular, irrelevant
non- not connected with non-programmable
mis- bad, wrong Misdirect
mal- bad, wrong Malfunction
dis- Opposite feeling Disagree
dis- Opposite action Disconnect
anti- Against antiglare, antistatic
de- reduce, reverse demagnetize, decode
under- too little Underestimate

52
Positive: re- do again Reorganize
Over- too much Overload

Part 2: suffixes

We have already seen how prefixes can change the meaning of a word.
Let usnow consider some suffixes, their usual meanings, and how they
change the meanings of English words:

Suffixes
Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs
-ance -ize -able -ly
-ence -ate -ible
-or -fy -less
-er -en -ic
-ist -ify -ical
-ish
-ive

Study these tables. Try and find additional examples using your dictionary:

1. Noun - forming suffixes:

Suffix Meaning Examples
-ance State Performance
-ence quality of Independence
a person who programmer, operator, biographer
-er, -or
a thing which compiler, accumulator, processor, calculator
-ist, -yst a person who analyst, typist
-ian pertaining to Electrician
-tion, -ation the act of compilation
-ness condition of readiness, cleanliness, happiness
-ion action/state conversion
-ing Activity multiplexing
-ment state, action measurement, requirement
-ity state, quality electricity
-ism condition/state magnetism
-dom domain/condition Freedom
-ship condition/state relationship, partnership
2. Verb - forming suffixes:
Suffix Meaning Examples
-ize/-ise computerize
-ate Automate, activate, calculate
to make
-ify Simplify
-en harden, widen, lengthen, shorten

3. Adverb – forming suffix:

53
 Suffix Meaning Examples
electronically, logically, comparably, slowly, quickly,
-ly in the manner of
automatically, carefully
4. Adjective – forming suffixes:
Suffix Meaning Examples
-al Computational, logical
-ar circular, rectangular, cellular, regular
-ic having the quality of magnetic, automatic
-ical Electrical
-able Comparable
-ble capable of being Divisible
-ous like, full of dangerous, insiduous, miraculous
-ful characterized by helpful, careful
-less Without Careless, meaningless
-ish Like Yellowish
-ed computed, processed
having the quality of
-ive Interactive

Exercise

I Use the prefix 'un' to make opposites of these words.

1. able 2. happy
3. known 4. safe
5. common 6. selfish
7. lock 8. pleasant.
II Use the prefix 'dis' to make opposites for these words:
1. advantage 2. approval,
3. connect 4. honest
5. like 6. obey
7. loyal 8. trust
III Use the prefix 'im' to make opposites of these words.
1. patient 2. perfect
3. possible 4. polite
5. mortal 6. moral
7. mature 8. pure

PREFIX AND SUFFIX

54
Prefixes & suffixes

Prefixes

Prefixs are added to the beginning of a word to make a new word, eg mis+take. Some common

prefixes are 'mis', 'dis', 're', 'for', 'anti', 'ante', 'sub', 'un' and 'in'. New words are made by placing a

prefix in front of a word. It is helpful to know the meanings of prefixes. Prefix 're' means again,

therefore reappear means to appear again.

Common prefix meanings

pre - before

mis - bad(ly)

sub - under

inter - between

semi - half

The following prefixes of 'im', 'ir', 'il', 'in' and 'un' can be added to the beginning of words to

make them into a negative.

Examples

im + possible = impossible

ir + responsible = irresponsible

il + legal = illegal

in + active = inactive

un + happy = unhappy

Suffixes

Letters added to the end of a main word are called suffixes. Common suffixes are: 'ed', 'ful', 'ly',

'ing', 'able', 'ance', 'ence', 'ness'.

Example

harm + less = harmless

When 'full' is added to a word you drop the final 'l'. If you add 'ly' to any word ending with 'ful'

you keep the existing 'l'.

Example

55
hand + full = handful

rest + full = restful

restful + ly = restfully

Prefix definition: an affix attached to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning.

Suffix definition: a particle attached to the end of a word to modify its meaning or change it into a
different word class.

What is the Difference Between Prefixes and Suffixes?

In the English language, we often place prefixes and suffixes at the beginning and end, respectively, of
a word in order to modify it.

The original word does have meaning in itself, but by adding a prefix or suffix to it, we change the
word.

What is a prefix?

Prefixes are placed at the beginning of a word in order to alter its meaning.

• Janet resubmitted her application after she was initially denied a loan.

Resubmitted includes the prefix re which means again.

What is a suffix?

Suffixes are placed at the end of a word in order to alter its meaning or change the classification of the
word.

• We work hard in order to ensure our children’s happiness.

Happiness includes the state of being suffix ness.

By adding the suffix, we have changed our word from an adjective to a noun in order for it to fit
grammatically in our sentence.

What are Prefixes?

What does prefix mean? A prefix can be a letter or group of letters that may be added to the

beginning of a word in order to modify its meaning.

Prefix Examples:

• a-, an- = without; amoral, anemic

• ante- = before; antecedent

• co- = with; co-worker

56
• de- = off, remove; de-ice

• ex =out of, former; ex-boyfriend

• il = not; illegal

• inter = between; intergalactic

• post = after; postpone

• super = above; supersede

• un = not; unnatural

Let’s try using a prefix in a sentence.

• Craig was dissatisfied with the customer service he received at the store.

o Prefix = dis = negative

When to Hyphenate Prefixes

Do you hyphenate prefixes? At times, you will want to add a hyphen in between your prefix and word.

Proper nouns: when adding a prefix to a proper noun, you must add a hyphen:

• Not liking apple pie may be seen as un-American.

Same vowel: If the last letter of your prefix is the same as the first letter in the word, you need to add a
hyphen:

• In order to be allowed re-entry to the amusement park, patrons must obtain a stamped ticket

Special prefixes: Always use a hyphen when you use ex- and self-.

• Lisa was self-conscious about her body after having a baby.

• The ex-student body president trained the current officer on how to organize prom.

Clarification: Use a hyphen when a word may cause confusion or look odd in the sentence.

• The mother reminder the children to re-cover the sandbox after they were done playing.

We need the hyphen, so that readers don’t confuse re-cover with the word recover, which means

to reinstate health or regain a lost possession.

What are Suffixes?

What does suffix mean? Suffixes are used at the end of words in order to change the word to fit

57
grammatically within your sentence.

Suffix Examples:

• –al = having characteristics of; remedial, denial

• –ed = past-tense verbs; traveled, talked

• –en = made of, consisting of; wooden, golden

• –er, -est = comparative; stronger, strongest

• –tion, -ion = state of being, condition; completion, relation

• –ity = quality of; humility, enormity

• –less = without; hopeless, homeless

• –ly = characteristic of; brotherly, lovely

• –s, -es = more than one; apples, trenches

Let’s look at an example of a suffix used in a sentence:

• In government class, students will research the current election.

o Suffix = ion = act, process

When to Hyphenate Suffixes

Do you hyphenate suffixes? We rarely hyphenate suffixes, but here are some instances in

which you may add one.

Cumbersome words: an optional hyphen can be used when a word seems lengthy without one.

• community-wide

Exception words: -like, -type, -elect,

• scholarly-like

When last letter is same as first letter:

• graffiti-ism, past-tense

Summary

Define prefix: the definition of prefix is an element placed at the beginning of a word to alter or

qualify its meaning.

Define suffix: the definition of suffix is a particle placed at the end of a word to alter its

meaning or adjust its grammatical sense.

58
In summary,

• Prefixes and suffixes are added to words to change them.

• Prefixes are added to change the meaning of the root word.

• Suffixes are added so that the word will make grammatical sense in a sentence.

Here are a couple of final examples of how we use prefixes and suffixes.

• Many science fiction books include an intergalactic war.

o Prefix = inter = between

• The employee rushed to his car after work on Friday.

o Suffix = ed = past-tense verb

Here is a list of the most common prefixes:

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

ante- before antenatal, anteroom, antedate

anti- against, opposing antibiotic, antidepressant, antidote

circum- around circumstance, circumvent, circumnavigate

co- with co-worker, co-pilot, co-operation

deoff, down, away

from devalue, defrost, derail, demotivate

dis- opposite of, not disagree, disappear, disintegrate, disapprove

em-, en- cause to, put into embrace, encode, embed, enclose, engulf

epiupon, close to,

after epicentre, episcope, epidermis

ex- former, out of ex-president, ex-boyfriend, exterminate

extra- beyond, more than extracurricular, extraordinary, extra-terrestrial

fore- before forecast, forehead, foresee, foreword, foremost

homo- same homosexual, homonuclear, homoplastic

WORD EXPANSION / (Etymology)

59
Etymology deals with the origin or derivation of words. When the meaning of a root is understood, it is
easy to remember all the words built on this root. Once the root meaning of a single word is
understood, the meaning of up to ten or twenty words is unravelled on which the root appears.

In the etymological approach to vocabulary building a person: • learns about prefixes, roots & suffixes
• will be able to work out unfamiliar words by recognizing their structure ,the building blocks from
which they are constructed • will be able to construct words correctly by learning to put these building
blocks together in a proper way • will be able to derive verbs from nouns, nouns & verbs from
adjectives, adjectives from nouns etc.

60
WORD FORMATION

The different forms of words in English - verbs, nouns, adjectives

and adverbs.

Many words in English have four different forms; verb, noun,

adjective and adverb. A large number of words have the four
forms; some do not.

For example some recently-coined words such as ‗avatar‘,

‗captcha‘ or ‗selfie‘ only exist as nouns. Others, such as the noun
‗fun‘, have no verb or adverb form.

The verb ‗sing‘ has a noun form ‗singer‘ but no adjective or

adverb. Sometimes several adjectives can be formed from a verb by
adding suffixes such as '–able,' '-ed,‘ and '–ing'.

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

act action active actively

beautify beauty beautiful beautifully

benefit benefit beneficial beneficially

care care careful carefully

clear clarity clear clearly

comfort comfort comfortable comfortably

consider consideration considerable considerably

craze craze crazy crazily

create creation creative creatively

decide decision decisive decisively

delight delight delightful delightfully

differ difference different diffently

distract distraction distracted/ing distractedly

hate hatred hateful hatefully

hope hope hopeful hopefully

61
impress impression impressive impresively

include inclusion inclusive inclusively

indicate indication indicative indicatively

insult insult insulting insultingly

intend intention intentional intentionally

madden madness mad madly

protect protection protective protectively

quicken quickness quick quickly

rely reliability reliable reliably

sadden sadness sad sadly

secure security secured securely

speed speed speedy speedily

strengthen strength strong strongly

succeed success successful successfully

62
 PREPOSITIONS

Preposition is a word or a group of words which brings out the correct relationship between a
noun/pronoun or between a verb and a noun/pronoun or an adjective and a noun/pronoun.

Prepositions are important structural words. They have been called, ‗hooking words‘, since
they are used to hook nouns, pronouns and word-groups on to preceding words and word-
groups including sentences. The purpose of the hooking is to mark the relation of the noun,
pronoun or word-group with another word or word-group. The most frequently used
prepositions are: at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to and with.

The different important relations marked by prepositions are:

Time - I‘ll see you at six in the evening.
Position - Please put the book on the table.
Direction - Do you walk to college?
Association - She lives with her parents.
Agency - The window must have been broken by a football.
Instrumentality - Ramu finds it hard to write with a pen.
Manner - Do you like to travel by bus?
The same prepositions may express different relations in different contexts:
1. She sat by the door. (Position)
2. Can you finish this work by Sunday? (Time)
3. You can go to England by air or by sea. (Manner)
4. Meet me at the station. (Place)
5. Don’t throw the ball at me. (Direction)
6. He goes to college at 10’o clock. (Time)
Here are a few examples of important uses of frequently used prepositions:

1. Above: higher than, over

The birds were flying above the trees.
2. Across: From one side to the other.
A new bridge is being built across the river.
3. After: later than, next, following in time or
orderMeet me after six o’clock.
4. Along: from one end to the other end, in a line next to the length
ofThey were walking along the road.
Colourful trees grew along the road.
5. Among: surrounded by, from one person, one
of She builds a house among the
mountains.
6. At: used to show a point of time, used with something seen as a point in
space,towards
He asked me to meet him at 2‘o clock.
7. Behind: at the back of, supporting, inferior to She stood behind her husband.
8. Below: lower than, lower than in amount, rank
etc.,The picture hung just below
thewindow.
Children below the age of 5 are not admitted here.
63
9. Between: used generally for two reference points to show position or connection or
division
She sat between her husband and her father.
You can meet him between five and six o’clock.
She divided the cake between her two children.
10. By: near, beside, by way of, by means of, used to show the agent of the
actionWhen I saw her she was standing by the window.
Due to urgent work she had to leave by the first train.
Meghdoot was written by Kalidas.
11. For: used to show a receiver of something, on behalf of, in exchange of, in search
of,towards, used for, in support of, during
She cooked the rice for her son.
She gave me Rs. 10,000 for my house.
12. From: used to show a starting point in time or in place or in order or position, sent,
given, supplied, produced or provided by, based on, compared with,
showing
separation or distance
They worked from morning to night.
Many birds come from morning to night.
She is different from her brother in character.
He lives 45 miles from the village.
13. In: during a period of time, after a period of time, used before the names of
towns,cities, countries etc, used to show a state or position.
She answered all the questions in 30 minutes.
The train will leave in three hours.
14. Into: to the inside of [shows motion or direction or change of
condition]She asked me to come into the classroom.
He wants to translate Gitanjali into Tamil.
The rain changed into snow.
15. Of: belonging to, from, about, having
The wood of this table is quite old.
Nepal is to the north of India.
16. On: on top of [touching the surface] used to show a general position: used to show
aposition in time, about.
Can you see the cat on the roof?
We are informed that the monkey was on the roof.
He gave a talk on Social work.
17. Over: above, [without touching], vertically above,
aboutA picture hung over the door.
Grass is growing over the airport.
There was an iron box over the table.
18. Since: from a point of past time till now, during the
periodafterI haven’t seen her since last week.
It is a long time since our last visit to Mumbai.
19. Through: in at one end and out at the other, by way of, by means of, as a result
ofThey passed through a big tunnel.
The burglar came in through the open stairs.

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 20. To: in the direction of, as far as, until, and for the attention or possession of
She pushed the book to me.
I walked to the end of the corridor.
He is busy from 8‘o clock to 4‘oclock.
21. Under: lower than, vertically below, less than
There is a black spot under her left eye.
He sat under the tree.
22. With: by means of, in the possession of, in the company of
She writes with a fountain pen.
I left my suitcase with the driver.
She went to Australia with her husband and children.

Omission of prepositions:
Prepositions are omitted in some places. In such cases where prepositions are omitted, the wordorder in
the sentence changes. Indirect object is placed before the direct object.

‗To‘ and ‗for‘ before indirect objects (I.O.)

He gave a gift to his daughter.
He gave his daughter a gift.
(He gave to his daughter) x
I brought a bat for my son.
I brought my son a bat (‗for‘ is not used)
Note: He gave it to his daughter.
He gave his daughter it. (x)I
brought it for my son.
I brought my son it(x).

Prepositions at the end of clauses and sentences

It is quite common, especially in informal style, to find a preposition at the end of a clause or
sentence.
‗wh‘ : Do you know what he has come for?
Who are you afraid of?
―John is getting married‖. ―Who to?‖
What a lovely place we‘ve come to!
Relative clause: You remember the boy I was going out with?
There‘s the man I complained to you about.
Passive clauses: He‘s already been operated on.
I don‘t mind being laughed at.
Infinitive : He is a boring teacher to listen to.
Expressions: I need a paper to write on.
Note: Who are you traveling with? (or) With whom are you traveling?
EXERCISE

I. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with suitable prepositions:

1. The apartment consists three bed-rooms, a kitchen and two bathrooms.

2. The accident took place because of my fault, so I had to pay the damage.
3. It is terrible that some people are dying _ hunger while others eat too
much.
4. You know that you can depend me whenever you need help.
5. One India’s priorities is growing more food.
6. There are countless opportunities qualified computer personnel.
7. Gold is a rare metal a beautiful yellow colour.

1. 10 degrees is the limit which the nozzle controls the steam flow.
2. The earth’s reserves of fossil fuels have been formed
organic matter subjected
enormousheat and pressure millions of
years. But such reserves are finite. Because power demand is
increasing very rapidly, fossil fuels will be exhausted
a relatively short time.
3. The ore is then transported mills.

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions:

I was very lonely and very bored. I lived myself an old house theedge the village and
rarely talked anyone. The villagers thought that I ought to have a pet company but the only pet
they could find was a dog only one ear. When I saw it I shouted, ‘Get my
house’. Thedog, to my surprise, responded doing exactly the opposite. It wagged its tail and
wen the house. Istared the funny dog a while and then said finally, ‘Ah well, you might as well
stay, I suppose. Come and sit next me’. The dog wagged its tail butwalked me, and went to sit
the other side the room. ‘Sit the chair’, said I. The one-eared dog promptly sat it. I took the dog
outside and pointed up the road. The dog immediately turned round and went theroad! ‘Why
do you always do the opposite what I tell you to do?’ I asked. The dog just looked up me
its head one side and its solitary ear sticking up a radio aerial.

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 ADVERBS
Adverbs are words that describe how, where and when an action took place.
I am standing here. The students wrote the test actively.
I met my friend yesterday.
Adverbs are mostly formed by adding the suffix -ly to an adjective.
quick- quickly neat- neatly most- mostly
There are certain adjectives which have a different form for adverbs.
good- well

Adverbs can be placed in different places in a sentence.

Gopi always comes first to the class. (before the verb)

Always Gopi comes first to the class. (at the beginning of a sentence)
Gopi comes first to the class always. (at the end of a sentence)

There are different kinds of adverbs:

1. Adverbs of manner: they answer the question how the action happened.
Shyam sang beautifully. (How did she sing?)
The professor explained the concept clearly.
I eagerly read the article.
2. Adverbs of place: they answer the question where the action happened.
She is waiting down.
I didn't go there.
We do not use plastic here.

3. Adverbs of time: they answer the question when the action happened.
I am going to meet my friend today.
Harish did not get any reply yet.

4. Adverbs of frequency: they answer the question how often the action happened.
I go to the library everyday.
Prashaanth never eats meat.
Praveen goes for swimming occasionally.
5. Adverbs of degree: they answer the question how well/ badly the action happened.
I wrote the exam quite well.
I could hardly hear you.

Underline the adverbs in the following sentences and state their kind.

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Notes

Adverbs are words used to modify verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives and other
adverbs.

1. I went to the market in the morning.

2. The dog sat lazily in the shade of the tree.

3. The man grumbled loudly while cleaning the table.

4. I often visit my grandparents.

5. It is extremely hot today.

6. Please wait patiently.

7. The technician fixed the problem easily.

8. They serve hot pan cakes there.

9. I am waiting here for my daughter.

10. He laughed merrily.

11. We will leave today.

12. She is standing outside.

Answers

1. I went to the market in the morning. (Adverb of time)

2. The dog sat lazily in the shade of the tree. (Adverb of manner)

3. The man grumbled loudly while cleaning the table. (Adverb of manner)

4. I often visit my grandparents. (Adverb of frequency)

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5. It is extremely hot today. (Adverb of degree)

6. Please wait patiently. (Adverb of manner)

7. The technician fixed the problem easily. (Adverb of manner)

8. They serve hot pan cakes there. (Adverb of place)

9. I am waiting here for my daughter. (Adverb of place)

10. He laughed merrily. (Adverb of manner)

11. We will leave today. (Adverb of time)

12. She is standing outside. (Adverb of place)

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 Conjunction: Definition and Examples
The conjunction is the part of speech used as a ―joiner‖ for words, phrases, or
clauses in a particular sentence. It links these words or groups of words
together, in such a way that certain relationships among these different parts
of the sentence will be established, and the thoughts that all of these
convey will be connected.

What are the Different Types of Conjunctions?

In the English language, conjunctions come in three basic types: the
coordinating conjunctions, the subordinating conjunctions, and the correlative
conjunctions.

1. Coordinating Conjunction
Among the three types of conjunctions, this is probably the most common
one. The main function of coordinating conjunctions is to join words,
phrases, and clauses together, which are usually grammatically equal. Aside
from that, this type of conjunctions is placed in between the words or groups
of words that it links together, and not at the beginning or at the end.
Examples:
• Pizza and burgers are my favorite snacks.
In the sample sentence above, the underlined word serves as a coordinating
conjunction that
links two words together (pizza + burgers).
• The treasure was hidden in the cave or in the underground lagoon.
The example above shows how coordinating conjunctions can join together
two (or more) phrases. The coordinating conjunction ―or‖ in the sentence
above links ―in the cave‖ and ―in the
underground lagoon.‖
• What those girls say and what they actually do are completely different.
In this sentence, you‘ll see how the same coordinating conjunction ‖and‖
from the first sample sentence can be used to link clauses together (―what
those girls say‖ and ―what they actually do‖), instead of just single words.

How to Punctuate Coordinating Conjunctions

• In joining two words, phrases, or dependent clauses together, a comma is
not required before the coordinating conjunction.Examples:
• aliens and predators
• by the beach or on the hill
• what you see and what you get
• If, on the other hand, you are linking more than two words, phrases, and
dependent clauses together, a series of commas must be placed in between
the distinct elements.

Examples:
• spiders, snakes, and scorpions
• in the bedroom, in the garage, or at the garden

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• Lastly, for joining together two independent clauses, a comma must be used
before
placing the coordinating conjunction.

Examples:
• Cassandra fell asleep, so Joaquin just went home.
• I don‘t really like spaghetti, but I can eat lasagna any day.
For you to easily recall the different coordinating conjunctions that you can
use, you can just remember the word ―FANBOYS,‖ which stands for:

2. Subordinating Conjunction
This type of conjunctions is used in linking two clauses together. Aside from
the fact that they introduce a dependent clause, subordinating conjunctions
also describe the relationship between the dependent clause and the
independent clause in the sentence.

List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

•
while • as if
• as soon as • how
• although • if
• before • provided
• even if • in that
• because • once
• no matter how • supposing
• whether • while
• wherever • unless
• when • in case
• until • as far as
• after

Sample Sentences:
• It is so cold outside, so I brought you a jacket.
• Because it is so cold outside, I brought you a jacket.
• now that
• as
• so that
• though
• since

By looking at the sentences above, you will easily notice that a subordinating
conjunction can be found either at the beginning of the sentence or between
the clauses that it links together. Aside from that, a comma should also be
placed in between the two clauses (independent clause and dependent clause)
of the sentence.

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 3. Correlative Conjunction
The correlative conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions which are used
to join equal sentence elements together.

List of Common Correlative Conjunctions:

• either… or
• neither… nor
• not only… but also
• both… and
• whether… or
• so… as

Sample Sentences:
• Both my brother and my father are lawyers.
• I can‘t decide whether I‘ll take Chemical Engineering or take Medical
Technology in college.

What is a Conjunctive Adverb?

Although a conjunctive adverb is not a real conjunction, this kind of words
functions as conjunctions in a sentence. Some examples of conjunctive
adverbs are:

 in addition • otherwise • incidentally

• for example • as a result • after all
• however • indeed • finally
• therefore • still • likewise
• on the contrary • thus • meanwhile
• hence • on the other hand •consequently
• in fact • furthermore
• instead

Exercise 1 Complete the following sentences.

1. I know learning a language is important and

.
2. I know learning a language is important but .
3. I know learning a language is important
because .
4. I know learning a language is important when .
5. I know learning a language is important so .
6. I know learning a language is important or _.
7. I know learning a language is important since .
8. I know learning a language is important even .
9. I know learning a language is important while .

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10. I know learning a language is important
unless .
Answers:
1. I know learning a language is important and useful .
2. I know learning a language is important but it takes time .
3. I know learning a language is important because it opens a world of
opportunities .
4. I know learning a language is important when one is young .
5. I know learning a language is important so I have decided to learn it .
6. I know learning a language is important or we may lose out .
7. I know learning a language is important since the world is so
globalised .
8. I know learning a language is important even if you work in your home
country .
9. I know learning a language is important while you have the time and
energy .
10. I know learning a language is important unless it is a dead language .

Exercise-2

Use appropriate coordinating conjunctions and combine the sentences given below.

1. We planned to go to the seashore in the evening. We couldn‟t go due to the storm.

2. I asked my father to buy me a new dress. I asked him to buy new shoes.
3. She‟s my friend. The man next to her is her brother.
4. We ran into the house. Our clothes were already wet by the rain.
5. Can we eat a sandwich? Can we just have coffee?
6. Amit started to cry at the end of the movie. The dog has a tragic death.
7. They hired a taxi to reach the railway station. They were late.
8. The boy picked the green ball. The white one was already taken.
9. In those days we loved playing outside. Now kids prefer to stay inside the house.
10. Milo lives on Oak Street. His brother lives nearby.
11. The parents couldn‟t afford to pay the fee. They decided to enroll their daughter
anyway.
12.Birds enjoy spring. They find it difficult to survive winter.

Answer:
1. We planned to go to the seashore in the evening but we couldn‟t go due to the
storm.
2. I asked my father to buy me a new dress and I asked him to buy new shoes.
3. She‟s my friend and the man next to her is her brother.
4. We ran into the house but our clothes were already wet by the rain.
5. Can we eat a sandwich or can we just have coffee?
6. Amit started to cry at the end of the movie because the dog has a tragic
death.
7. They hired a taxi to reach the railway station yet they were late.

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8. The boy picked the green ball as the white one was already taken.
9. In those days we loved playing outside but now kids prefer to stay inside the
house.
10. Milo lives on Oak Street and his brother lives nearby.
11. The parents couldn‟t afford to pay the fee but they decided to enroll their
daughter anyway.
12.Birds enjoy spring but they find it difficult to survive winter.

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 UNIT III

LANGUAGE USE IN PROFESSIONAL

COMMUNICATION

75
 UNIT III: LANGUAGE USE IN PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

Business Letters

Business Letters are an essential requirement in today‘s business world. Business

letters are a type of formal letter sent from one company to another, or between such
organizations and their customers, clients, or other external parties. A business letter is a
permanent written record, and may be taken more seriously by the recipient than other forms of
communication.

Why to write Business Letters

 Maintains and strengthens customer relationship
 Ensures communication between businesses
 Helps to gather feedback, complaints etc
 Leads to increase in customer base and loyalty
 Helps in exchange of relevant business information

Business Letter Format

 Sender‘s Address
 Date
 Receiver‘s Address
 Subject Heading
 Salutation
 Body of the letter
 Complimentary Close

Business Letter- Points to remember while making the format

 Sender‘s address is usually written in 3-4 lines
 The subject of the letter should always be underlined
 Salutations like ―Dear Sir/Ma‘am‖ or ―Respected Sir/Ma‘am‖ should be used

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  The introductory paragraph of body should highlight the purpose of the letter
 The main paragraph of the body should contain details of the letter
 The concluding paragraph should be a conclusion of the first two paragraphs
 ―Yours truly/faithfully‖ should be used as the complimentary close

Business Letter Useful Tips

 Business letters should be to-the-point, clear and precise.
 Simple language should be used.
 Abbreviations and short forms must be avoided.
 When placing orders, the description of items should be clearly mentioned.
 Senders should inform about the desirable mode of payment/ transportation etc.
 Appropriate language should be used.

Business Letter Samples

Example 1:
You manage the supply of books in the school library. Write a letter for placing the order
for the books to the Vikas Publishing House Ltd.

Delhi Public School

Sector 12, RK Puram
New Delhi- 110022

5 January 2021

To
Vikas Publishing House Ltd.
Darya Ganj, Central Delhi
New Delhi- 110002

Subject - Placing an order for books for the school library

77
Dear Sir
I would like to place an order with you for the following books.

English Grammar Class 8th 20 Copies

English Grammar Class 9th 30 Copies

Higher Mathematics Class 11th 10 Copies

Higher Mathematics Class 12th 20 Copies

The Story of My Life- Helen Keller Novel 15 Copies

Kindly ensure that the books are of the latest edition and in proper state. It is a request to deliver
these books latest by 5 January 2021 and bills for the same shall be cleared at the time of
delivery. Please offer a suitable discount on the purchase.

Thanking you

Yours faithfully
Vaibhav
Library Manager

Example 2:
Write a letter to the customer service manager of Ganesh Electronics Pvt. Ltd. complaining
about a defect in the music system purchased from the store. Sign yourself as
Gauri/Gaurav.

78
H.No.58 Block-D
Sector 26, Rohini
New Delhi- 110085

11 February 2021

To
Customer Service Manager
Ganesh Electronics Pvt. Ltd.
Rohini, New Delhi- 110085

Subject- Filing complaint for a defect in purchase no. MS-845/07/2020

Dear Sir,
I hereby write to complain regarding the defect in the music system w.r.t bill no. MS-
845/07/2020 purchased on 11 January 2021 from your store.
The music system worked properly for one month but it has not been functioning
properly for the past three days. The sound breaks whilst the songs are being played and the
system hangs multiple times. Coupled with this, the songs stop playing abruptly and require the
system to be restarted. Since the music system is still in the warranty period of six months, I wish
to get it replaced at the earliest.
I request you to look into this matter without any delay and provide a new working music
system of the same brand. I have enclosed a copy of the bill of purchase for your reference.
Looking forward to your early response.

Thanking you

Yours truly
Gauri

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Example 3:

You wish to do Spanish learning course from the institute ‘Learn a Language’. Write a letter
to enquire about course details, fees, duration etc. sign yourself as Kritika/Kartik.

584, Defence Colony

Dehradun
Uttarakhand- 24801

21 February 2021

To
The Manager
Learn a Language
Connaught Place
Uttarakhand- 248001

Subject- Enquiring about Spanish learning course

Sir/ Ma‘am
I wish to enquire about the Spanish learning course offered by your institute. Since I have basic
knowledge of Spanish language priorly, I wish to learn the language at an advanced level.
I request you to provide the following details relating to the advance level Spanish learning
course-
1. Fee of the course
2. Duration of the course
3. Course material
4. Class schedule
5. Batch size (if any) and;
6. Other relevant details

Please attach the complete brochure along with the letter. I look forward to a quick response
regarding the enquiry.

80
Thanking you

Yours truly
Kritika

Example 4:
You are in-charge of purchase for Turbo Automobiles Ltd. Last week you made an order
which is still pending. Write a letter to the manager of ‘Tools & Spares’ for the cancellation
of the aforementioned order
Turbo Automobiles Ltd.
Pahar Ganj, Central Delhi
Delhi- 110055

3 March 2021

To
The Manager
Tools & Spares
Delhi- 110065

Subject- Cancellation of order no. TS/948 dated 6 September 2020

Sir
I want to draw your attention to an order made with you on 6 February 2020 w.r.t order
number TS/948. I hereby make a kind request to cancel this order.
Our company had undertaken a project for which this order was made. However, we are
no longer doing the project and hence we do not require the items that we ordered from you.
Since the order cancellation request is made within 10 days of the order placement, it is in

81
compliance with your firm policies. No payment had been made and thus, there are no
outstanding balances and the accounts stand clear.
Please confirm the cancellation of the order at the earliest. I shall make the cancellation
payment after cancellation is confirmed. I have enclosed a copy of the original order receipt.

Thanking you

Yours faithfully
Sarvesh
Purchase in-charge

Emails

Writing a Professional Email

In the information age, email has become the dominant form of communication. Being able to
write a polished, professional email is now a critical skill both in college and the workplace.
Below are some key distinctions between formal and informal writing, as well as some
guidelines to follow when composing a formal email to a superior (professor, current or
prospective employer, etc.) or someone who does not know you.

Informal vs. Formal

Informal:

• Written to friends and family

• Accuracy and grammar (spelling and punctuation) are not important

• You can make up your own rules

Example:

Hi Anne,

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I miss you so much! Can‗t wait to see you on Friday!! We haven‗t hung out in so long! I miss
my bestie!

Maybe we can go to the movies or dinner or just chill and watch TV and catch up...idc,
whichever you want.

Love ya,

Jules

Formal:

• Written to a professor, colleague, boss, etc.

• Must always be professional

• Accurate grammar, punctuation, and spelling necessary

Example:

Dear Professor Johnson,

I was unable to attend class today due to a doctor‗s appointment. When you have a moment,
could please let me know what I missed and what homework I need to have completed for
Friday?

Thank you,

Julia Smith

Email Format

Salutation:

The salutation of a formal email is similar to the salutation of a letter. When writing to someone
you do not know by name, you put ―To Whom it May Concern.‖ When applying for a job, you

83
would address the person by, ―Dear Hiring Manager.‖ If you do know the recipient‗s name, you
put ―Dear Mr./Ms. Smith.‖ For a formal salutation, you should not use the recipient‗s first name
or the informal greetings

‗Hello‘ or ‗Hey‘

Body Paragraphs:

It is important to remember that an email needs to be concise. The first sentence, known as the
opening sentence, can be a greeting if the situation allows it.

• I hope all is well with you.

• Thank you for your prompt response.

However, for most formal emails it is best to get straight to the point. Depending on the subject,
you should have a maximum of four paragraphs and each paragraph should contain a single
point. It is also important to provide questions in order to prompt a response. At the end of your
last paragraph you should provide a ―thank you‖ or ―call to action‖ depending on the subject of
your email.

• Thank you for your assistance with...

• Thank you for your time and I look forward to hearing back from you.

• Please feel free to call or email me if you have any questions.

• I would appreciate it if this could be taken care of promptly.

Closing:

Like the salutation, the closing of a formal email can be the same as the closing to a letter.
However, unlike the salutation, there are more options for a closing.

• Thank you

• Best regards

• Sincerely• Yours

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The closing is then followed by your full name. It is also beneficial to add your job position (if
applicable) and phone number under your name in the 4th paragraph.

Example:

Sincerely,

Julia Smith

Student Body President

Menlo College

(555) 555-5555

EMAIL ETIQUETTE

First and foremost ask yourself, is it necessary to communicate via email?

Would it serve me better to communicate in person? Have I thought about the various
advantages and disadvantages of different types of communication – email, texting, written
letter, in person, Skype or Face Time, etc.?

Always use a subject line - Be sure to briefly and accurately write the purpose of your email in
the subject line. This may help you receive a quicker response.

Use proper titles - Formally address others by their title unless given permission to do otherwise,
such as Dr. X, Professor X, Dean X or Mr./Ms./Mrs., etc.

Identify yourself early in the email correspondence - If you are using your personal email
account, it may not have your full name. So, it‗s important to identify yourself and give alternate
ways to contact you such as a cell phone number or home number.

Do not use ALL capital letters to emphasize or highlight your message - This is considered to be
rude, and can be interpreted as shouting at someone in terms of email etiquette.

85
Use diplomatic language - Write the email when you have time to think and carefully choose
your words. Use positive statements. Keep negative ones to a minimum. Only write words that
you would have also shared in person.

Write the email when you are calm - If you are experiencing any strong negative emotions or
negative thoughts about the situation and/or the other person, wait until you cool down. It may be
useful to seek out someone whom you trust or a confidential office that can listen to your
concerns. You don‗t want to have any regrets. If necessary, write the email, but be sure to save it
in draft. When you revisit it you‗re more likely to edit out the emotional content and stick to the
facts.

Be clear, focused and succinct - It‗s important to get to the point right at the beginning of your
email. People often receive countless emails. The ones that seem long could be skipped over for
review later on or read too quickly causing miscommunication or conflict. You don‗t want your
email to be overlooked or responded to at a later date, because it was so lengthy. Rather than
writing a long email, put the information in a Word document and refer to it as an attachment in
your email message.

Write anything in an email that you would say in person - Sometimes people will risk saying
things in an email that they are reluctant to share in person. There should be no difference if
you‗re honestly communicating what you feel is important.

Use one topic per email - Make your request in the introduction. Leave details for the middle
section of your email. In closing, briefly summarize your request. Do not overload the email with
attachments.

Allow time for a response - Be patient and give a reasonable amount of time for a reply. If your
issue is time sensitive, indicate such in the subject line and be sure to kindly request a reply by a
certain date.

Organize your email message - Be sure the first sentence or paragraph clearly outlines your
message and desired outcome or expectations. If you have a few key points, number them or use
bullets. It helps the reader quickly scan and understand your message. Always list the most
important points first.

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Proofread - Check spelling and grammar. Use spellcheck. Remember that some words may be
spelled correctly, but their use may be out of context to your subject matter. So, spellcheck isn‗t
always a sure thing. It‗s important for you to personally re-read your email for errors in context
too.

Respect confidentiality - Do not put confidential information in an email. If possible, be general

and state that you would like to discuss the matter either by the phone or in person.
Communicate in a professional manner. Do not use slang, jargon, emoticons or abbreviations -
such as LOL (Laugh out Loud). Use them for informal communication with people you know
well such as friends, classmates, coworkers or family. Use a professional font. It‗s not necessary
to use large fonts or to use bold, italics, underline or multiple text colors, etc. to emphasize your
point. Emoticons or Emoji are often viewed as unprofessional and childish even though they do
convey tone.

To / BCC (Blind Carbon Copy) / CC (Carbon Copy) - There‗s hardly ever a good time to use
BCC except when updating people on something like a change of address or when
communicating to large groups content that is informal. Use CC when you wish to keep people
in the loop with no need for them to reply.

Be respectful and courteous - Imagine that you‗re receiving this email. Are the tone and
language professional? Use a positive tone. Tone means the emotion and attitude you want to
convey. Finally, ending your email with the words such as sincerely, thank you, or looking
forward to your reply is always appreciated.

Review your email - Are you sure that you want to send it? Is the person addressed the correct
person to receive the email and/or should it be sent to someone else? Once you hit send, it is
official.

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 Synonyms

Synonyms are words that are similar or have a related meaning, to another word. They
can be lifesavers when you want to avoid repeating the same word over and over. Also,
sometimes the word you have in mind might not be the most appropriate word, which is why
finding the right synonym can come in handy.

A few examples

 important: required, vital, essential, primary, significant, critical

 Intelligent: smart, bright, brilliant, sharp
 Rich: affluent, wealthy, well-off, well-to-do
 Strong: stable, secure, solid, tough
 True: genuine, factual, accurate, correct, real
 Unhappy: sad, depressed, melancholy, miserable
 Valid: authorized, legitimate
 Weak: frail, infirm, puny, fragile

88
 Antonyms

Antonyms are words that have contrasting, or opposite, meanings. Like so much of the English
language, ―antonym‖ is rooted in the Greek language. The Greek word anti means opposite,
while onym means name.

Opposite name - that makes sense!

A few examples

boy - girl

above - below

off - on

husband - wife

night - day

doctor - patient

entrance - exit

buy - sell

true - false

borrow – lend

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 TENSES

Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1)Present Tense

(2)Past Tense

(3)Future Tense

They are further divided into:

Simple Present

It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work done on daily basis.

Example – She writes a letter.

Example – She does not write a letter.

Example – Does she write a letter?

Example – Does she not write a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

Present Continuous

It is used to express an action taking place at the time of speaking.

Example – she is writing a letter.

Example – She is not writing a letter.

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Example – Is she writing a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a letter?

Present Perfect

It is used to show an action that started in the past and has just finished.

Example- She has written a letter.

Example – She has not written a letter.

Example- Has she written a letter?

Example– Has she not written a letter?

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object

Present Perfect Continuous

This tense shows the action which started in the past and is still continuing.

Example – She has been writing a letter.

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

91
Example – Has she been writing a letter?

Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object

Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy
gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past.

Simple Past

Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of time.
Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time. Used for past habits.

Ex: I played football when I was a child.

Rule: Subject + V2

Ex: She wrote a letter

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + V2 + Object + (.) She wrote a letter.

2. Negative Sentences –

Subject + didn‘t + V1 + Object + (.)

She didn‗t write a letter.

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3. Interrogative Sentences-

Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

ex. I was driving a car.

Rule: was/were + ing

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She was writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)

She was not writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences

Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she writing a letter?

93
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she not writing a letter?

Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a long
time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the action that took
place earlier.

e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)

She had written a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + had + not + Object + (.)

She had not written a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences

Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)

94
Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to
some time in past.

e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)

She had been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She had not been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences

Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she not been writing a letter?

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FUTURE TENSE

Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of speaking or
writing is called as future tense.

For e.g- She will write a letter.

Simple Future

This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after saying
or in future

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)

In Future Tense helping verb hall‗ is used with I‗ and We‗. Helping verb Will‗ is used with
all others. When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or emphasize something, use
of 'will/shall' is reversed. Will‗ is used with I‗ & We‗ and 'shall' is used with others.

In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and normally Will‗ is
used with all.

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will write a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will not write a letter.

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3. Interrogative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)

Will she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object

Will she not write a letter?

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.

e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.

In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to be continued
till sometime in future. We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in
progress at or around a time in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will be writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object She will not be writing a letter.

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3. Interrogative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she be writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object

Will she not be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be completed by
a certain time in future. We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a
particular time in the future.

e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will have written a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will not have written a letter.

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3. Interrogative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she have written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she not have written a letter?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will continue
for some time in future. If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous
tense. Without continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense. Continued
time reference only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and Future Perfect
Continuous Tense. The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will
be in progress before another time or event in the future.

e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.

It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.

e.g. They will be staying for a week‗s

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in progress
before another time or event in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

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Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will have been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+ (.)

She will not have been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she have been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she not have been writing a letter?

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 ARTICLES

An article is a word used to modify a noun. It is a kind of adjective that is always used
with a noun and gives information about a noun. There are two different types of articles that we
use in writing such as definite and indefinite articles.

The definite article is ‗the‘ and it‘s remains same in any sentence, whether singular or
plural, it indicates a specific thing. The indefinite article is ‗a‘ or ‗an‘. We use an when the next
word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o, u because the noun it works with is indefinite or common.

The noun may be the next word as in (the woman or the man) or there may be adjectives
and possibly adverbs between the article and the noun as in (the very smart, young woman or
man.)

Example:

• the freckles on his face

• the alligator in the pond

• the breakfast wrap on my plate

• a Mercedes from the parking lot

• an event in history

Types of Articles

Articles are mainly of two types

1. Indefinite Articles

2. Definite Articles

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Indefinite articles

Indefinite articles are the words ‗a‘ and ‗an‘, these articles are used to refer to a noun, but
the noun being mentioned to is not particularly a specific person, place, object or idea. It can be
any noun from a group of nouns.

‗A‘ is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound. Consonant letters such as
B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z. or before words starting in u and eu when they
sound like you.

For example: a boy, a dog, a fight, a gym, a horse, a joke, a kite, a lion, a mirror, a pin, a quilt, a

bottle, a pen, a ring, a doll, a woman, a tree etc.

‗An‘ is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. Vowel letters such as A, E, I, O, U. or

with a mute H.

For example: an hour, an honest lady, an apple, an elephant, an orange, an umbrella, an idiot, an

orphan, an egg, an engineer etc.

The indefinite article is used to refer to a particular member in the group or to refer
something for the first time. Such as:

Use 'a' to refer to something for the first time.

Example:

• Would you like a drink?

• I've finally got a good job.

• An elephant and a rat fell in love.

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Use 'a' with names of jobs.

Example:

• Jamie is a doctor.

• Marina is training to be an architect.

• He wants to be a dancer.

Use 'a' with nationalities and religions in the singular.

Example:

• Jonathan is an Englishman.

• Maria is a Catholic.

• Loic is a French Trainer.

Use 'a' with the names of days of the week when not referring to any particular day.

Example:

• I was born on a Thursday.

• Could I come over on a Friday sometime?

Use 'a' to refer to an example of something.

Example:

• The mouse had a tiny nose .

• The giraffe had a long neck.

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• It was a very strange house.

Use 'a' with singular nouns after the words 'what' and 'such'.

Example:

• What a shame !

• She's such a beautiful girl .

• What a lovely day !

Use 'a' meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person, or a single unit of measure.

This add emphasis to the number, and contrast with other numbers.

Example:

• I'd like an orange and two lemons please.

• I can think of a hundred reasons not to come.

• You can't run a mile in 5 minutes!

Definite Articles

This article is the word ‗the‘, and it is used before a singular and plural directly referring
to a specific noun or groups of nouns. Each noun or group of nouns being referred to is direct
and specific. Nouns in English are led by the definite article.

When the speaker trusts that the listener already knows what he is referring to we use the
Definite articles.

We also use Definite articles in cases such as:

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Use 'the' to refer to something which has already been mentioned.

Examples:

• There's a position available in my office. The job will involve some international travel.

• On Wednesday, an unarmed man stole $5,000 from the grocery shop. The thief hasn't been
caught yet.

• I was walking past Denny's Eatery when I decided to go into the eatery to get some fresh juice.

Use 'the' when you assume there is just one of something in that place, even if it has not been
mentioned before.

Examples:

• We went on a walk in the woods yesterday.

• Turn left and go to number 57. Our house is across from the Italian restaurant.

• Where is the restroom?

Use 'the' in sentences or clauses where you define or identify a particular person or object.

Examples:

• The man who wrote this book is famous.

• He is the dentist I came to see.

• I live in the small house with a blue door.

Use the to refer to people or objects that are unique.

Examples:

• The sun rose at 6:10 this morning.

105
• You can go anywhere in the world.

• Clouds drifted across the sky.

• The president will be speaking on TV tonight.

Use 'the' before superlatives and ordinal numbers.

Examples:

• She read the last chapter of her new book first.

• This is the highest building in London.

• This is the third time I have called you today.

Use 'the' with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people.

Examples:

• The elderly require special attention.

• The French enjoy cheese.

• She has given a lot of money to the poor.

Use 'the' with decades.

Examples:

• This is a painting from the 1720's.

• He was born in the seventies.

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Use 'the' with clauses introduced by only

Examples:

• The only tea I like is iced tea.

• This is the only day we've had sunshine all week.

• You are the only person he will listen to.

Uses of Articles

One can also use 'the' in cases such as:

1. Use ‗the‘ with the names of restaurants & hotels, unless these are named after a person.

2. Use ‗the‘ with countries that have plural names.

3. Use ‗the‘ with names of geographical areas,groups of islands, rivers, canals, mountain ranges
and oceans.

4. Use ‗the‘ with countries that include the words "republic", "kingdom", or "states" in their
names.

5. Use ‗the‘ with the names of families, but not with the names of individuals.

6. Use ‗the‘ with the names of famous buildings, museums, works of art or monuments.

7. Use ‗the‘ with newspaper names.

When not to use 'the'

1. Do not use 'the' with names of countries.

2. Do not use 'the' with the names of meals.

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3. Do not use 'the' with names of shops.

4. Do not use 'the' with people's names.

5. Do not use 'the' with professions.

6. Do not use 'the' with titles when combined with names.

7. Do not use 'the' with the names of languages.

8. Do not use 'the' after the 's possessive case.

9. Do not use 'the' with uncountable nouns.

10. Do not use 'the' with years.

11. Do not use 'the; when referring to points on the globe.

12. Do not use 'the' with most names of towns, stations, streets and airports.

13. Do not use 'the' with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands

Exclusion of Articles

We most often exclude the use of articles, some common types of nouns that don't take an article

are:

• Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Russian, Spanish (unless you are
referring to the population of the nation: "The Russian are known for their warmth.")

• Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball

• Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

108
 UNIT – IV

CONVERSATIONAL SKILLS
ACQUISITION

109
 SINGLE WORD SUBSTITUTES

―Single word substitutes‖ as the phrase indicates itself are the words that replace group of words
or a full sentence effectively without creating any kind of ambiguity in the meaning of the
sentences. Like the word ―Autobiography‖ can be used in place of the sentence ―the life story of
a person written by oneself‖. It is very important to write precisely and speak in a single word.

Nowadays, verbose speech is avoided and a precise speech is expected. This not only makes the
language easily comprehensible but also makes it beautiful. To put it in the other way, these
words are used to bring an effect of compression in any kind of writing as well. For example, in
business communication there are instances where a lot should be written with limitations of
time and space, these kind of words can prove quite handy.

In English Language there are lots of single words for a group of words that can be used
effectively to make the writing to the point that too without losing the meaning of the context.

Some frequently used terms:

1. One who is out to subvert a government Anarchist

2. One who is recovering from illness Convalescent

3. One who is all powerful Omnipotent

4. One who is presents everywhere. Omnipresent

5. One who knows everything Omniscient

6. One who is easily deceived Gullible

7. One who does not make mistakes Infallible

8. One who can do anything for money Mercenary

9. One who has no money Pauper

10. One who changes sides Turncoat

11. One who works for free Volunteer

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12. One who loves books Bibliophile

13. One who can speak two languages Bilingual

14. One who loves mankind Philanthropist

15. One who hates mankind Misanthrope

16. One who looks on the bright side of things Optimist

17. One who looks on the dark side of things Pessimist

18. One who doubts the existence of god Agnostic

19. One who pretends to be what he is not Hypocrite

20. One incapable of being tired Indefatigable

21. One who helps others Good Samaritan

22. One who copies from other writers Plagiarist

23. One who hates women Misogynist

24. One who knows many languages Polyglot

25. One who is fond of sensuous pleasures Epicure

26. One who thinks only of himself Egoist

27. One who thinks only of welfare of women Feminist.

28. One who is indifferent to pleasure or pain Stoic

29. One who is quite like a woman Effeminate

30. One who has strange habits Eccentric

31. One who speaks less Reticent

32. One who goes on foot Pedestrian

33. One who believes in fate Fatalist

34. One who dies without a Will Intestate

35. One who always thinks himself to be ill Valetudinarian

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36. A Government by the people Democracy

37. A Government by a king or queen Monarchy

38. A Government by the officials Bureaucracy

39. A Government by the rich Plutocracy

40. A Government by the few Oligarchy

41. A Government by the Nobles Aristocracy

42. A Government by one Autocracy

43. Rule by the mob Mobocracy

44. That through which light can pass Transparent

45. That through which light cannot pass Opaque

46. That through which light can partly pass Translucent

47. A sentence whose meaning is unclear Ambiguous

48. A place where orphans live Orphanage

49. That which cannot be described Indescribable

50. That which cannot be imitated Inimitable

51. That which cannot be avoided Inevitable

52. A position for which no salary is paid Honorary

53. That which cannot be defended Indefensible

54. Practice of having several wives Polygamy

55. Practice of having several husbands Polyandry

56. Practice of having one wife or husband Monogamy

57. Practice of having two wives or husbands Bigamy

58. That which is not likely to happen Improbable

59. People living at the same time Contemporaries

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60. A book published after the death of its author Posthumas

61. A book written by an unknown author Anonymous

62. A life history written by oneself Autobiography

63. A life history written by somebody else Biography

64. People who work together Colleagues

65. One who eats too much Glutton

66. That which cannot be satisfied Insatiable

67. One who questions everything Cynic

68. A flesh eating animal Carnivorous

69. A grass eating animal Herbivorous

70. One who lives in a foreign country Immigrant

71. To transfer one's authority to another Delegate

72. One who is a newcomer Neophyte

73. That which is lawful Legal

74. That which is against law Illegal

75. One who is unmarried Celibate

76. A game in which no one wins Draw

77. A study of man Anthropology

78. A study of races Ethnology

79. A study of the body Physiology

80. A study of animals Zoology

81. A study of birds Ornithology

82. A study of ancient things Archaeology

83. A study of derivation of words Etymology

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84. Murder of a human being Homicide

85. Murder of a father Patricide

86. Murder of a mother Matricide

87. Murder of an brother Fratricide

88. Murder of an infant Infanticide

89. Murder of self Suicide

90. Murder of the king Regicide

91. To free somebody from all blame Exonerate

92. To write under a different name Pseudonym

93. A thing no longer in use Obsolete

94. A handwriting that cannot be read Illegible

95. Words written on the tomb of a person Epitaph

96. One who is greedy for money Avaricious

97. Something that cannot be imitated Inimitable

98. One who doesn't know how to read and write Illiterate

99. A person's peculiar habit Idiosyncrasy

100. An animal who preys on other animals Predator

101. Violating the sanctity of a church Sacrilege

102. One who can throw his voice Ventriloquist

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Frequently used 100 common words:
1. Not normal - abnormal

2. Put an end to - abolish

3. Go with - accompany
4. Succeed in doing - accomplish
5. Take as one's own - adopt
6. By oneself - alone
7. Once a year - annually
8. Become invisible - appear
9. Express approval by clapping - applaud
10. Loud enough to be heard - audible
11. Keep oneself away from - avoid
12. At the back of - behind
13. Not sharp - blunt
14. Period of 100 years - century
15. Low in cost or value - cheap
16. Comfort in time of sorrow - console
17. Never ending - continually
18. Without interval - continuous
19. Move on hands and knees - crawl
20. Lame person - cripple
21. Period of 10 years - decade
22. Move up one's mind - decide
23. Go out of sight or existence - disappear
24. Find out - discover
25. Far away - distant
26. Long spell of dry weather - drought

27. Suitable for eating - edible

28. Qualified to be chosen - eligible

29. Leave one country and go to settle in another - emigrate

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30. Put up with - endure

31. Way in - entrance

32. Time that has no limit - eternity
33. Way out - exit
34. Show clearly the meaning of - explain
35. Send goods to another country for sales - export

36. Extreme scarcity of food - famine

37. Able to bend easily without breaking - flexible
38. Go or come after - follow
39. Period of two weeks - fortnight
40. Easily broken - fragile
41. Physically weak - frail
42. Small articles of dress, sewing-goods, etc - haberdashery
43. Suitable for living in - habitable
44. An animal's or plant's natural environment - habitat
45. Doing something constantly - habitual
46. Argue about price of goods - haggle
47. Suffering from a mental or physical disability - handicapped

48. Spend the winter in sleep - hibernate

49. Push roughly - hustle
50. Who or what a person is - identity

51. Doing no work or lazy - idle

52. Not clear enough to be readable - illegible
53. Unable to read or write - illiterate
54. Light up - illuminate
55. Make clear by examples or pictures - illustrate

56. Without any delay - immediately

57. Come into a foreign country as a permanent resident - immigrate
58. Living forever - immortal
59. Become better - improve

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60. Incapable of being wrong - infallible
61. Not guilty - innocent
62. Cannot be conquered - invincible
63. Cannot be seen – invisible

64. Cannot be repaired - irreparable65.unable to walk normally - lame

66. Person who is insane or very foolish - lunatic
67. Dumb person - mute
68. Person living next door - neighbour
69. Well-known in an unfavourable way - notorious

70. Happening from time to time - occasionally

71. Person who takes a hopeful views of things - optimist
72. Father and mother - parents
73. Person walking in a street - pedestrian
74. Person who takes a gloomy views of things - pessimist

75. Science and art of government - politics

76. Liked by many people - popular
77. Put off until a later time - postpone
78. On time - punctual
79. Four-legged animal - quadruped
80. With little or no sound - quiet
81. Again and again - repeatedly
82. Come or go back - return
83. Make known - reveal
84. Turn round - revolve
85. Make along piercing cry or sound - scream86.loud cry - shout
87. In a short time - soon
88. Person who watches a show or game or incident - spectator89.not fresh - stale
90. Look long and steadily - stare
91. Remain alive or in existence – survive
92. Go from one place to another - travel

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 93. Able to be seen through – transparent
94. Not occupied - uninhabited
95. Of no use - useless
96. Surrounding district - vicinity
97. Once a week - weekly

98. Speak softly - whisper

99. Young person - youth

100. Group of people who watch a show - audience

EXERCISE

Choose the suitable word for the clauses from the options given below:

Ambiguous, Acrobat, Anonymous, Agnostic, Bureaucracy, Logic, Democracy,Amphitheater,

Omnivorous, Ancestral, Domicile, Pedagogy, Oligarchy, Aristocracy, Alchemy

1. A dancer on rope -
2. A person who holds that nothing is known or likely to be known of the existence of God -
3. A statement which is obsolete or capable of morethan one interpretation -
4. An oval or circular theater with seats rising behind and above each other rounda central open
space -
5. A letter which does not bear the name or signature of the writer -
6. A place of permanent residence -
7. Government by the people -
8. Government by the nobles -
9. Government by the officials -
10. Government by the few -
11. One who eats everything is -
12. That which is inherited from forefathers -
13. The secret of transmuting base metals into gold -
14. The study of teaching -
15. The science of valid thinking -

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119
 COLLOCATIONS

What is a collocation?

A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right"
to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations
may be unnatural and just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:

natural English... unnatural English...

the fast train the quick train

fast food quick food

a quick shower a fast shower

a quick meal a fast meal

Why learn collocations?

 Your language will be more natural and more easily understood.
 You will have alternative and richer ways of expressing yourself.
 It is easier for our brains to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than as
single words.

How to learn collocations

 Be aware of collocations, and try to recognize them when you see or hear them.
 Treat collocations as single blocks of language. Think of them as individual blocks or
chunks, and learn strongly support, not strongly + support.
 When you learn a new word, write down other words that collocate with it (remember
rightly, remember distinctly, remember vaguely, remember vividly).
 Read as much as possible. Reading is an excellent way to learn vocabulary and
collocations in context and naturally.
 Revise what you learn regularly. Practise using new collocations in context as soon as
possible after learning them.

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  Learn collocations in groups that work for you. You could learn them by topic (time,
number, weather, money, family) or by a particular word (take action, take a
chance, take an exam).
 You can find information on collocations in any good learner's dictionary. And you can
also find specialized dictionaries of collocations.
Tell me who you go with and I'll tell you who you are Saying

Types of collocation

There are several different types of collocation made from combinations of verb, noun, adjective
etc. Some of the most common types are:

 adverb + adjective: completely satisfied (NOT downright satisfied)

 adjective + noun: excruciating pain (NOT excruciating joy)
 noun + noun: a surge of anger (NOT a rush of anger)
 noun + verb: lions roar (NOT lions shout)
 verb + noun: commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide)
 verb + expression with preposition: burst into tears (NOT blow up in tears)
 verb + adverb: wave frantically (NOT wave feverishly)

Sample Collocations

There are several different types of collocation. Collocations can be adjective + adverb, noun +
noun, verb + noun and so on. Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample
sentences.

1. adverb + adjective

 Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.

 We entered a richly decorated room.
 Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?

2. adjective + noun

 The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.

 The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
 He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.

3. noun + noun

 Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.

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  The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
 I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

4. noun + verb

 The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.

 Snow was falling as our plane took off.
 The bomb went off when he started the car engine.

5. verb + noun

 The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.

 I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
 He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.

6. verb + expression with preposition

 We had to return home because we had run out of money.

 At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
 Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.

7. verb + adverb

 She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
 Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
 I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.

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 IF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

What are conditionals in English grammar? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They describe
the result of something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but
didn't (in the past). They are made using different English verb tenses.

There are four main kinds of conditionals:

The Zero Conditional

We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if clause' and
one in the 'main clause'):

If + present simple, present simple.

This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it
always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of the
'if clause' is always the main clause.

The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning. For
example: If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils. (It is always true, there can't be a different result
sometimes). If I eat peanuts, I am sick. (This is true only for me, maybe, not for everyone, but it's
still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)

Here are some more examples:

If people eat too much, they get fat.

If you touch a fire, you get burned.

People die if they don't eat.

You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen.

Snakes bite if they are scared

If babies are hungry, they cry

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The first conditional

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:

if + present simple, will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what
will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

If it rains, I won't go to the park.

If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.

If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.

She'll be late if the train is delayed.

She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.

If I see her, I'll tell her.

The second conditional

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:

if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).
It has two uses.

First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. Maybe
I'm imagining some dream for example.

If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)

If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.

She would travel all over the world if she were rich.

She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

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The third conditional

We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the
past participle in the second part of the sentence:

if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the
result of this situation.

If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so
she didn't pass)

If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).

If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane

She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier

She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university

He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine

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 ACTIVE VOICE & PASSIVE VOICE

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence
and the thingreceiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing

receiving action]Examples:

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and
the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You
can use the passive formif you think that the thing receiving the action is more
important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not
know who is doing the action or if you do not want tomention who is doing the
action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing

doing action]

Examples:

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When to Use the Active Voice

At least during your undergraduate studies, the nature of your writing assignments
generally favors the active voice, because you usually write about general interest topics
to educated laypeople and other scientists or engineers in a reader-friendly fashion. In
general, a sentence thatopens with a concrete simple subject followed by an active verb
will serve you well; the rest of the sentence can reveal the new (and often necessarily
wordy) information.

Two common circumstances follow where passive voice is too often used, even
though activevoice is completely practical:

 Generally, use active voice in the topic sentences and the opening sentences
ofparagraphs—that way the topic for the paragraph is clearly announced:

Crustal rocks contain an interesting historical record. First, they reveal . . .

Batteries, inductors, and capacitors provide electrical energy storage. In batteries, high
internalresistance allows for . . .
 When referring to another author‗s work or introducing a figure or table, it is often stylish

Feldman explains how the relative brightness of objects depends on the viewer‗s
angle ofobservation.

Figure 2 illustrates how fractal geometry can be used to create realistic landscapes.

The following excerpt from a meteorology paper demonstrates how admirable and
efficient theactive voice can be. This paragraph is especially impressive in that it
explains the complex concept of vortices through an analysis of the seemingly ordinary
phenomenon of smoke rings.Note the consistent use of simple exact subjects followed
by active descriptive verbs.

Figure 4 depicts a smoke ring in which the layers of a toroidal vortex ring are visible. As
the picture shows, the smoke ring moves away from its source and trails smoke from its
center. The trail of smoke behind the moving smoke ring indicates that the same viscous
stress that caused the smoke ring to form also causes its eventual destruction. As the
smoke ring continues to move(Figure 5), the outside boundary of the ring rotates toward
the same direction as the relative motion of the surrounding air. The inside boundary
rotates opposite in direction, and thus the change in relative velocity with distance across
the boundary produces drag.

Clearly, this is a paragraph that the writer toiled over, yet, thanks to the clear transitions
and sensible use of the active voice, it is highly readable and efficient. This writer
understood well how to marshal active verbs to explain phenomena. Note how, thanks to
the active verbs, we canreadily picture the described phenomena even without the
figures being supplied.

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 One cautionary note, though: even though you are generally allowed to use ―I‖ (or
―we‖) in papers written largely in the active voice, you must beware of overuse. Simple
transition wordscan represent the writer‗s thinking just as well as the use of ―I.‖ For
instance, the word
―apparently‖ can do the same job as ―I believe that‖; the word ―however‖ is much better
than ―as I turn to another way of thinking about it.‖ Also, using ―I‖ can be distracting,
especially because it might cause you to inject too much personal opinion or irrelevant
subjectivity—technical papers are not the place to share digressive speculations or assert
your personality. Remember that your focus is on information and your considered
interpretation of that information. Strong interpretive verbs and confident, accurate
pronouncements automatically suggest that an ―I‖ is at work anyway, so concentrate on
choosing simple transitions, concrete nouns, and muscular verbs.

What is passive voice?

In English, all sentences are in either "active" or "passive" voice:

Active: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.

Passive: The uncertainty principle was formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927.

In an active sentence, the person or thing responsible for the action in the sentence comes
first. Ina passive sentence, the person or thing acted on comes first, and the actor is
added at the end, introduced with the preposition "by." The passive form of the verb is
signaled by a form of "to be": in the sentence above, "was formulated" is in passive voice
while "formulated" is in active.

In a passive sentence, we often omit the actor completely:

The uncertainty principle was formulated in 1927.

When do I use passive voice?

In some sentences, passive voice can be perfectly acceptable. You might use it in the
followingcases:

1. The actor is unknown:

The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Upper Old Stone Age.[We don't know who
made them.]

2. The actor is irrelevant:

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3. You want to be vague about who is responsible:

Mistakes were made. [Common in bureaucratic writing!]

4. You are talking about a general truth:

Rules are made to be broken. [By whomever, whenever.]

5. You want to emphasize the person or thing acted on. For example, it may beyour maintopic:

Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University ofToronto. Itis still the
only treatment available for diabetes.

6. You are writing in a scientific genre that traditionally relies on passive voice.Passive voice is
often preferred in lab reports and scientific research papers, most notably in theMaterials and
Methods section:

The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water. This solution was thentitrated
withhydrochloric acid.

In these sentences you can count on your reader to know that you are the one who did
thedissolving and the titrating. The passive voice places the emphasison your experiment
rather than on you.

Note: Over the past several years, there has been a movement within many science
disciplines away from passive voice. Scientists often now prefer active voice in most
partsof their published reports, even occasionally using the subject"we" in the Materials
and Methods section. Check with your instructor or TA whether you can use the first
person "I" or "we" in your lab reports to help avoidthe passive.

When should I avoid passive voice?

Passive sentences can get you into trouble in academic writing because they can bevague
about who is responsible for the action:

Both Othello and Iago desire Desdemona. She is courted. [Who courts Desdemona?Othello?
Iago? Both of them?]

Academic writing often focuses on differences between the ideas of differentresearchers, or

between your own ideas and those of the researchers you are discussing. Too many passive
sentences can create confusion:

Research has been done to discredit this theory. [Who did the research? You? Your
professor? Another author?]

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 Some students use passive sentences to hide holes in their research:

The telephone was invented in the nineteenth century. [I couldn't find out whoinvented the
telephone!]

Finally, passive sentences often sound wordy and indirect. They can make the readerwork
unnecessarily hard. And since they are usually longer than active sentences, passive
sentences take up precious room in your paper:

Since the car was being driven by Michael at the time of the accident, the damagesshould be
paid for by him.

Passive voice for all tenses rules:

• The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice.
• 3rd form of verb (past participle) will be used only (asmain verb) in passive voice.
• Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table.

Present Simple Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am/is/are

Active voice: Passive voice:

He sings a song. A song is sung by him.
He does not sing a song. A song is not sung by him.
Does he sing a song? Is a song sung by him?

Present Continuous Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am being/is being/are being

Active voice: Passive voice:

I am writing a letter A letter is being written by me.
I am not writing a letter. A letter is not being written by me.
Am I writing a letter? Isa letter being written by me?

Present Perfect Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: has been/have been

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Active voice: Passive voice:
She has finished his work Her work has been finished by her.
She has not finished her work. Her work has not been finished by her.
Has she finished her work? Hasher work been finished by her?

Past Simple Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was/were

Active voice: Passive voice:

I killed a snake A snake was killed by me.
I did not kill a snake. A snake was not killed by me.
Did I kill a snake? Was a snake killed by me?

Past Continuous Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was being/were being

Active voice: Passive voice:

He was driving a car A car was being driven by him.
He was not driving a car. A car was not being driven by him
Was he driving a car? Was a car being driven by him?

Past Perfect Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: had been

Active voice: Passive voice:

They had completed the assignment The assignment had been completed by them.

They had not completed the The assignment had not been complete by them.
assignment.

Had they completed the assignment? Had the assignment been completed by them?

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 Future Simple Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will be

Active voice: Passive voice:

She will buy a car. A car will be bought by her.
She will not buy a car. A car will not be bought by her.
Will she buy a car? Will a car be bought by her?

Future Perfect Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will have been

Active voice: Passive voice:

You will have started the job. The job will have been started by you.
You will have not started the job. The job will not have been started by you.
Will you have started the job? Will the job have been started by you?

Note: The following tenses cannot be changed into passive voice.

• Present perfect continuous tense
• Past perfect continuous tense
• Future continuous tense
• Future perfect continuous tense
• Sentence having Intransitive verbs

Active Passive

Simple Present Once a week, Tom cleans the Once a week, the house is cleaned by
house. Tom.

Present Right now, Sarah is writing the Right now, the letter is being written
Continuous letter. by Sarah.

Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.

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Past The salesman was helping the The customer was being helped by
Continuous customer when the thief came into the salesman when the thief came into
the store. the store.

Present Perfect Many tourists have visited that That castle has been visited by many
castle. tourists.

Present Perfect Recently, John has been doing the Recently, the work has been being
Continuous work. done by John.

Past Perfect George had repaired many cars Many cars had been repaired by

before he received his mechanic's George before he received his

license. mechanic's license.

Past Perfect Chef Jones had been preparing the The restaurant's fantastic dinners had
Continuous restaurant's fantastic dinners fortwo been being prepared by Chef Jones
years before he moved to Paris. for two years before he moved to
Paris.

Simple Future Someone will finish the work by The work will be finished by 5:00
WILL 5:00 PM. PM.

Simple Future Sally is going to make a beautiful A beautiful dinner is going to be

BE GOING TO dinner tonight. made by Sally tonight.

Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will
Continuous washing the dishes. be being washed by John.
WILL

Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are
Continuous to be washing the dishes. going to be being washed by John.
BE GOING TO

Future Perfect They will have completed the The project will have been
WILL project before the deadline. completed before the deadline.

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Future Perfect They are going to have completed The project is going to have been
BE GOING TO the project before the deadline. completed before the deadline.

Future Perfect The famous artist will have been The mural will have been being
Continuous painting the mural for over six painted by the famous artist for over
WILL months by the time it is finished. six months by the time it is finished.

Future Perfect The famous artist is going to have The mural is going to have been
Continuous been painting the mural for over being painted by the famous artist
BE GOING TO six months by the time it is for over six months by the time it is
finished. finished.

Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.

Would Always My mother would always make The pies would always be made by
the pies. my mother.

Future in the I knew John would finish the work I knew the work would be finished
Past WOULD by 5:00 PM. by 5:00 PM.

Future in the I thought Sally was going to make I thought a beautiful dinner was
Past a beautiful dinner tonight. going to be made by Sally tonight.
WAS GOING
TO

Examples:
Harry ate six shrimp at dinner. (Active)
At dinner, six shrimp were eaten by Harry. (Passive)
Beautiful giraffes roam the savannah. (Active)
The savannah is roamed by beautiful giraffes. (Passive)

Sue changed the flat tire. (Active)

The flat tire was changed by Sue. (Passive)
We are going to watch a movie tonight. (Active)
A movie is going to be watched by us tonight. (Passive)
I ran the obstacle course in record time. (Active)
The obstacle course was run by me in record time. (Passive)

The crew paved the entire stretch of highway. (Active)

The entire stretch of highway was paved by the crew. (Passive)
Mom read the novel in one day. (Active)
The novel was read by Mom in one day. (Passive)
The critic wrote a scathing review. (Active)

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A scathing review was written by the critic. (Passive)
I will clean the house every Saturday. (Active)
The house will be cleaned by me every Saturday. (Passive)
The staff is required to watch a safety video every year. (Active)
A safety video will be watched by the staff every year. (Passive)
She faxed her application for a new job. (Active)
The application for a new job was faxed by her. (Passive)
Tom painted the entire house. (Active)
The entire house was painted by Tom. (Passive)
The teacher always answers the students‘ questions. (Active)
The students‘ questions are always answered by the teacher. (Passive)
The choir really enjoys that piece. (Active)
That piece is really enjoyed by the choir. (Passive)
Who taught you to ski? (Active)
By whom were you taught to ski? (Passive)
The forest fire destroyed the whole suburb. (Active)
The whole suburb was destroyed by the forest fire. (Passive)
The two kings are signing the treaty. (Active)
The treaty is being signed by the two kings. (Passive)
The cleaning crew vacuums and dusts the office every night. (Active)

Every night the office is vacuumed and dusted by the cleaning crew. (Passive)
Larry generously donated money to the homeless shelter. (Active)
Money was generously donated to the homeless shelter by Larry. (Passive)
No one responded to my sales ad. (Active)
My sales ad was not responded to by anyone. (Passive)
The wedding planner is making all the reservations. (Active)
All the reservations will be made by the wedding planner. (Passive)
Susan will bake two dozen cupcakes for the bake sale. (Active)
For the bake sale, two dozen cookies will be baked by Susan. (Passive)

The science class viewed the comet. (Active)

The comet was viewed by the science class. (Passive)
Who ate the last cookie? (Active)
The last cookie was eaten by whom? (Passive)
Alex posted the video on Face book. (Active)
The video was posted on Face book by Alex. (Passive)
The director will give you instructions. (Active)
Instructions will be given to you by the director. (Passive)
Thousands of tourists view the Grand Canyon every year. (Active)
The Grand Canyon is viewed by thousands of tourists every year. (Passive)
The homeowners remodeled the house to help it sell. (Active)
The house was remodeled by the homeowners to help it sell. (Passive)

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The team will celebrate their victory tomorrow. (Active)
The victory will be celebrated by the team tomorrow. (Passive)
The saltwater eventually corroded the metal beams. (Active)
The metal beams were eventually corroded by the saltwater. (Passive)
The kangaroo carried her baby in her pouch. (Active)
The baby was carried by the kangaroo in her pouch. (Passive)
Some people raise sugar cane in Hawaii. (Active)
Sugar cane is raised by some people in Hawaii. (Passive)

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 INTERPRETING CHARTS AND GRAPHS

What are Chart and Graphs ?

Charts, graphs and tables are ways of presenting factual information. A chart is a
representation of data by means of symbols such as bars, lines and slices. So, we have bar
charts with horizontal or vertical bars, line charts with lines and pie charts with slices. A
graph is s two-dimensional drawing showing a relationship between two set of numbers by
means of a line, curve, a series of bars, or other symbols. In a graph, the independent
variable is represented on the horizontal line (X-axis) and the dependant variable on the
vertical line (Y-axis). A table represents factual information in a tabular form. In technical
writing and especially in the field of engineering and science, diagrammatic representation
of data is vital for making observations, drawing inferences or doing research analyses.
This module focuses on how to interpret charts and graphs and write a description of it. Let
us now look at the examples of how data can be represented in diagrammatic and tabular
forms.

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 EXAMPLE 1
1. The pie charts below show the online sales for retail sectors in New Zealand in 2003 and
2013.
Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and make
comparisons where relevant.

Answer:
The pie charts demonstrate four diverse sub-categories of online vendition for retail
business in New Zealand both in 2003 and 2013. To analyze this diagram, we begin by
taking a closer look at the data presented and it is obvious that travel industries made the
highest online sales in 2003 and the entertainment enterprises emerged as the e-commerce
leader in 2013 in New Zealand.
Taking the statistical data into account, we may infer that the largest part of sales went for
travel category, 37%, in 2003 whereas a salient decrease, by 8%, in travel sales can be
detected in 2013.
If we compare those two charts, it is easy to say that there was a considerable rise in online
film/music sales (by 11%) during the period. Similarly, online book sales rose by 3% from
the initial ratio of 19%. On the contrary, sales share of travel and clothes dropped by 11%
and 6% respectively. Most important difference between the online sales in the given years
was the film/music industry's sales. They accounted for one-third of online retail sales in

138
2013 while a number of 2003's film/music sales was less than one-fourth of total online-
sales.

EXAMPLE 2

Answer:
The line graph compares the number of travellers who visited Malaysia and Dubai from
1995 to 2003. Overall, more tourists went to visit Malaysia from 1995 to 2000, but
afterwards, Dubai got more visitors.
Getting back to the details, 100 thousand tourists visited Malaysia in 1995 and it was more
than double than the number of tourists in Dubai at the same time. Next year, visitors to
Malaysia increases while declined in Dubai. Afterwards, the number of tourists in
Malaysia and Dubai rapidly increased and in 1998, 200thousand people went to Malaysia
compared to over 150 thousand in Dubai. Interestingly, holidaymakers‘ number to both
these places became identical and reached to over a quarter million in 2000. Next year,
both countries witnessed a hike in their tourists‘ number which stood at around 325
thousand. A reverse trend during the next few years followed with more tourists in Dubai

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 than in Malaysia. In 2002 Dubai got more trippers and this trend continued in the next year
when 0.4 million vacationers visited Dubai compared to lessthan 0.25 million in Malaysia.

EXAMPLE 3

Answer:
The column graph gives a projection on the next year‘s jeans sales of two companies in
Turkey while the pie chart compares their estimated market share. Overall, jeans sales are
estimated to increase at the last quarter next year and Jack & Jones brand is anticipated to
have half of the market share.

According to the first graph, Jack & Jones jeans clothing sale will be roughly 450 thousand
pairs in Turkey, which is almost three times higher than that of Mango brand. At end of the
first quarter, Jack & Jones is estimated to sell 300 thousand pairs of jeans in Turkey while
it would be just above 150 thousand for Mango.In July and August, the demand for Mango
jeans is estimated to exceed the demand of Jack & Jones. However, Jack & Jones is likely

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to witness a hike in its jeans sale during the last quarter of the year and in December it will
sell 900,000 pairs, double than its sale in January. During the last quarter, Mango jean‘s
sale would remain almost the same except a surge in December to 600 thousand sales.

It is predicted that Jack & Jones alone will control the half of the market share while
Mango corporation willhave 30% market share. The remaining 20% would be controlled
by the other jeans manufacturers.

EXAMPLE 4

Answer:
The bar graph compares the ratio of English males and females from different age groups
who lived individually in 2011, while the pie chart shows the number of bedrooms they
had. Overall, more British women lived alone when they got older and most of these
separately living persons' houses comprised one to 3-bedrooms.
According to the bar chart, more British females, roughly 55%, lived alone than that of
males in 2011. This is particularly true for the aged women since roughly 70% of them

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lived separately compared to less than 30% males over 65 years old. The ratio of both
genders living alone who were 50 to 64 years old in 2011 was exactly the same. However,
younger English males preferred to live individually more than their female counterparts.
Six out of ten, on an average, were men who lived solo when they were younger, 16-49
years old. The highest percentages of single males of this category were between 35 to
49 years old whilethis ratio was highest for the women over 80 years old.
The pie chart depicts that most of the single persons‘ houses had one to three bedrooms
and two- bedroom houses for such people was the highest, around 35%, exceeding the
three-bedroom apartments by roughly 6 percent. Scarcely they had larger houses with
many rooms and around one-fourth of these homes had only one room.

EXAMPLE 5

Answer:
The table compares the percentages of market share by different laptop brands in three
different years – 2006, 2007 and 2014. A glance at the graph reveals that HP was the
leading notebook manufacturer in these years.
As can be seen in the table, HP had the largest market share of laptops in 2006 and it
retained the top position in 2007 and 2014 as well with around one-third of the total
market. Dell secured the second position with 16.6% market share in 2006 and enjoyed a

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10% increase in 2014. Samsung had only 11.6% share of laptop market in 2006 but this
brand managed to capture over 14% global market share in 8 years. All the top three
brands of laptop manufacturing had been able to increase their market share except
Samsung in 2007. Toshiba and Lenovo had around 6 percent notebook market share in
2006 and in 8 years their market share increased slightly. The lowest market share was
possessed by Fujitsu in 2006 and after 8 years its market share slightly declined and
reached to 3.1%. All other brands captured asignificant market share in 2006 (22.8%) but
only 7.11% in 2014.

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 UNIT V:
LANGUAGE COGNIZANCE FOR SPECIFIC
DOMAIN AND SOCIAL CONTEXT

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 UNIT-V
LISTENING

Listening is the active process of receiving and responding to spoken (and sometimes
unspoken) messages.

Listening to News

There is a variety of learning opportunities served to students so that they can gain more
knowledge out of them. Listening is a skill that we all ought to develop, and listening to the news
could be a way to help nourish such a skill. Students are asked to read newspapers to develop
their writing skills and language skills, as well as general knowledge. When it comes to the
development of a language, it is not only reading that is required, but listening too is equally
important.

Tips for listening to the news

The following tips will help your students make the most out of listening to the news in English:

1. It can be a good idea to listen to the news in your own language before you listen in
English. Perhaps make some notes of the main stories, including any names of people or
places.
2. Don‘t worry about how much you understand. Listen to or watch the report first a few
times ‗just for fun‘.
3. Stop and review as many times as necessary.
4. Write a brief summary (one or two sentences) of each story.
5. Set yourself a few questions to answer. Then listen again for the answers.
6. Make notes of any new vocabulary you think is useful.
7. Why not listen to the news with a friend? You can help each other by talking about what
you each understand.
8. When you feel confident, try listening to the news in English in different accents.

Importance of Listening to News:

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 1. Listening helps us understand the pronunciation of each word.
2. It improves our listening skills to understand and not to answer.
3. We come across the correct sounds made by each English letter.
4. We learn to structure sentences in an appropriate manner.
5. Vocabulary is in abundance when we listen to the news.
6. Our general knowledge improves.

Domain Specific Information:

Specific information is often factual in nature, for example, a name, a place, a profession,
an object, a number or a quantity. When you listen for specific information, you need to have
some idea of what you‘re listening for before you listen and while you‘re listening. In an exam
situation, predict and anticipate the kind of information that will answer the question, being
aware that the idea you‘re listening for could be expressed in the recording in a number of
different ways. As you listen, you need to recognize when the information is about to be given,
and pay particularly close attention at that point. Sometimes, listening for specific information
also involves listening to determine whether information is stated or not.

Example:

To check you heard the information correctly, you can ask questions:

I’m going to be Did you say

late home next you’d be late on
week on Tuesday Monday and
and Wednesday. Tuesday?

You can repeat the information to check it:

Your
appointment is Was that
on Monday the Monday the 9th
9th at 3.30pm.
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 SPEAKING

Speaking – SWOC Analysis:

What is a SWOC?

SWOC stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Challenges.

Strengths Weaknesses

Strengths are what you do well. Be realistic. Consider weaknesses in terms of how you and
others perceive your weaknesses?
•What do you do better than others? Be realistic. Address unpleasant realities now
•What advantages does your organization and build for the future.
have?
•What do others see as your strengths? •What can be improved?
These are internal • Is there anything you would like to do better -
that is not strong now?
•What do others see as your weaknesses?

Opportunities Challenges

Where are the promising opportunities? Honest analysis will be beneficial to help
identify what needs to be done, and to put
•What are the changes that you can make use problems into perspective.
of? (e.g., Changes in technology or client
needs) These are primarily external •What are the external obstacles?
• Who do you have to compete with?
• Is the external environment changing (e.g.,
politics, financing)?
•Could any weaknesses threaten your future?

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Why is a SWOC analysis important?

A SWOC analysis is a simple yet powerful way to look at the present situation and help
you identify your comparative advantages and possible ways to improve performance.

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 READING

Reading – Sports Experience:

When it comes to the positive correlation between reading and sports performance, the
following three will stand as significant parameters.

Perspective: Perspective is a narrator's interpretations of events, people, and places based on

their own personal experiences and background. The narrator's dialogue with the reader reflects
these aspects, and may present opinions or different ideas than other characters in the story.

Knowledge: While reading, your brain must remember facts and details such as characters, plots
and subplots. As your brain retains this information, you're creating new memories. That means
new synapses are being created, and old ones are being strengthened. This improves your short
term and long term memory functions.

Focus: Researchers have proved that reading improves your focus abilities. Reading books
stimulates the prefrontal cortex; the area of the brain that affects concentration and attention
among other things. Reading for 30 minutes daily can help in improving your focus, attention
span, and memory.

Example:

Yogi Berra, an American professional Baseball catcher, tells why he strongly believes the
connection between sports and reading.

1. Perspective: It was my college coach that gave me the first book about sports I ever read, it
was during my sophomore year and the name was The Energy Bus. The entire team was to read
one chapter a week and briefly discuss what we had learned from it. I remember feeling skeptical
about the idea, but because it was Coach‘s assignment, I gave it a try. It didn‘t take a minute for
me to grow interested in the book, and soon enough I came to the last page. After that first read, I
discovered the true purpose of reading a sports book (or any book, for that matter) to find an idea
or memory that, though written by a complete stranger, resonates as a part of your own story — a
thought you believed belonged to you exclusively is now being told to you by a person you‘ve
never even seen before.

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 When I realized that somebody had gone through what I was going through as an athlete
(which in the case of that book was discovering the power of thinking positively), I gained the
perspective I needed to embrace the challenge with utmost resilience (―if someone‘s figured it
out before, why couldn‘t I?‖), and inevitably I became a more positive person thanks to the book.
Being able to put things in perspective helped me realize that my struggles and frustrations were
common — part of the athlete‘s journey, just like the unconditional love we all seem to develop
for Nike gear and the perpetual muscle soreness and need for naps — it‘s just what we do.

2. Knowledge: Perspective is the first step: you realize that your challenges are not so special
(sorry to be a party pooper), and that many athletes before you have faced by similar trials.
Learning how others overcame those hurdles is the next step. A book can answer many of the
questions we didn‘t know we had: how to stay motivated, how to turn frustrations into fuel, how
to deal with failure, and so on. Moreover, there are many great memoirs and biographies that
narrate the lives of top athletes and other peak performance masters. Wanna know what it takes
to become one? Read, and learn how they did it.

3. Focus: What you do when no one is around you is what will ultimately determine your
success. Excellence in sports comes from a certain character, a special demeanor, a way of
approaching the sport that separates the good from the great. The latter are aware that what they
do on the field is as important as what they do outside of it. Ideally we would all consistently
perform at our best mental level, but our minds don‘t always grant us that luxury. As a basketball
player I would have days in which my shot didn‘t feel right, and I learned early on that the best
way to get back on track was to spend some extra time practicing my shooting form. The brain
works in similar ways. There would be days in which my mind would wander more than usual
and it was hard to focus. Other days I could feel outside distractions creeping in, keeping me
from being fully present on the court. What I needed was a reboot, a way to refocus: an extra
workout for my mind. A book can take your brain to the focus level needed to bring about all the
physical strength you have been working so hard to gain.

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 READING

Reading - Travel Experience:

Reading the travel experiences will bring out creativity. While reading travel stories will
no doubt inspire you to travel, they may also inspire you to write and share your own adventures.
The more you read the more you will learn about what makes a good travel story. The following
are the benefits of reading travel books

1. Discover new places

Ever heard of the saying, ―The world is a book, and those who do not travel read only a
page‖? Well, this metaphor holds truth, from the nooks and crannies of a major city to the vast
terrains of oceans, outbacks and bushlands; there are so many places on this earth to explore.
However, not every discovery has to be made in person. Let your mind get lost in the wonders of
a new destination through the lens of a camera or the words of an author or journalist – if you let
it, the experience can be just as vivid.

2. Learn about new cultures

When you devote the time, it is actually so fascinating and enriching to learn about those
who are different to you. When you learn about another culture plus its quirks and traditions, you
gain a deeper understanding and appreciation for others around you, reducing the tendency to
judge or discriminate. Essentially learning about others can make you a better person. One of the
best ways to learn about new cultures is by reading the stories of other people who may lead
completely different lifestyles.

3. Stress relief

With everything going on at this current moment including the loss of many jobs due to
the corona virus pandemic it‘s only natural to be feeling a little stressed. While it is important to
keep up with the news and the latest social distancing restrictions, it is also important to take
some time out every now and then and welcome some positive distractions to take your mind off
the corona virus. Reading a book, magazine or watching a new series or documentary is a great
way to take your mind somewhere else and help you relax during these stressful times.

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4. Encourages self-reflection

If you‘re feeling like you‘re in a bit of a rut, now is a better time than ever to indulge in
some stories about places, people and experiences that may be foreign to you. You might find
something will resonate with you on a personal level and prompt you to look at your current
relationships, friendships, lifestyle and achievements. Perhaps you‘ll find there is something
more you want to do, something you need to change, or just some inspiring words to live by.

5. Ignites your wanderlust

When isolation rules are eventually lifted and it is once again safe to travel, we‘ll no
doubt be itching to book our next holidays. So let‘s keep our wanderlust spirits high, keep
dreaming, keep reading, keep watching and learning about new places from home. Explore
things you would never think of doing or locations you‘d never think about visiting and keep
your mind excited by new ideas.

6. It is empowering

Travelling is a brave act. Travelling solo is an even bigger one. Consider the famous
books (and movies) like The Alchemist, Into the Wild, Eat Pray Love or Wild: A journey from
lost to found. These stories and so many others explore a journey of self-discovery through
venturing out into the world solo and they can have quite an empowering impression. Perhaps
you‘ll feel empowered to shake things up in your current life or start planning your own solo
adventure for when travel is allowed again.

7. Brings out your creativity

While reading travel stories will no doubt inspire you to travel, they may also inspire you
to write and share your own adventures. The more you read the more you will learn about what
makes a good travel story. Alternatively, you may be inspired to create your own travel video
from the numerous albums of photos or footage you have from past trips. Either way, there‘s no
better time than now to start working on a new project.

8. Provides you with new perspectives

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 We touched on why it is important to learn about other cultures, but one of the other
reasons is because it can sometimes challenge our own thought processes and allow us to look at
something from a new perspective. This is a really good skill to have in everyday life that will
hopefully minimize conflicts, misunderstandings and help you find a silver lining when things
don‘t go to plan.

9. Inspire your future holidays

We know your travel plans may have gone out the window this year, but don‘t let that
stop you from continuing to plan future trips – the tourism industry is going to need your support
once this is all over. It‘s important to keep doing research, continue reading stories and being
inspired by movies and shows filmed in exotic destinations. That way, you can revisit your
bucket list and begin to plan how you will tick it off once travel is safe again.

10. It is entertaining

We all could do with a bit of joy in tough times – it is important for our sanity – and there
is no denying that movies, tv shows and even books are a perfect source of entertainment. If
you‘re after some travel-themed comedic relief, we recommend watching Travels with Father on
Netflix. If you‘re after an easy-going chick flick, Sex and the City 2 where they journey to Abu
Dhabi, or The Sisterhood of the Travelling Pants 2 and Mamma Mia! will bring back some old
memories and provide some scenic eye candy of Greece. There are countless movies and TV
shows of all genres filmed on location that will keep your spirits high and the wanderlust alive
while you‘re stuck in isolation.

11. Improves memory

Just as a special adventure or interaction with someone can create a powerful memory, so
too can a story. Reading is said to have similar effects on the brain as to what exercise has on the
body. When you read about travel you are not only creating new memories through visualisation
but also strengthening the ones you have by relating stories to your own experiences. It‘s a
wonderful exercise for the brain and a continuous learning process.

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 WRITING
Writing – Social Media Etiquette

What is Social Media Etiquette?

Social media etiquette refers to the guidelines that companies and individuals use to
preserve their reputation online. As social media channels have evolved to become one of the
primary ways people communicate in the modern world on a daily basis, typical social rules are
finding their way into digital environments. Just as social etiquette dictates how people behave
around others in the real world, social media etiquette revolves around online guidelines to
follow.

Basic Etiquettes:

1. Don‘t be overly promotional. Try not to message all your customers asking them to buy
your products and avoid sharing constant advertisements on your page. Make your social
profiles a blend of promotional and valuable content.
2. Avoid over-automation. While scheduling your posts in advance and automating
analytics is helpful, don‘t automate everything. Some things still need a human touch.
3. Handle your hash tags carefully. Avoid using too many hash tags at once. Even on
Instagram, where you can use 30 hash tags in a single caption, it‘s important not to
overdo it.
4. Don‘t bad-mouth your competition. Don‘t be petty. Saying negative things about your
competitors online will harm your reputation more than it hurts theirs.
5. Be authentic and genuine. Don‘t try to be something you‘re not. Remember that your
customers can learn whatever they need to know about your brand online today and
things like authenticity can definitely go a long way.

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 VOCABULARY
Idioms:

What is Idiom?

An idiom is a widely used saying or expression containing a figurative meaning that

differs from the phrase's literal meaning.

Idioms often summarize or reflect a commonly held cultural experience, even if that
experience is now out of date or antiquated. For instance, you might say that someone should
―bite the bullet‖ when they need to do something undesirable. The phrase‘s origin refers to
wounded soldiers literally biting down on a bullet to avoid screaming during a wartime
operation. That common occurrence from the past resulted in a phrase we still use today. These
phrases are also unique to their language of origin. In other words, English idioms are different
from Spanish or French idioms.

How to Use Idioms in Writing:

Idioms are a type of figurative language writers can use to add dynamism and character to
otherwise stale writing. Writers can also use idioms to:

Add humor: Idiomatic expressions can help transform flat descriptions with the help of a funny
turn-of-phrase. For instance, rather than describing someone as not very smart, you could say
they are ―not the sharpest tool in the shed‖ or ―not the brightest star in the sky.‖ In addition to
conveying that the subject in question is not intelligent, the inherent comparison of a person‘s
brain to a toolbox or a star is unexpected and humorous.

Engage the reader: By inserting an idiomatic phrase into your writing, you force the reader to
shift from thinking literally to abstractly. This can help focus and excite the reader, as they must
activate a more conceptual part of their brain to comprehend the idiom‘s meaning. For example,
the idiom ―biting off more than they can chew‖ describes someone taking on a challenging task.
Using this idiom can encourage the reader to conjure a visual image in their head.

Evoke a specific region: Certain idioms can be unique to a particular group of people or world
area. For instance, ―that dog won‘t hunt‖ is a common idiom in the Southern United States that

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means something doesn‘t work or make sense. On the other hand, if someone were to refer to a
mess or a debacle as a ―dog‘s dinner,‖ they are likely British. In fiction writing, the strategic
employment of specific idioms can often add a regional flavor and authenticity to your
characters.

Share a point of view: Idioms can express commonly shared or universal ideas, so there are
often dozens of idioms that apply to the same concept. However, depending on which idiom you
choose, you can convey an entirely different attitude or point of view about the subject. For
example, several idioms express the concept of death. If you were to write that someone ―passed
away,‖ you are using an idiom to describe death in a graceful, delicate way. Alternatively, you
could say that a person ―kicked the bucket,‖ a much cruder way of describing the act of dying.
Though both idioms ultimately mean the same thing, they convey entirely different attitudes
toward death.

Simplify complex ideas: Often, idioms can help express a large or abstract idea in a way that is
concise and easy to understand. For instance, you could say that two things are impossible to
compare to one another because they possess different traits or meanings. Or you could say it‘s
like ―comparing apples to oranges.‖ In this case, using an idiom helps express the same idea in a
much simpler way.

Popular idioms in the English language include:

1. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush: This idiom means it is better to have something
small and certain than the possibility of something greater that may never materialize.

2. A drop of a hat: To do something at the drop of a hat means to do something without delay.

3. A piece of cake: Describing something as a piece of cake means it is easily achievable.

4. A penny saved is a penny earned: This expression means it can be just as valuable to save
money as it is to make money.

5. Add insult to injury: To add insult to injury is to make a bad situation worse.

6. Back to the drawing board: Returning to the drawing board is another way to say it is
necessary to restart a process from the beginning.

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7. Bark up the wrong tree: To bark up the wrong tree means a person is following the wrong
course of action. This phrase comes from dogs barking up a tree looking for prey when the prey
is not there.

8. Beat a dead horse: The phrase ―beat a dead horse,‖ also known as ―flogging a dead horse,‖
describes an overly discussed situation or topic that cannot change.

9. By the skin of your teeth: This phrase, which comes from the bible, describes a situation in
which someone narrowly escapes or barely manages to achieve something.

10. Cut corners: To cut corners means to achieve something hastily or inexpensively by omitting
necessary steps.

11. Don‘t count your chickens before they hatch: This phrase expresses that you should not rely
on something good before it happens.

12. Every cloud has a silver lining: This uplifting idiom expresses that good things can result
from bad things.

13. Go down in flames: To go down in flames describes a person or situation that fails
dramatically.

14. Head in the clouds: People with their heads in the clouds are aloof to their surroundings or
present situation.

15. Jump on the bandwagon: To jump on the bandwagon means a person follows or supports
something because it is a popular trend.

16. Not one‘s cup of tea. This phrase is a kind way to describe that someone or something is not
agreeable with a person.

17. On cloud nine: To be on cloud nine is to feel joy and happiness.

18. Once in a blue moon: Once in a blue moon describes something that rarely happens.

19. Pot calling the kettle black: This proverbial idiom describes a person guilty of something and
accusing another person of the same fault.

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20. Throw caution to the wind: Throwing caution to the wind is approaching a situation without
sense or carefulness.

21. You can‘t judge a book by its cover: This idiom means you should not assume you know
something based solely on its outward appearance.

22. Walk on thin ice: This phrase describes the act of doing something risky or inherently
dangerous.

23. We'll cross that bridge when we come to it: To cross a bridge when you come to it means you
will worry about the problem when it arises.

24. Wild goose chase: A wild goose chase describes pursuing something challenging or
unattainable, like chasing wayward geese.

Tips for Incorporating Idioms into Your Writing:

When writing idioms, consider the following tips:

1. Avoid clichés: The overuse of idioms can lead to them becoming a cliché, like the phrase
―there are other fish in the sea.‖ Overreliance on common idioms can cause the reader to become
bored with your writing.

2. Create idiolects for characters: Including idioms in books for characters who are native
English speakers can be a challenge, mainly if the story is outside English-speaking countries.
For his part, author Salman Rushdie creates idiolects to ease translations. ―One of the difficulties
that I had in some of the books I've written that deal with South Asia is that the characters would
not realistically be speaking English,‖ Salman says. ―If you give them English speakers' idioms,
that can sound completely idiotic coming out of their mouths. So you have to create an idiom.
You have to create an idiolect, which is a way for their speech to be represented in English,
indicating to the reader that this is a translation from another language.‖

3. Identify repetitive descriptions: Read through your work with an eye for language that feels
dry or monotonous. Look for instances where replacing rote character descriptions with an idiom
would add clarity or texture. If you describe a character as being angry often, you might change
the language to include phrases like ―seeing red,‖ ―up in arms,‖ or ―flying off the handle.‖

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4. Use idioms sparingly: Though a strategic use of idioms can add color to your writing, too
many idioms in a piece of writing can feel stale or confusing.

Phrases:

What is Phrase?

In English grammar, a phrase is a group of two or more words functioning as a meaningful

unit within a sentence or clause. A phrase is commonly characterized as a grammatical unit at a
level between a word and a clause.

A phrase is made up of a head (or headword)—which determines the grammatical nature of

the unit—and one or more optional modifiers. Phrases may contain other phrases inside them.
Common types of phrases include noun phrases (such as a good friend), verb phrases (drives
carefully), adjective phrases (very cold and dark), adverb phrases (quite slowly), and
prepositional phrases (in first place).

Types of Phrases with Examples

Noun Phrase

"Buy a big bright green pleasure machine!" — Paul Simon, "The Big Bright Green Pleasure
Machine,"

Verb Phrase

"Your father may be going away for a little while." — Ellen Griswold in the movie
"Vacation,"

Adjective Phrase

"It is always the best policy to speak the truth—unless, of course, you are an exceptionally
good liar." — Jerome K. Jerome, "The Idler,"

Adverb Phrase

"Movements born in hatred very quickly take on the characteristics of the thing they oppose."
— J. S. Habgood, "The Observer,"

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Prepositional Phrase

"I could dance with you till the cows come home. On second thought, I'd rather dance with
the cows till you come home." —Groucho Marx in "Duck Soup,"

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 GRAMMAR

Yes/No Questions:

What is Yes/No type in Grammar?

Yes / No questions are also called closed questions because there are only two possible
responses: Yes or No. When forming a Yes / No question, it must include one of these verbs:
BE, DO, HAVE, or a modal verb.

Forming yes-no questions: With an auxiliary verb

We form yes-no questions with an auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or with a
modal verb + subject + main verb:

Be: Is she working very hard?

Were they travelling together?

Do: Does that taste okay?

Did you go to the concert?

Have: Have they eaten yet?

Had they visited Rome before?

Modal: Could you help me lift this?

Should I open the window?

Where there is no auxiliary verb be, have or modal verb already present in the statement, we use
the auxiliary do, does, did:

Statement form (no auxiliary)

Do you usually walk to work?

Did you like disco music in the 70s?

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Responding to yes-no questions

Other ways of saying yes and no include yeah, yep, mm, okay, and nah, nope. These are
informal:

A: Would you like to play tennis with me later?

B: Okay. (Meaning yes)

A: Have you seen Greg?

B: Nope. (Meaning no)

We can also give more than just a yes or no answer. We sometimes add more information:

A: Can I grow potatoes in a pot?

B: Yeah. They grow really well in pots.

A: Will you be going to Ryan‘s party?

B: No. I‘m actually going to be away on Friday night.

Sometimes we don‘t use yes or no as a reply but the answer that we give means yes or no:

A: Do you know Tina Gomez?

B: We‘ve known each other for years. We went to the same school. (Meaning yes)

A: Do you have the Thrills latest album?

B: I‘m afraid we‘ve just sold the last one! (Meaning no)

We sometimes respond using the auxiliary verb from the question instead of yes and no:

A: Hey Tim, did you go fishing today?

B: I did. I went with the boys.

A: Has Jason had breakfast?

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B: He hasn‘t. He‘s still in bed.

Negative yes-no questions

We usually use negative yes-no questions to check or confirm something we believe or

expect to be the case, or when we consider that something is the best thing to do:

 Isn‘t that Pauline‘s car? (I‘m pretty sure that this is correct. I‘m asking for confirmation.)
 Shouldn‘t we be leaving? (I think that we should leave now.)

We form negative yes-no questions with not. We usually use the contraction n‘t. If we use not in
its full form, the question sounds very formal:

 Isn‘t that the oldest building on this street?

Wh Questions:

What is Wh Questions?

Wh-questions begin with what, when, where, who, whom, which, whose, why and how.
We use them to ask for information. The answer cannot be yes or no.

Forming wh-questions: With an auxiliary verb

We usually form wh-questions with wh- + an auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject +
main verb or with wh- + a modal verb + subject + main verb:

Be: When are you leaving?

Who‘s been paying the bills?

Do: Where do they live?

Why didn‘t you call me?

Have: What has she done now?

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 What have they decided?

Modal: Who would she stay with?

Where should I park?

Responding to wh-questions:

Wh-questions ask for information and we do not expect a yes-no answer to a wh-
question. We expect an answer which gives information:

A: Where‘s the coffee machine? (We expect an answer about the location of the coffee machine.)

B: It‘s in the room next to the reception.

A: How old is your dog? (We expect an answer about the age of the dog.)

B: She‘s about five. I‘m not very sure.

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