CHAPTER 2: EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
On completion of the subject, the student will be able to:
 Understand the concept of equilibrium
 Understand and analyse the various analytical and graphical conditions required for
equilibrium
 Understand the concept of free body diagram
 Understand the concept of Lami‟s theorem
 Solve problems using free body diagram and Lami‟s theorem.

2.1 DEFINITION

A little consideration will show, that if the resultant of a number of forces, acting on a particle is
zero, the particle will be in equilibrium. Such a set of forces, whose resultant is zero, are called
equilibrium forces..

A body can be said to be in equilibriumwhen all the force acting on a body balance each other
or in other word there is no net force acting on the body.

Equilibrium of a body is a state in which all the forces acting on the body are balanced
(cancelled out), and the net force acting on the body is zero.

i.e ΣF =0

PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM

1. Two force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by two forces,
then they must be equal, opposite and collinear.
2. Three force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by three
forces, then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the third
force.
3. Four force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is acted upon by four forces,
then the resultant of any two forces must be equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of
the other two forces.

ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A CO-PLANAR SYSTEM OF

CONCURRENT FORCES

We know that the resultant of a system of co-planar concurrent forces is given by

R =√(∑X)2 + (∑Y)2, where ƩX (=ƩH) = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along
a horizontal direction, and ƩY (=ƩV) = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a
vertical direction

Or, R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

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If the forces are in equilibrium, R = 0 =>O = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

Sum of the squares of two quantities is zero when each quantity is separately equal to zero.

i.e. ƩX = 0 , ƩY = 0

Hence necessary and sufficient conditions of a system of, co-planar concurrent forces are:

1. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in some assigned direction is equal to
zero, and

2. The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces in a direction at right angles to the
assigned direction is equal to zero.

ANALYTICAL CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR NON-

CONCURRENT FORCES
If R = resultant of a system of co-planar non-concurrent forces,
ƩX = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along any direction, and
ƩY = algebraic sum of the resolved parts of those forces along a direction at right angles to the
previous direction.
Then, R= √(∑X)2 + (∑Y)2

R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

If the force system is in equilibrium, R = 0.

0 = R2 = (ƩX) 2 + (ƩY) 2

ƩX = 0, ƩY = 0
(If sum of the squares of two digits is zero, then each digit is zero)

Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions of equilibrium for a system of co-planar and non-
concurrent forces are:
(i) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along any direction is equal to
zero (i.e.,ƩX= 0),
(ii) The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of the forces along a directional right angles to
the previous direction is equal to zero (i.e. ƩY = 0),and
(iii) The algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point intheir plane is equal to
zero (i.e. ƩM = 0).

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

Fig 2.1

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Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if it returns back to its original position, after it is
slightly displaced from its position of rest. This happens when some additional force sets up due
to displacement and brings the body back to its original position.
Unstable equilibrium
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium, if it does not return back to its original position,
and heels farther away, after slightly displaced from its position of rest.
Neutral equilibrium
A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it occupies a new position (and remains at rest in
this position) after slightly displaced from its position of rest.

Free body: A body is said to be free body if it is isolated from all other connected members

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

Free body diagram of a body is the diagram drawn by showing all the external forces and
reactions on the body and by removing the contact surfaces.

Steps to be followed in drawing a free body diagram

a. Isolate the body from all other bodies.
b. Indicate the external forces on the free body. (The weight of the body should also be
included. It should be applied at the centre of gravity of the body)
c. The magnitude and direction of the known external forces should be mentioned.
d. The reactions exerted by the supports on the body should be clearly indicated.
e. Clearly mark the dimensions in the free body diagram.

Fig 2.2

A spherical ball is rested upon a surface as shown in figure 2.2 (a). By following the necessary
steps we can draw the free body diagram for this force system as shown in figure 2.2(b).
Similarly fig 2.3 (b) represents free body diagram for the the force system shown in figure 2.3(a).

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 Fig 2.3

METHOD OF EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES The methods of finding out

equilibrium for concurrent and non-concurrent forces in a coplanar force system are:

 Analytical method
 Graphical method

ANALYTICAL METHOD:

The equilibrium of coplanar concurrent and non-concurrent forces can be studied analytically by
Lami’s theorem.

2.2 LAMI’S THEOREM

It states, “If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.” Mathematically,
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
= =
𝑆i𝑛 𝖺 𝑆i𝑛𝛽 𝑆i𝑛𝛾

Fig 2.4

Where, P, Q, and Rare three forces and α, β, γ are the angles as shown in Fig.
Proof:
Consider three coplanar forces P, Q, and R acting at a point O. Let the opposite angles to three
forces be α , β and  as shown in Fig.

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 Now let us complete the parallelogram OACB with OA and OB as adjacent sides as shown in
the figure. We know that the resultant of two forces P and Q will be given by the diagonal OC
both in magnitude and direction of the parallelogram OACB.

Since these forces are in equilibrium, therefore the resultant of the forces P and Q must be in
line with OD and equal to R, but in opposite direction

From the geometry of the figure, we find

Fig 2.5

BC = P and AC = Q
∴∠AOC = (180° – β)
and ∠ACO = ∠BOC = (180° – α)
∴∠CAO = 180° – (∠AOC + ∠ACO)

= 180° – [(180° – β) + (180° – α)]

= 180° – 180° + β – 180° + α = α + β – 180°
But α+ β +  = 360°
Subtracting 180° from both sides of the above equation,
(α + β– 180°) +  = 360° – 180° = 180°
or ∠CAO = 180° – 

We know that in triangle AOC

0𝐴 𝐴𝐶 0𝐶
sin(𝐴𝐶0)
= sin(𝐴0𝐶) =sin(𝐶𝐴0)
0𝐴 𝐴𝐶 0𝐶
sin(180−𝛼)
= =
sin(180−𝛽) sin(180−)
𝑃 O 𝑅
sin 𝑎
= sin 𝖰= sin 

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Example 2.1: An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings
AC and BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the
horizontal as shown in Fig. Using Lami’s theorem, or otherwise, determine the forces in
the strings AC and BC.

Fig 2.6

Solution.
Given:
Weight at C = 15 N
Let TAC = Force in the string AC, and
TBC = Force in the string BC.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. From the geometry of the figure, we find that angle
between TAC and 15 N is 150° and angle between TBC and 15 N is 135°.
∠ ACB = 180° – (45° + 60°) = 75°. Applying Lami’s equation at C,

Fig 2.7

Example 2.2: A string ABCD, attached to fixed points A and D has two equal weights of
1000 N attached to it at B and C. The weights rest with the portions AB and CD inclined at
angles as shown in Fig2.8 . Find the tensions in the portions AB, BC and CD of the string,
if the inclination of the portion BC with the vertical is 120°.

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 Fig 2.8

Solution: Given : Load at B = Load at C = 1000 N For the sake of convenience, let us split up
the string ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and is shown in Fig.2.9 (a) and
(b).

Fig 2.9

Let
TAB = Tension in the portion AB of the string,
TBC = Tension in the portion BC of the string, and
TCD = Tension in the portion CD of the string.

Applying Lami‟s equation at joint B,

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Again applying Lami‟s equation at joint C,

Example 2.3. A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1 and W2
attached to it at B and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a weight of
300 N at the free end E as shown in Fig 2.10 below. If in the equilibrium position, BC is
horizontal and AB and CD make 150° and 120° with BC, find (i) Tensions in the portion
AB, BC and CD of the string and (ii) Magnitudes of W 1and W2.

Fig 2.10

Solution: Given: Weight at E = 300 N For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string
ABCD into two parts. The system of forces at joints B and C is shown in Fig (a) and (b).

Fig 2.11

(i) Tensions is the portion AB, BC and CD of the string

Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB, and
TBC = Tension in the portion BC,
We know that tension in the portion CD of the string.
TCD = TDE = 300 N Ans.
Applying Lami‟s equation at C,

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Again applying Lami‟s equation at B,

(ii) Magnitudes of W1 and W2

From the above calculations, we find that the magnitudes of W1 and W2 are 86.6 N and 259.8
N respectively.

Example 2.4 Two cylinders P and Q rest in a channel as shown in Fig 2.12. The cylinder P
has diameter of 100 mm and weighs 200 N, whereas the cylinder Q has diameter of 180
mm and weighs 500 N. If the bottom width of the box is 180 mm, with one side vertical
and the other inclined at 60°, determine the pressures at all the four points of contact.

Fig 2.12

Soln.:Given : Diameter of cylinder P = 100 mm ; Weight of cylinder P = 200 N ;

Diameter of cylinder Q = 180 mm ; Weight of cylinder Q = 500 N and width of channel = 180
mm.
First of all, consider the equilibrium of the cylinder P

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 Fig 2.13

From the geometry of the figure, we find that

ED= Radius of cylinder P = 100/2 =50 mm
BF = Rdius of cylinder Q = 180/2 = 90mm
<BCF = 60°
CF =BF cot 60 = 900.577 = 52 mm
FE = BG = 180 - (52+50) = 78 mm
AB = 50+90 = 140 mm
Cos ABG = BG/AB = 78/140 = 0.5571
ABG = 56.1
Applying Lami‟s theorem at A,
𝑅1 𝑅2 200
sin(90°+56.1°)
= 𝑠i𝑛90°
= sin(180°−56.1°)
𝑅1 𝑅2 200
𝑐𝑜𝑠56.1
= 1 = sin 56.1°
200𝑐𝑜𝑠56.1° 200×0.5571
R1 = = = 134.2N
200
𝑠i𝑛56.1 0.830
200
And R2 = = = 240.8N
𝑠i𝑛56.1° 0.8300

Example 2.5Three cylinders weighting 100 N each and of 80 mm diameter are placed in a
channel of 180 mm width as shown in Fig. Determine the pressure exerted by (i) the
cylinder A on B at the point of contact (ii) the cylinder B on the base and (iii) the cylinder
B on the wall.

Fig 2.14

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Solution. Given: Weight of each cylinder = 100 N; Dia. of each cylinder = 80 mm and width of
channel = 180 mm
(i) Pressure exerted by the cylinder A on the cylinder B
Let R1 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder Aon B. It is also equal to pressure exerted by the
cylinder Aon B.
First of all, consider the equilibrium of the cylinder A. It is in equilibrium under the action of the
following forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig 2.15 (a).
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 of the cylinder B on the cylinder A.
3. Reaction R2 of the cylinder C on the cylinder A.
Now join the centres O, P and Q of the three cylinders. Bisect PQ at S and join OS as shown in
Fig 2.15 (b).

Fig 2.15

From the geometry of the triangle OPS, we find that

OP = 40 + 40 = 80 mm
and PS = 90 – 40 = 50 mm

Since the triangle OSQ is similar to the triangle OPS, therefore ∠SOQ is also equal to 38.7°.
Thus the angle between R1 and R2 is 2 × 38.7° = 77.4°. And angle between R1 and OS (also
between R2 and OS). = 180° – 38.7° = 141.3°
The system of forces at O is shown in Fig (b).
Applying Lami‟s equation at O,

(ii) Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the base

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 Let R3 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the wall, and
R4 = Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the base.
Now consider the equilibrium of the cylinder B. It is in equilibrium under the action of the
following forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as shown in Fig 2.16 (a).

Fig 2.16

1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.

2. Reaction R2 equal to 64.0 N of the cylinder A on the cylinder B.
3. Reaction R3 of the cylinder B on the vertical side of the channel.
4. Reaction R4 of the cylinder B on the base of the channel.
A little consideration will show that weight of the cylinder B is acting downwards and the reaction
R4 is acting upwards. Moreover, their lines of action also coincide with each other. Therefore
net downward force will be equal to (R4 – 100) N. The system of forces is shown in Fig 2.16 (b).
Applying Lami‟s equation at P,

R4 = 50 + 100 = 150 N Ans.

(iii) Pressure exerted by the cylinder B on the wall. From the above Lami‟s equation, we also
find that
R3 = 64 sin 38.7° = 64 × 0.6252 = 40 N Ans.
Note. Since the cylinders B and C are symmetrically placed, therefore pressures exerted by the
cylinder C on the wall as well as channel will be the same as those exerted by the cylinder B.

GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

The equilibrium of coplanar forces may also be studied, graphically, by drawing the vector
diagram. This may also be done by studying the

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1. Converse of the Law of Triangle of Forces.
2. Converse of the Law of Polygon of Forces.
CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF TRIANGLE OF FORCES
If three forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides a
triangle, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
CONVERSE OF THE LAW OF POLYGON OF FORCES
If any number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides
of a closed polygon, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.

Example 2.6 Five strings are tied at a point and are pulled in all directions, equally spaced from
one another. If the magnitude of the pulls on three consecutive strings is 50 N, 70 N and 60 N
respectively, find graphically the magnitude of the pulls on two other strings.
Solution. Given : Pulls = 50 N ; 70 N and 60 N and angle between the forces = 360/5=72
Let P1 and P2 = Pulls in the two strings.
First of all, let us draw the space diagram for the given system of forces and name them
according to Bow‟s notations as shown in Fig(a)

Fig 2.17
Now draw the vector diagram for the given forces as shown in Fig 2.17 (b) and as discussed
below :
1. Select some suitable point a and draw a horizontal line ab equal to 50 N to some suitable
scale representing the force AB.
2. Through b draw a line bc equal to 70 N to the scale and parallel to BC.
3. Similarly through c, draw cd equal to 60 N to the scale and parallel to CD.
4. Through d draw a line parallel to the force P1 of the space diagram.
5. Similarly through a draw a line parallel to the force P2 meeting the first line at e, thus closing
the polygon abcde, which means that the point is in equilibrium.
6. By measurement, we find that the forces P1 = 57.5 N and P2 = 72.5 N respectively. Ans

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 EXERCISE

1. Enunciate any two principles of equilibrium.

2. State and prove Lami‟s Theorem.
3. Show that if three coplaner forces, acting at a point be in equilibrium, then, each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.
4. What are different methods of studying the equilibrium of coplaner forces ? Describe any
one of them.
5. How would you find out the equilibrium of non-coplaner forces ?
6. Explain the conditions of equilibrium.
7. Discuss the various types of equilibrium.
8. Two equal heavy spheres of 50 mm radius are in equilibrium within a smooth cup of 150
mm radius. Show that the reaction between the cups of one sphere is double than that
between the two spheres.
9. A smooth circular cylinder of radius 1.5 meter is lying in a triangular groove, one side of
which makes 15° angle and the other 40° angle with the horizontal. Find the reactions
atthe surfaces of contact, if there is no friction and the cylinder weights 100 N. Ans.
78.5, 31.6
10. An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC and BC.
The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the horizontal as
shown in Fig.Ans. 1N, 7.8N

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CHAPTER3: FRICTION
On completion of the subject, the student will be able to:
 Define and classify friction
 Know about advantages and disadvantages of friction
 Understand and Compute about equilibrium of bodies on level plane
 Understand the application of friction and apply it to solve problems

3.1 FRICTIONAL FORCE: It is the resisting force which oppose the movement the body, it
always acts opposite the movement of the body.

Fig 3.1

Where P= applied force

F=frictional force
W= weight of the body
R= normal reaction.
Classification of the friction:
The frictional forces are classified into two types: (i) Static friction
(ii) Dynamic Friction

STATIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest, Or in other words, it is the friction when
the body is tends to move.

DYNAMIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experience by a body when it is in motion. It is also called kinetic friction. The
Dynamic friction is further divided into two types
(i) Sliding friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over another body.
(ii) rolling friction: It is the friction experience by a body when it rolls over another body.

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LIMITING FRICTION:
The maximum friction that can be generated between two static surfaces in contact with each
other. Once a force applied to the two surfaces exceeds the limiting friction, motion will occur.
For two dry surfaces, the limiting friction is a product of the normal reaction force and the
coefficient of limiting friction.

NORMAL REACTION:

Whenever a body, lying on a horizontal or an inclined surface, is in equilibrium, its weight acts
vertically downwards through its centre of gravity. The surface, in turn, exerts an upward
reaction on the body. This reaction, which is taken to act perpendicular to the plane, is called
normal reaction and is, generally, denoted by R or (Rn)

If weight is the only vertical force acting on an object lying or moving on a horizontal surface,
the normal reaction force is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the weight. It is
always acting perpendicular to the plane.

Rn Rn

X‟ X α w

Horizontal plane Inclined plane

Fig 3.2

ANGLE OF FRICTION:

It is the angle between the normal reaction and resultant force of normal reaction and frictional
forces or limiting friction. This angle is generally specified by θ.

Fig 3.3

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