OEN351-DRINKING WATER SUPPLY

AND TREATMENT

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UNIT: 1 - SOURCES OF WATER

Public water supply system – Planning, Objectives, Design period, Population

forecasting; Water demand – Sources of water and their characteristics, Surface and
Groundwater – Impounding Reservoir – Development and selection of source –
Source Water quality – Characterization – Significance – Drinking Water quality
standards.

Public water supply system

Supplying safe and wholesome water to the public from the large water resources by
treating and bringing it in an efficient manner to public is known as Public water supply system.

Importance and necessity for planned water supplies

Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. Water is
available in various forms such as rivers, lake, streams etc. The earliest civilizations organized
on the banks of major river systems and required water for drinking, bathing, cooking etc. But
with the advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously increased and now such a
stage has come that without well-organized public water supply scheme, it is impossible to run
the present civic life and the develop the towns. The importance of water from only a quantity
viewpoint was recognized from the earliest days and the importance of quality come to be
recognized gradually in the later days. The earliest recorded knowledge of water quality and its
treatment are found in Sanskrit literature “Sushuri Sanhita” compiled about 2000 B.C. It deals
with storage of drinking water in copper vessels, exposure to sunlight, filtering through
charcoal, sand etc.

The correlation between water quality and incidence of diseases was first established in 1849
by Dr. John snow when cholera appeared in London during the summer and 14,600 deaths were
reported. But Dr. snow unable to convince the authorities and public with the evidence of
available data. The water borne diseases like typhoid, dysentery, cholera etc. the concept of
water borne diseases was well accepted by 1900. Another striking example was reported from
Uttar Pradesh by W.H.O (World Health Organization) in 1963, there the death rate by chorea
decreased by 74.1%, Typhoid fever by 63.6%, by dysentery 23.1% and diarria by 63.6%. All
these were achieved by drinking water treatment.

Need for protected water supply

Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to remove the impurities
and made safe to public health. Water may be polluted by physical and bacterial agents. Water
is also good carrier of disease causing germs. The causes of outbreak of epidemics are traced
to pollute water and poor sanitation hospital are continued to be flooded with the sick due to
ignorance about health continues to be profound. However during the last few decades,
improvements in the public health protection by supplying safe water and sanitation to all the
people in the developing countries. In 1977, united nations declare to launch a movement
known as “HEALTH FOR ALL BY THE YEAR 2000 A.D.” India is also a signatory to that
conference. The working group appointed by the planning commission while suggesting
strategies for achieving the above goal emphasized that potable water from protected water
supply should be made available to the entire population. Pure and whole some water is to be
supplied to the community alone can bring down the morbidity rates
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 Sl.No. Description India 1970-75 U.S.A 1970-75

1 Average per capita 133 7024

G.N.P.
2 Infant mortality (per 129 15
rate thousand)

3 Life Expectancy (years) 49 73

4 Literacy 34 99

From the above table, the literacy rate in U.S.A. is high and all the citizens received protected
water supply. Hence the infant mortality is very low

The graph in figure shows the fall in typhoid cases in U.S.A after treatment of water by filtration
from 1906 and then chlorinating from 1913. At present, only 16 percent of towns in our country
are equipped with water supply works serving about five percent of population of the whole of
country. India has get to make serious efforts to make the treated water available to the most of
its population so as to minimize the water borne diseases.

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 The objectives of the community water supply system are
• To provide whole some water to the consumers for drinking purpose.
• To supply adequate quantity to meet at least the minimum needs of the individuals
• To make adequate provisions for emergencies like firefighting, festivals, meeting etc.
• To make provision for future demands due to increase in population, increase in standard of
living, storage and conveyance
• To prevent pollution of water at source, storage and conveyance
• To maintain the treatment units and distribution system in good condition with adequate staff
and materials
• To design and maintain the system that is economical and reliable

Whole some water

Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and which contains only two parts of
hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume. But the water found in nature contains number of
impurities in varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure, also absorbs various
gases, dust and other impurities while filling. This water when moves on the ground further
carries silt, organic and inorganic impurities. The removal of the turbidity, odour and smell is
considered as good and removal of dissolved substances is considered as “chemically pure”.
But removal of substances like calcium, magnesium Iron, Zinc etc. completely is not good for
health. These minerals are required for tissue growth and some act as prophylactic in preventing
diseases. Therefore wholesome water is defined as the water which containing the minerals in
small quantities at requisite levels and free from harmful impurities chemically pure water is
also corrosive but not whole some water. The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable
is called potable water.

The following are the requirements of wholesome water.

• It should be free from bacteria
• It should be colourless and sparkling
• It should be tasty, odour free and cool
• It should be free from objectionable matter
• It should not carrode pipes
• It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh

Status of protected water supply in India

Lack of safe drinking water in India is still a problem in many areas of the country. As
per the U.N. report (1983), town and cities only 86% of the urban population have some
provision for protected water supplies. Only one village out of ten has safe drinking water. It is
important to note that 80% of India’s population live in villages and only 6 crores have access
for safe water.

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 Planning of water supply system

• Financial aspect

• Population growth

• Quality of water

• Quantity of water

• Rate of consumption

• Usage of water

• Sanitary survey of area

• Source of water supply

• Service connection

Planning and execution of modern water supply schemes

After British rule in our country, investments made in successive five year plans for
planned development towards urban and rural water supply and sanitation. Because of shortage
of funds and some other reasons were responsible for slow growth of water supply facilities
during the last five year plans.

There are many central, state and International agencies coordinating and executing the
urban and rural water supply schemes in the country

1. Central public health and environment organization under the ministry of works and housing
formulates schemes and provide assistance to states planning and development.
2. National environment engineering research institute (NEERI) is a research institute of Govt. of
India, conducts water quality surveys and suggests treatment processes and also provides
design of treatment and distribution system
3. CSIR laboratories (council of scientific and industrial research) provide testing facilities for
water quality maintenance.
4. Central ground water bound, Geological survey of India, national geographical research
institute (NGRI) arte engaged afflicted by fluoride Iron, Manganese etc.
5. Technology missions were launched by Govt. of India in 1986 with submissions on control of
flows
6. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited is providing technology in such special processes like
Reverse Electro-Dialysis.
7. Public Health Engineering Departments undertake execution of large schemes for water supply
and sanitation.
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8. State ground water department evaluates the quality and quantity of ground water all over the
state.
9. Panchayat Raj Engineering department of state Govt. is the model agency for providing water
supply and sanitation facilities in rural and urban panchayats.
10. A.P. State council of science and technology is engaged in assessing the status and quality of
drinking water availability and requirements in selected areas.
11. Medium and major irrigation departments of Govt. undertake multipurpose schemes in the state
with component of water supply along with Hydroelectric, irrigation, navigation, tourism and
other services.
12. Educational institutions – many engineering colleges offer course in environmental engineering
water supply and sanitary engineering at degree and postgraduate levels. Polytechnics and
vocational courses conduct courses in water supply engineering to train the technicians and
engineers to the growing demand
13. International organizations like UNICEF (United Nations Health Organization) provide
technical assistance and knowledge on water supply schemes working in specific problem
areas.
14. There are many Non-Governmental organizations (N.G.O) like water development society,
environmental protection societies operating in limited areas with donations and contributions
by public and Govt.

Need for protected water supply

• Manmade Pollution

• Industrial Pollution

• Surface run off

• Water Scarcity

• Climatic change

• Sea water Intrusion

• Ground water depletion

• Unhygienic condition

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 Water supply engineering
Sources of water

Surface sources sub surface sources

Rivers lakes ponds impounded springs wells infiltration

Streams reservoirs galleries

Artesian dug tube infiltration

Wells wells wells wells

Shallow wells deep wells

Intake works

Treatment works

Plain sedimentation filtration disinfection mislaneous

Sedimentation with coagulation treatments

Distribution system

Gravity system pumping system dual system

District water mains Branches

service pipes consumers

Waste water

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Design period
The complete water supply project includes huge and costly constructions such as dams,
reservoirs, treatment works and network of distribution pipelines. These all works cannot be
replaced easily or capacities increased conveniently for future expansions.

While designing and constructing these works, they should have sufficient capacity to
meet future demand of the town for number of years. The number of years for which the designs
of the water works have been done is known as design period. Mostly water works are designed
for design period of 22-30 years, which is fairly good period.

S.No components D.P in Years

1 Storage Dams 50
2 Intake Towers 30
3 Plumping
• Pump House • 30
Electrical Works 15
4 Water treatment units 15
5 Pipe connections materials 30
6 Water conveying units 30
7 Clear water storage 15
8 Distribution System 30

Total requirement of water for a town or a city

Total quantity of water required by a town or a city per day shall be 270 multiplied with
the total population in liters/day.

Population forecasting methods and problems

When the design period is fixed the next step is to determine the population of a town
or city population of a town depends upon the factors like births, deaths, migration and
annexation. The future development of the town mostly depends upon trade expansion,
development industries, and surrounding country, discoveries of mines, construction of railway
stations etc. may produce sharp rises, slow growth and stationary conditions or even decrease
the population. For the prediction of population, it is better to study the development of other
similar towns, which have developed under the same circumstances, because the development
of the predicted town will be more or less on the same lines.

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 Factors affecting Population
1. Birth rate

2. Death rate

3. Migration
4. Annexation

Methods of Population Forecasting

1. Arithmetical Increase Method

2. Geometrical Increase Method

3. Incremental Increase Method

4. Decreasing rate Method

5. Simple graphical Method

6. Comparative graphical Method

7. Master Plan Method

Problem: The following data have been noted from the census department.

year population

1940 8000

1950 12000

1960 17000

1970 22500

Find the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000.

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1) Arithmetical increase method
This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development. If it is used for
small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give low result than actual value. In this
method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from the past census
reports. This increase is added to the present population to find out the population of the next
decade. Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant rate

Pn = P + n.c where

P = population at present

n = No. of decades

c = Constant determined by the average of

increase of ‘n’ decades

Solution:

year population increase in

population
1940 8000 ---

1950 12000 4000

1960 17000 5000

1970 22500 5500

TOTAL 14500

AVERAGE 4833

YEAR POPULATION

1980 22500 + 1 x 4833 = 27333

1990 22500 + 2 x 4833 = 32166

2000 22500 + 3 x 4833 = 36999

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2) Geometrical increase method
In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to
remain constant. Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in
population. Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades. The population at the
end of nth decade ‘Pn’ can be estimated as

Pn = P (1+ IG/100) ^n

Where, IG = geometric mean (%)

P = Present population

N = no. of decades.

Solution:

The population at the end of the various decades shall be as follows:

Year Population
1980 22500 X (1+0.4137)^1 =31,808
1990 22500 X (1+0.4137)^2 =44,967
2000 22500 X (1+0.4137)^3 =63,570

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3) Incremental increase method
This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for an average
size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be in increasing order.
While adopting this method the increase in increment is considered for calculating future
population. The incremental increase is determined for each decade from the past population
and the average value is added to the present population along with the average rate of
increase

Hence, population after nth decade is Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y

Where, Pn = Population after nth decade

X = Average increase

Y = Incremental increase

Solution:

Year Population Increase in Incremental

population ( X increase ( Y )
)
1940 8000 --- ---
1950 12000 4000 ---
1960 17000 5000 + 1000
1970 22500 5500 + 500
TOTAL 14500 1500
AVERAGE 4833 750

The population at the end of the various decades shall be as follows:

YEAR EXPECTED POPULATION

1980 22500 + (1 X 4833) + {1 (1+1)/2} X 750 = 28,083

1990 22500 + (2 X 4833) + {2 (2+1)/2} X 750 =34,416

2000 22500 + (3 X 4833) + {3 (3+1)/2} X 750 =41,499

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4) Decreasing rate method

• Here the average decrease in the percentage increase is calculated.

• This is applicable only in case where the rate of growth shows a downward trend.

5) Simple graphical method

• In this method a graph is plotted from the available data between time & population then the
curve is smoothly extended up to the desired year.

Year

6) Comparative graphical method

• Population of similar cities

• Logical Background

• Comparing a city with already developed city having identical properties in a graphical format.

7) Master plan method (zoning method)

• By using this method, the total area is divided into no. of zones with respects to types of building
and then finally the population is predicted based on the Zones.

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 Water demands
While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary to determine
the total quantity of a water required for various purposes by the city. As a matter of fact the
first duty of the engineer is to determine the water demand of the town and then to find suitable
water sources from where the demand can be met. But as there are so many factors involved in
demand of water, it is not possible to accurately determine the actual demand. Certain empirical
formulae and thumb rules are employed in determining the water demand, which is very near
to the actual demand.
Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town:

1 Domestic water demand

2 Industrial demand
3 Institution and commercial demand
4 Demand for public use
5 Fire demand
6 Loses and wastes

1) Domestic water demand

The quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing
etc. is called domestic water demand and mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic
conditions and customs of the people. As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the
domestic consumption of water in India is about 135 liters/day/capita. But in developed
countries this figure may be 350 litres/day/capita because of use of air coolers, air conditioners,
maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances.

Uses Consumptions in litres / head/ day

Metropolitan Small city
city
Drinking 5 5
Cooking 5 5
Bathing 75 55
Washing of clothes 25 20
Washing of Utensils 15 10
Washing & Cleaning 15 10
of Houses and
Residences
Lawn watering 15 -
&Gardening
Flushing of water 45 30
closets
Total 200 135

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2) Industrial demand
The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which are
existing in the city. The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton mills,
Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use. The quantity of water demand for
industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of the total demand of the city.

Sl. No Industry Unit of Approx Water

Production Or Requirement per
Unit of Raw Unit of
Material Production/Raw
Materials
1 Automobiles Vehicle 40 kilolitre

2 Distillery
kilolitre 122-170 kilolitre
(Alcohol)

3 Fertilizer Tonne 80-200 kilolitre

4 Leather (tanned) Tonne 40 kilolitre

5 Paper Tonne 200-400 kilolitre

3) Institution and commercial demand

Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centers including office

buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centers, health centers, schools, temple, cinema
houses, railway and bus stations etc comes under this category. As per IS: 1172-1963, water
supply requirements for the public buildings other than residences as follows.

Sl. No Type of Average Water

Institution/Commercial Demand
Establishment
1 Offices 45-90 lpcd

2 Factories (bathrooms
45-90 lpcd
provided)

3 Factories (bathrooms not

30-60 lpcd
provided)

4 Schools Day scholars 45-90 lpcd 135-225

Residential lpcd

5 Hostels 135-180 lpcd

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 6 Hotels 180 litre/bed

7 Restaurants 70 litre/seat

8 Nursing homes and

135-225 lpcd
medical quarters

9 Airports (international and

70 lpcd
domestic)

4) Demand for public use

Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling
on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc comes
under public demand. To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total
consumption is made designing the water works for a city.
The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as given in Table

Sl.No. Purpose Water

Requirements
1. Public parks 1.4 litres/m2/day
2. Street washing 1.0-1.5 litres/m2/day
3. Sewer cleaning 4.5 litres/head/day

5) Fire demand

Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching
materials, explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen mishappenings.
If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to
serious damage and may burn cities.

All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads. As during the fire breakdown large
quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is
made in the water work to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water
mains for this purpose. In the cities fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150
m apart for fire demand.

The quantity of water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different
empirical formulae. For Indian conditions Kuching’s formula gives satisfactory results.

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 Fire demand formulas
1) Kuichling's Formula

Q = 3182 * √P,
Where,
Q - Water required in litres/minute
P - Population in 1000s (i.e., if population is 1, 00,000 then P = 100)

2) Freeman's Formula

Q = 1136 * [(P/10) +10],

Where,
Q - Water required in litres/minute
P - Population in 1000s

3) National Board of Fire / Underwriter's Formula / National Fire Insurance of America

Q = 4637 * √P * [1 - (0.01*√P)],
Where,
Q - Water required in litres/minute
P - Population in 1000s (valid for population of less than 2, 00,000)

4) Buston's Formula

Q = 5663 * √P,
where,
Q - Water required in litres/minute
P - Population in 1000s

5) According to Indian Standard IS 9668: 1990

Q = 1800 litres/minute,
For every 50,000 population up to 3, 00,000 population,
Above 3, 00,000 population, extra water shall be 1,800 lit/min for every 1, 00,000 population.

6) Losses and wastes

All the water, which goes in the distribution, pipes does not reach the consumers.
The following are the reasons

1. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings.
1. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of public taps even when they are not using the
water and allow the continuous wastage of water
2. Losses due to unauthorized and illegal connections

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 While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15% of total
quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water

Per capita demand

If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town per year and
‘p’ is population of town, then per capita demand will be
Per capita demand = [Q/ (P x 365)] litres/day

Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like standard of living, no.
and type of commercial places in a town etc. For an average Indian town, the requirement of
water in various uses is as under

i. Domestic purpose -------- 135 litres/c/d

ii. Industrial use -------- 40 litres/c/d
iii. Public use -------- 25 litres/c/d
iv. Fire Demand -------- 15 litres/c/d
v. Losses, Wastage
and thefts -------- 55 litres/c/d

Total: 270 litres/capita/day

The total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 270 multiplied with
the total population in litres/day.
Factors affecting per capita demand

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the city or Town.
a) Climatic conditions: The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than cold
countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns,
gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes and bathing etc. But in very
cold countries sometimes the quantity ofwater required may be more due to wastage, because
at such places the people often keep their taps open and water continuously flows for fear of
freezing of water in the taps and use of hot water for keeping the rooms warm.

b) Size of community: Water demand is more with increase of size of town because more water
is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.

c) Living standard of the people : The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard
of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of
lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.

d) Industrial and commercial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain industries
is much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase per
capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no
direct link with the population of the town.

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e) Pressure in the distribution system: The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure
of the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of
water will automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water
freely by the people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage,
wastage and thefts etc.

f) System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system will be
more than the town where this system is not being used.

g) Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is more, less
quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is low.

Variations in demand

The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a year. In
practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the year but it
various from season to season, even hour to hour.

1) Seasonal variations

The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand is
maximum, because the people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street
sprinkling. This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less water will be used in
bathing and there will be no lawn watering. The variations may be upto 15% of the average
demand of the year.

2) Daily variations

This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and character
of city as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be on Sundays and
holidays due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc. as compared to other working days.
The maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the average consumption.

3) Hourly variations

On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M. due to late
awakening where as it may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum flow may
be between 12P.M. to 4P.M. when most of the people are sleeping. But in highly industrial city
where both day and night shifts are working, the consumption in night may be more. The
maximum consumption may be rise upto 200% that of average daily demand.

The determination of this hourly variations is most necessary, because on its basis the rate of
pumping will be adjusted to meet up the demand in all hours.

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Sources of water supply
Water is the most abundant compound in nature. It covers 75% of the earth surface.
About 97.3% of water is contained in the great oceans that are saline and 2.14% is held in
icecaps glaciers in the poles, which are also not useful. Barely the remaining 0.56% found on
earth is in useful form for general livelihood. Total quantity of water available on the planet
“EARTH” in various states and religions are given in the table

location volume (m3) % of total

land areas
Fresh water lakes 152 x 1012 0.009
Saline lakes 104 x 1012 0.008
Inland seas, Rivers 1.25 x 1012 0.001
Soil moisture 67 x 1012 0.005
Ground water 8350 x 1012 0.005
Icecaps and glaciers 52 x 1012 0.610

TOTAL 37,800 x 1012 2.80

Atmosphere
Water vapour (clouds) 0.001
12
13 x 10
Oceans
Water in the oceans 97.3
12
13,20,000 x 10
TOTAL ON PLANET
100
12
13,60,000 x 10

Table: water on the planet

Hydrological concepts
Hydrology is the science, which deals with the increment of the water on the ground,
under the ground, evaporation from the land and water surface and transportation from the
vegetation and going back into atmosphere where it precipitates.

Definition
The water which goes in atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration again comes back in
the form of precipitation under favourable climatic conditions is known as hydrological cycle
of water.

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 Hydrological cycle

Above Figure illustrates the hydrological cycle of water. Due to sun’s heat water from
the earth’s surfaces, lakes, rivers, seas etc. evaporates and rises upwards. At high altitude due
to reduction in the atmosphere pressure these water vapours expand by absorbing energy from
the surrounding air, which cools down. When it falls below the dew point it cannot retain the
excessive moisture, which starts falling in the form of rain, hails, dew, sleet, frost or
precipitation. Various factors such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, velocity of wind,
height of mountains in the region, presence of forests, position of land and water areas etc. and
their complex relation are responsible for the precipitation. This precipitation and evaporation
processes continue forever and balance is maintained between the two by nature.

Precipitation

The evaporated water from the surfaces of streams, rivers, sea, ponds, wet surfaces,
trees and plants etc. again returned to the earth surface by the condensation in the form of rain,
hails, dew, sleet etc. is known as precipitation. The major part of the precipitation occurs in the
form of rain and other forms quantities are very small. The water of precipitation further goes
off in the following ways.

i. Run-off: After precipitation a portion of its water flows over the ground in the form of rivers
and streams and some water flows towards lakes and ponds and collected there.

ii. Infiltration: A portion of precipitation, percolates in the ground and it is stored in the form of
subsoil or ground water.

iii. evaporation: some portion of the precipitation is also evaporated from the lakes, rivers,
reservoirs and wet surfaces in the form of vapour due to sun’s heat is known as evaporation

iv. Evapo-transpiration: The roots of the trees sucks water from the ground and some portion of
it evaporates in the atmosphere through leaves in the form of transpiration.

Surface sources

All the sources of water can be broadly divided into

1. Surface sources and
2. Sub surface sources

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 The surface sources further divided into
(i) Streams
(ii) Rivers
(iii)Ponds
(iv) Lakes
(v) Impounding reservoirs etc.

Streams and rivers

Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In summer the quality
of river water is better than monsoon. Because in rainy season the run-off water also carries
with clay, sand, silt etc. which make the water turbid. So river and stream water require special
treatments. Some rivers are snowed and perennial and have water throughout the year and
therefore they do not require any arrangements to hold the water. But some rivers dry up wholly
or partially in summer. So they require special arrangements to meet the water demand during
hot weather. Mostly all the cities are situated near the rivers discharge their used water of
sewage in the rivers, therefore much care should be taken while drawing water from the river.

Natural ponds and lakes

In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious bed by springs
and streams are known as “lakes”. The quality of water in the natural ponds and lakes depends
upon the basin’s capacity, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground etc. But lakes and
ponds situated at higher altitudes contain almost pure water which can be used without any
treatment. But ponds formed due to construction of houses, road, and railways contains large
amount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water supply purposes.

Impounding reservoirs

In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the requirements of hot
weather. In such cases, the water can be stored by constructing a bund, a weir or a dam across
the river at such places where minimum area of land is submerged in the water and max.
Quantity of water to be stored. In lakes and reservoirs, suspended impurities settle down in the
bottom, but in their beds algae, weeds, vegetable and organic growth takes place which produce
bad smell, taste and colour in water. Therefore

This water should be used after purification. When water is stored for long time in reservoirs it
should be aerated and chlorinated to kill the microscopic organisms which are born in water.

Subsurface sources

These are further divided into

(i) Infiltration
galleries
(ii) Infiltration
wells
(iii) Springs etc.

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1. Infiltration galleries

A horizontal nearly horizontal tunnel which is

constructed through water bearing strata for tapping
underground water near rivers, lakes or streams are
called “Infiltration galleries”. The yield from the
galleries may be as much as 1.5 x 104 lit/day/metre
length of infiltration gallery. For maximum yield the
galleries may be placed at full depth of the aquifer.
Infiltration galleries may be constructed with
masonry or concrete withweep holes of 5cm x 10cm.

Infiltration Gallery

2. Infiltration wells
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the
blanks of river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by brick
masonry with open joints as shown in fig.

Infiltration Well Jack Well

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The
water filtrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets
purified to some extent. The infiltration well in turn are connected by porous pipes to collecting
sump called jack well and there water is pumped to purification plant for treatment.

3. Springs

Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs. Springs
generally supply small springs. Springs generally supply small quantity of water and hence
suitable for the hill towns. Some springs discharge hot water due to presence of sulphur and
useful only for the curve of certain skin disease patients.

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 Types of springs:

1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing stratum is
exposed to atmosphere and gravity springs are formed as shown in fig

Gravity Spring
2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting the ground
water reservoir becomes out crops as shown in fig.

Surface Spring
3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a pressure in the upper impervious
stratum as shown in fig.

Artesian Spring

When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between
two imperious stratum, the formation of artesian spring from deep seated spring

- 24
 Artesian Spring

WELLS:

A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping
water. In India 75 to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for its water supply.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are

• Geological conditions of the earth’s surface

• Porosity of various layers
• Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers.
The following are different types of wells

1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells

1) Shallow wells:

Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earth’s surface. The
diameter of well varies from 2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m. Shallow wells may be lined
or unlined from inside. Fig shows a shallow well with lining (staining). These wells are also
called draw wells or gravity wells or open wells or drag wells or percolation wells.

Shallow Well

Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is
uppermost layer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they are not
suitable for public water supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is
better than the river water but requires purification. The shallow wells should be constructed
away from septic tanks, soak pits etc. because of the contamination of effluent.

- 25
 The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small villages, undeveloped
municipal towns, isolated buildings etc. because of limited supply and bad quality of water.

2) Deep Wells:

The Deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer
as shown in fig No. The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the outcrop to
the site of deep well. The outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to the atmosphere. The
rain water entered at outcrop and gets thoroughly purified when it reaches to the site of deep
well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore become hard. In such cases, some treatment
would be necessary to remove the hardness of water.

Deep Well

The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is
not very near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure,
therefore deep wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.

Quality of water
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and contains number of impurities in
varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure, also absorbs various gases, dust and
other impurities while falling. This water when moves on the ground further carries salt, organic
and inorganic impurities. So this water before supplying to the public should be treated and
purified for the safety of public health, economy and protection of various industrial process, it
is most essential for the water work engineer to thoroughly check analyses and do the treatment
of the raw water obtained the sources, before its distribution. The water supplied to the public
should be strictly according to the standards laid down from time to time.

Characteristics of water

For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into
the following three categories

 Physical characteristics

 Chemical Characteristics

 Biological or Microscopically or Bacterial Characteristics

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 Physical characteristics

1. Turbidity

2. Colour

3. Taste and Odours

4. Temperature

5. Specific conductivity

Chemical Characteristics

1. Total and suspended solids

2. pH value

3. Hardness

4. Chloride content

5. Nitrogen content

6. Iron content

7. Manganese content

8. Metal content

9. Dissolved gases

Bacterial Characteristics

1. Non Pathogenic bacteria

2. Pathogenic bacteria

1. Aerobic Bacteria

2. Anaerobic Bacteria

3. Facultative Bacteria

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 I. Physical characteristics
The following are the physical characteristics
1. Turbidity
2. Colour and temperature
3. Taste and odour

Turbidity

Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water. The
character and amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over which the water has moved
ground waters are less turbid than the surface water.

Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through it. Turbidity
is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or Milligrams
per liter (mg/l). Turbidity is measured by Turbidity rod or Tape 2) Jacksons Turbid meter 3)
Bali’s turbid meter

The Sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and units of
turbidity is read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display.

Drinking water should not have turbidity more than 10 N.T.U. This test is useful in
determining the detention time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants required
to remove turbidity.

Colour and temperature

Colour in water is usually due to organic matter in colloidal condition but sometimes it
is also due to mineral and dissolved organic impurities. The colour produced by one milligram
of platinum in a litre of water has been fixed as the unit of colour. The permissible colour for
domestic water is 20ppm on platinum cobalt scale. The colour in water is not harmful but
objectionable.

Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The

temperature of surface water is generally at atmospheric temperature, while that of ground
water may be more or less than atmospheric temperature. The most desirable temperature for
public supply between 4.4 °C to 10 °C. The temperature above 35 °C are unfit for public
supply, because it is not palatable.

Taste and odour

Taste and odour in water may be due to presence of dead or live micro-organisms,
dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide or oxygen combined with
organic matter, mineral substances such as sodium chloride, iron compounds and carbonates
and sulphates of other substances. The tests of these are done by sense of smell and taste
because these are present in such small proportions that it is difficult to detect them by chemical
analysis. The water having bad smell and odour is objectionable and should not be supplied to
the public.

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 The intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold number. This number
is numerically equal to the amount of sample of water in C.C’s required to be added to one litre
of fresh odourless water.

Specific conductivity of water

To measure the total amount of dissolved salts present in the water

Dissolved salt content = Specific conductivity of water in micro ohms per cm @25°C
× 0.65

This co-efficient value depends upon the type of salt present in water.

II. Chemical characteristics

In the chemical analysis of water, these tests are done that will reveal the sanitary quality
of the water. Chemical tests involve the determination of total solids, PH value, Hardness of
water, Chloride content etc.

Total solids and suspended solids

Total solids includes the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The
quantity of suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine filter,
drying and weighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by
evaporating the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue.
The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the filtered water
obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue. The total solids in a water
sample can be directly determined by evaporating the water and weighing the residue of the
residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace the organic solids will decompose whereas
only inorganic solids will remain. By weighing we can determine the inorganic solids and
deducting it from the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.

PH value of water

PH value denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water and it is a measure of
acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

PH = - log 10[H+] or 1 / log 10[H+]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14
Acidity Neutral Alkalinity

Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and minerals, the PH value ranges from 0
to 14. For pure water, PH value is 7 and 0 to 7 acidic and 7 to 14 alkaline range. For public
water supply PH value may be 6.5 to 8.5. The lower value may cause tuberculation and
corrosion, whereas high value may produce incrustation, sediment deposits and other bad
effects.
- 29
 PH value of water is generally determined by PH papers or by using PH meter. PH
can read directly on scale or by digital display using PH meter.

Hardness of water

It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap. Hardness is of two types.

1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of calcium
and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method.

Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water.

Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For potable water hardness ranges from 5
to 8 degrees.

Hardness removable
Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/litre is desirable. Excess of hardness leads to the
following effects.

1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing

2. Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
3. Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream
manufactures.
4. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes the skin rough

5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values

6. It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency and cause in eructation
7. Very hard water is not palatable

When softening is practices when hardness exceed 300mg/lit. Water hardness more than
600 mg/lit have to rejected for drinking purpose.

Methods of removal of hardness

• Boiling
• Freezing
• Lime addition
• Lime soda process
• Excess Lime treatment
• Caustic soda process
• Zeolite process
• Demineralization or exchange process.

Methods 1, 2 and 3 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 4 to 8 for both
temporary and permanent hardness.

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 The temporary hardness is removed as follows

1) Boiling
heat
Ca(HCO3)2 --------------------- > CaCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O
heat
Mg(HCO3)2 --------------------- > MgCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O

2) Addition of lime

Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 -------------------- > 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------------- > CaCO3 + MgCO3 +
2H2O
Removal of permanent Hardness:

3) Lime soda process

In this method, the lime and sodium carbonate or soda as have used to remove permanent
hardness from water. The chemical reactions involved in this process are as follows.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + H2O (removal of CO2)

Ca(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 --------------------- > 2CaCO3 + 2H3O (removal of temporary hardness)
Mg(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + Mg(CO3) + 2H2O
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 ------------------- > Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 { conversion of MgSO4 to CaSO4}
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 ------------------- > CaCO3 + Na2SO4 {removal of sulphates}

CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 { removal of chlorides} CaCl2 +
Na2CO3 --------------> CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> Mg CO3 + 2NaCl {removal of chlorides}

Advantages of lime soda process

1. The PH value of water treated by this process bring down to 9 and which results in decrease in
corrosion of the distribution system.
2. Less quantity of coagulant will be required, if this process is adopted
3. Removal of iron and manganese to some extent
4. Reduction of total mineral content of water
5. Hardness of water is reduced to 40mg/lit (of CaCO 3) and magnesium upto 10mg/lit
6. The process is economical
7. This process is most suitable for tubed and acidic waters where it will not possible to adopt
zeolite process.

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 Disadvantages
1. Large quantity of sludge formed during this process to be disposed off by some suitable method
2. This process requires skilled supervision for its successful working
3. If recarbonation is omitted, a thick layer of calcium carbonate will be deposited in the filtering
media, distribution pipes etc.

4) Zeolite process

This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness may
be completely removed by this process.

Principle

Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium) which replace sodium Ions
with calcium and magnesium Ions when hardwater is passes through a bed of zeolites. The
zeolite can be regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of sodium chloride through the
bed. The chemical reactions involved are

2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2 ------------------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaHCO3
(Zeolite)
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 ------------------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + Na2SO4
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaC12 ------------------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO + 2NaCl

Regeneration

2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + 2NaCl ------------------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaCl2
2SiO2 Al2O3 MgO + 2NaCl ------------------- > 2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O +
MgCl2
Advantages
1. In this process, the sludge is not formed hence problem of sludge disposal does not arise
2. It can be operated easily and no skilled supervision required
3. The hardness of water reduces to zero and hence used for boiler and texile industries
4. The process is economical where salt is cheaply available
5. The load on Zeolite can be reduced by combining it with lime or aeration process

Disadvantages
1. The Zeolite process cannot be used for turbed or acidic water
2. The Zeolite process is unsuitable for water containing Iron and Manganese
3. The Zeolite should be operated carefully to avoid injury or damage to the equipment

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Demineralization
Both cations and anions are removed by resins similar to zeolites in two columns by
iron exchange method. Resins may be regenerated with sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate.
This process is used in industries to get distilled water or quality water motion of water through
the atmosphere, earth, plants, trees, rivers and oceans in a cyclic motion through liquid, solid
and gaseous phases is called HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.

Chloride content

The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and also presence
of chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water. Excess of chlorides
is dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the water. Chlorides
above 250p.p.m. are not permissible in water.

Nitrogen content

The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of organic matters in the water.
The nitrogen may be present in the water may be in one or more of the following forms. 1.
Nitrates 2. Free ammonia 3. Albuminoidal nitrogen. Excess presence of nitrogen will cause
“MATHEMOGLOBINEMIA” disease to the children.

Metals and other chemical substances

Water contains various minerals or metal substances such as iron, manganese, copper,
lead, barium, cadmium, selenium, fluoride, arsenic etc.

The concentration of iron and manganese should not allow more than 0.3 ppm. Excess
will cause discolouration of clothes during washing and incrustation in water mains due to
deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and barium are very toxic, low ppm
of these are allowed. Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous and may cause totally, therefore they
must be removed totally. Human beings are effected by presence of high quality of copper in
the water. Fewer cavities in the teeth will be formed due to excessive presence of fluoride in
water more than 1 ppm. A laxative effect is caused in the human body due to excessive presence
of sulphate in the water.

Dissolved gases

Oxygen and carbon-di-oxide are the gases mostly found in the natural water. The
surface water contain large amount of dissolved oxygen because they absorb it from the
atmosphere. Algae and other tiny plant life of water also give oxygen to the water. The presence
of oxygen in the water in dissolved form keep it fresh and sparkling. But more quantity of
oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes material.

Water absorbs carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere. If water comes across calcium and
magnesium salts, carbon-dioxide reacts with the salts and converts them into bicarbonates,
causes hardness in the water. The presence of carbon-dioxide is easily determined by adding
lime solution to water gives milky white colour.

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 Bio-chemical oxygen demand
If the water is contaminated with sewage, the demand of oxygen by organic matter in
sewage is known as biochemical oxygen demand. The aerobic action continues till the oxygen
is present in sewage. As the oxygen exhausts the anaerobic action begins due to which foul
smell starts coming. Therefore indirectly the decomposable matters require oxygen, which is
used by the organisms.

The aerobic decomposition of organic matters is done in two stages. The carbonaceous
matters are first oxidized and the oxidation of nitrogenous matters takes place in the latter stage.

III. Bacterial and microscopical characteristics

The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is important for the water supply
engineer from the viewpoint of public health. The bacteria may be harmless to mankind or
harmful to mankind. The former category is known as non-pathogenic bacteria and the latter
category is known as pathogenic bacteria. Many of the bacteria found in water are derived from
air, soil and vegetation. Some of these are able to multiply and continue their existence while
the remaining die out in due course of time. The selective medium that promote the growth of
particular bacteria and inbuilt the growth of other organisms is used in the lab to detect the
presence of the required bacteria, usually coliform bacteria. For bacteriological analysis the
following tests are done.

(a) PLANT COUNT TEST

In this method total number of bacteria presents in a milli litre of water is counted. 1 ml
of sample water is diluted in 99ml of sterilized water and 1ml of dilute water is mixed with
10ml of agar of gelatin. This mixture is then kept in incubator at 37 °C for 24 hours or 20 °C
for 48 hours. After the sample will be taken out from the incubator and colonies of bacteria are
counted by means of microscope.

Drinking water should not have more than 10 coliforms/100ml.

(b) M.P.N. TEST (MOST PROBABLE NUMBER)

The detection of bacteria by mixing different dilutions of a sample of water with

fructose broth and keeping it in the incubator at 37 °C for 48hours. The presence of acid or
carbon-dioxide gas in the test tube will indicate the presence of B-coli. After this the standard
statistical tables (Maccardy’s) are reffered and the “MOST PROBABLE NUMBER” (MPN)
of B-coli per 100ml of water are determined.

For drinking water, the M.P.N. should not be more than 2.

WATER BORNE DISEASES

World health organization has observes that 80% of communicable diseases that are
transmitted through water. The diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, typhoid, Amebiasis,
diarrhea, polio, hepatitis (Jaundice), Leptospirosis, Dracontiasis are caused by bacteria.

- 34
 Excess of fluorides present in water [a b o v e 1.5 mg/litre] cause diseases like dental
fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis. This is a permanent irascible disease that weakens the bone
structure. The patient becomes immobile and bedridden.

Excess of nitrates in water causes Mathemoglobinemia or blue baby symptoms in infants. It

effects the hemoglobin in the blood and reduces its capacity to transport oxygen to the cells.
Nitrates in water are caused by industrial effluents, agricultural runoff. Toxic ions of
chromium, lead, arsenic and pesticides in water cause diseases affecting the kidney, liver and
high blood pressure, paralysis, cancer etc. These toxic substances are due to industrial
effluents reaching the surface and ground water sources.

Non –pathogenic bacteria

• These bacteria are harmless and certain conditions beneficial to the human beings animals and
crops.

• Such bacteria or microorganisms are called Non-pathogens.

Pathogenic bacteria

• Some bacteria are causing serious water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid etc.

• Most of the bacteria present in water require oxygen for their survival.

Depending upon the oxygen necessities they may be classified as follows

(i) Aerobic Bacteria –Those which require oxygen for their survival

(ii) Anaerobic bacteria –Those which flourish and thrive in the absence of free oxygen

(iii) Facultative bacteria –Those which can survive with or without free oxygen.

Water quality standards

Water quality standards are enforceable by law and are applicable to all navigable waters. The
goals of water quality standards are to protect public health and the Environment, and to maintain
a standard of water quality consistent with its designated uses. Water quality standards provide
the "teeth" for water quality legislation and also the yardstick by which performance may be
evaluated.

To establish water quality standards for a water body, officials (1) determine the designated
beneficial water use; (2) adopt suitable water quality criteria to protect and maintain that use; and
(3) develop a plan for implementing and enforcing the water quality criteria. Both uses and
criteria constitute water quality standards, and water quality is evaluated based on how well the
designated uses are supported.

- 35
Drinking water standards

S.no. Characterictics Normally Max.

acceptable Permisible
value limit
1. Temperature 10 °C – 15 °C -
2. Turbidity (N.T.U) 2.5 10
3. Colour (platinum 5.0 25
cobalt scale)
4. Taste and odour Unobjectionable
5. PH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
6. Total dissolved 500 1500
solids(mg/litre)
7. Total hardness mg/l 200 600
(as caco3)
8. Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l 200 1000
9. Sulphates (as So4) 200 400
mg/l
10. Nitrates ( as No3) 45 45
mg/l
11. Fluorides (as F) mg/l 1.0 1.5
12. Calcium (as Ca) mg/l 75 200
13. Magnesium (as mg) 30-120 150
mg/l
14. Iron (as Fe) mg/l 0.1 1.0
15. Manganese (As Mn) 0.05 0.5
mg/l
16. Phenolic 0.001 0.002
compounds
(as phenol)
mg/l
17. Arsenic (as mg) mg/l 0.05 0.05
18. Chromium (as cr+6) 0.05 0.05
mg/l
19. Cyanides (as CN) 0.05 0.05
mg/l
20. Coliform count Zero -
per 100ml of
water sample

- 36
- 37