E - VEHICLES

(21EC702)

UNIT – II
Batteries in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Dr. Bommegowda K. B.
Assistant Professor Grade-III
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 UNIT – II
Batteries in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles:

Battery Cell Structure, Battery parameters, Basic Battery

Model, Traction Batteries, Battery Management System, SoC
Measurement, Cell Balancing, Battery Charging.
15 Hours

2
 BACKGROUND

• Primary Energy
Energy as available in nature for conversion and usage by the
society.

Sources: fossil fuels, wind, solar, hydro, wave, tidal nuclear,

geothermal and biomass.

• Secondary Energy
When primary energy is transformed by one or more energy
conversion processes and/or devices.

• The parameter for energy content evaluation is specific energy or

energy density.

• Specific energy is the energy per unit mass of the energy source,
and its unit is Wh/kg.
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• One of the challenges of energy is to store it in a convenient form so
that it can be utilized when needed.

• In terms of storage, fossil fuels have the biggest advantage since

these can be conveniently stored in a container.

• On the other hand, electrical energy is very useful in delivering work

on demand using a highly efficiently electromechanical device;
however, energy storage in electrical form is not simple.

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• The electrochemical devices are the most promising alternative
technologies to the conventional fossil fuel burning power plants
both in a vehicle and utility power stations.

• Advantages of electrochemical energy conversion processes:

➢ high conversion efficiency
➢ large enough power output
➢ availability of a wide selection of fuels

• Batteries and fuel cells are energy storage and power generating
devices that are suitable for both portable and stationary
applications.

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• The basic requirement for EVs is a portable supply of electrical
energy converted to mechanical energy in the electric motor for
vehicle propulsion.

• Electrical energy is typically obtained through converting chemical

energy stored in devices such as batteries and fuel cells.

• EVs and HEVs that are available commercially today use batteries as
the electrical energy source.

• Important considerations:
➢ Power and energy densities
➢ Battery packaging
➢ Cell balancing
➢ Accurate SoC measurement
➢ Recycling facilities for battery components
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 Types of Batteries

Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries

can be recharged
Cannot be recharged
by flowing current in the
and are designed for
direction opposite to
a single discharge
that during discharge

Example: Example:
lithium batteries used in batteries needed & used for
watches, calculators, cameras electric and hybrid vehicles
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 Major types of rechargeable batteries used for electric and
hybrid vehicle applications are (NLLS)
2. a) explain major types of rechargeable batteries used in electric and hev applications.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)

Lithium-polymer (Li-poly) Sodium-Sulfur

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 BATTERY BASICS

• The batteries are made of unit cells containing the stored chemical
energy that can be converted to electrical energy.

• A cell refers to a single anode and cathode separated by an

electrolyte used to produce a voltage and current.

• Battery cells are containers that chemically store energy.

• The three most common shapes and forms are

➢ prismatic
➢ pouch
➢ cylindrical

• The battery cells are arranged in modules to achieve serviceable

units.
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10
3LR12 (4.5 V), D, C, AA, AAA, AAAA (1.5 V), A23 (12 V), PP3 (9 V), CR2032 (3 V),
and LR44 (1.5 V) batteries (Matchstick for reference)

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12
13
cell refers to a single anode and
cathode separated by an electrolyte Batteries are made of unit cells

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a single anode and cathode The grouped cells are enclosed
separated by an electrolyte in a casing to form a battery
used to produce a voltage module
and current.

collection of individual battery

modules connected in a series and/or
parallel combination to deliver the
desired voltage and energy 15
Fig. 1. Battery pack assembly

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Battery Characteristics

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Battery Cell Structure

• The available chemical energy in a cell is converted into electrical

energy only on demand using the basic components of a unit cell.

• The components are

➢ positive electrodes
➢ negative electrodes
➢ separators
➢ electrolytes

1 a) with a circuit symbol and cross-section, explain the components of battery cell.
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Components of a Battery Cell

(a) cell circuit symbol

(b) cell cross-section

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• metal or an alloy that is capable of being oxidized during cell discharge.
• It releases electrons to the external circuit during cell discharge.
• Ex: lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd).

• electrically insulating layer of

material, which physically separates
electrodes of opposite polarity.

• medium that permits ionic

conduction b/w positive & negative
electrodes of a cell.
• high & selective conductivity
• liquid, gel or solid material.
• acidic or alkaline depending on the
type of battery.

• oxide or sulfide that is capable of being reduced during cell discharge.

• It consumes electrons from the external circuit during cell discharge.
• Ex: lead oxide (PbO2), nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH). 20
Chemical Reactions (in Lead acid battery)

Cell discharge operation Cell charge operation

positive electrode is reduced by external electrical source supplies current into

consuming electrons and ions. the battery to reverse the chemical reactions.

electron supply is through the external lead sulfate is converted back to the reactant
circuit which originates at the negative states of lead and lead oxide.
electrode.
negative electrode is reduced during cell
during cell discharge, lead is oxidized charging absorbing electrons.
releasing electrons into the external
circuit 21
Battery Parameters
1. b) short notes on 1. 2. 5. 7.

1. Battery Capacity 8. Depth of Discharge (DoD)

2. Open-Circuit Voltage 9. Battery Energy
3. Terminal Voltage 10. Specific Energy (SE)
4. Practical Capacity 11. Battery Power
5. Discharge Rate 12. Specific Power (SP)
6. State of Charge (SoC) 13. Ragone Plots
7. State of Discharge (SoD)

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1. Battery Capacity

The amount of charge released The capacity is measured in Ah (1

by the energised material at an Ah=3,600C, where 1C is the charge
electrode is associated with the transferred in 1s by 1A current in
complete discharge of a battery. the SI unit of charge).

The theoretical capacity of a

battery can be obtained from
Faraday’s law of electrolysis

Faraday’s law can be written as

mR - mass of the limiting reactant material

Q - total amount of electric charge
F - Faraday number
Mm - molar mass
n – no. of electrons/ions produced at an electrode.
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theoretical capacity of a battery (in Coulomb)

x is the no. of moles of limiting reactant associated with the complete

discharge of the battery

The theoretical capacity in Ah is

The cells in a battery are connected in series and the capacity of the battery is
dictated by the smallest cell capacity. Therefore, QTbattery = QTcell.

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2. Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) (Internal Voltage)

The battery internal voltage appears at the battery terminals as open-circuit

voltage when there is no load connected to it.

• OCV depends on the SoC of the battery, temperature & past

discharge/charge history.
• As the battery is gradually discharged, the OCV decreases, while the internal
resistance increases.
• OCV is not a good indicator of the SoC.
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3. Terminal Voltage (Vt)
Voltage available at the terminals when a load is connected to the battery.

• The Vt is at its full charge voltage VFC when the battery is fully charged.

• Vcut is the battery cut-off voltage, where the discharge of the battery must be
terminated.

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4. Practical Capacity (Qp)
• It is the actual charge released by the energised material at an electrode
associated with the complete discharge of the battery.

• The practical capacity of a battery is

to - time at which battery is fully charged

tcut - time at which battery terminal voltage is at Vcut. Therefore, Vt(tcut) = Vcut.

• capacity depends on the

magnitude of discharge current.

• The smaller the magnitude of

the discharge current, the
higher the capacity of the
battery is.

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5. Discharge Rate
• It is the current at which a battery is discharged under constant current
characteristics.

• The rate is also known as C-rate which is expressed as Qp/h-rate,

QP - rated battery capacity; h - discharge time in hours.

• For a battery that has a capacity of QP Ah and is discharged over ∆t h, the

discharge rate is

C-rate: Charge/discharge current divided by the nominally rated battery

capacity.

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6. State of Charge (SoC)
▪ SoC represents the present capacity of the battery.
▪ It is the amount of capacity that remains after discharge from a top-of-
charge condition.

▪ The current is the rate of change of charge given by

• The instantaneous theoretical state of charge SoCT(t) is the amount of

equivalent charge remaining at the positive electrode and ready to be
released by the energized material.

• The SoC is often expressed as a % of the capacity of the battery

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7. State of Discharge (SoD)
▪ It is a measure of the charge that has been drawn from a battery during
discharge.

8. Depth of Discharge (DoD)

▪ It is the % of battery rated capacity to which a battery is discharged.

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9. Battery Energy
▪ Energy of a battery is measured in terms of the capacity & the discharge
voltage.
▪ Capacity of the battery must be expressed in coulombs (C).
▪ 1 Ah is equivalent to 3,600 C, while 1V refers to 1J of work required to move
1C charge from the -ve to +ve electrode.

• In general, the theoretical stored energy

Vbat - nominal no load terminal voltage; QT - theoretical capacity in C

• Theoretical energy

• The practical available energy is

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10. Specific Energy (SE)
▪ The SE of a battery in terms of discharge energy related to complete
discharge from fully charged condition.

• The unit for specific energy is Wh/kg

• Theoretical specific energy of a battery is

• If the mass of the battery MB is proportional to the mass of the limiting

reactant of the battery mR, then SET is independent of mass.

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11. Battery Power
▪ The instantaneous battery terminal power is

Vbat - battery terminal voltage; i - battery discharge current

Battery power characteristics

(p-i curve of battery characteristics)
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• Using the max. power transfer theorem, the battery can deliver max. power
to a DC load when the load impedance matches the battery internal
impedance.

Based on the ability of the battery to dissipate heat

Rated Continuous Power Rated Instantaneous Power

Max. power that the battery can Max. power that the battery can
deliver over prolonged discharge deliver over a very short
intervals discharge intervals

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12. Specific Power (SP)
▪ The specific power of a battery is

P - power delivered by battery; MB - mass of battery.

• Typically, lead acid battery’s max. SP is around 280 W/kg at DoD = 80 %.

13. Ragone Plots

▪ In electrochemical batteries, there is a decrease in charge capacity with
increasing currents - Ragone relationship.
▪ Ragone plots are obtained from constant power discharge tests or constant
current discharge plots.
▪ The plot of SP v/s SE on a log–log scale is known as the Ragone plot.
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 BATTERY MODELLING
2 b) write short notes on battery modelling

Benefits of Circuit Simulators in the Design &

Optimization of Electrical Circuits
• Reducing Prototyping Iterations
• Eliminating Physical Component Costs
• Accurate Voltage and Current Waveform Analysis
• Frequency Domain Analysis (AC Analysis)
• Transient Analysis
• Fine-tuning Component Values
• Simulating Circuits in the Context of PCB Layouts
• Ensuring Signal Integrity and PCB Layout Optimization
• Troubleshooting Techniques

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 BATTERY MODELLING

Battery models are useful for:

• Battery design
• Performance evaluation
• System simulation at the application level

Modelling aids research on:

• Device design
• Construction
• Materials
• Energy conversion process

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• At the most complex level, the fundamental physics and chemistry-
based theories are used to develop theoretical models of
electrochemical cells.

• These models reflect material properties and design factors on the

device performance.

• The strength of these models is in the information obtained on the

effect of design variables on performance during the design stage.

• Drawbacks of the theoretical models:

o Complexity
o Cannot be used to represent the device
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Depending on the simulation objective, the models can be represented by a
set of electrical circuit components / empirical relationship.

More complex than the empirical models,

Electric Circuit Models but are extremely useful for vehicle s/m
level analysis.

Models allow a quick evaluation on the

Empirical Models range of a vehicle based on the capacity
or energy density.

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1. Electric Circuit Models

• The equivalent electrical circuit models use lumped parameters that make
them suitable for integration in the simulation model of a larger s/m.

{representation of a physical s/m or circuit that assumes all components

are concentrated at a single point.}

• The models use a combination of circuit elements (R, L, C) & dependent

sources to give a circuit representation of the behaviour & functionality of
the electrochemical cell.

• The accuracy of these models is in b/w those of the theoretical models &
the empirical models.

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 Basic Battery Model

Run-Time Battery Model

Electric Circuit
Model
Impedance-Based Model

First Principle Model

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1. Basic Battery Model

• Simple electrical equivalent circuit model that incorporates the fundamental

principles.

• One of the key dynamics that has to be modelled is the diffusion process.

• An approximate solution to the change in diffusing charge has the same

form as that of a voltage across an RC circuit element.

• The effect on the terminal voltage due to diffusion charge will be

vd(t) - voltage dropped across the RdCd parallel circuit that is proportional to
the diffusion charge qd(t)

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 2. Run-Time Battery Model
• Prediction of SoC, transient response, terminal voltage, run-time and
temperature effects are possible.

• A run-time model capable of predicting the capacity of the battery has been
developed by Chen and Rincon-Mora.

The run-time battery model proposed by Chen and Rincon-Mora

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(a) SoC v/s OCV characteristics

(b) Discharge plot for calculating RC time constants

Experimental curves to obtain run-time model parameters

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 3. Impedance Based Model
• Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is applied to develop
equivalent AC impedance-based circuit representation of the battery
characteristics.

Impedance-based equivalent electric circuit battery model

Limitations:
• These are applicable only for a fixed SoC and temperature.
• prediction of DC response and run-time of a battery is difficult with
these models. 45
 4. First Principle Model
• ECM based on the fundamental electrochemical principles.
• It isolates & relates the physical and chemical fundamentals of an cell
to an equivalent circuit parameter.
• Model has discrete, lumped parameter representation of all the
electrochemical processes within the cell.
• This model incorporates the following phenomenon:
o Electrochemical Energy conversion
o Diffusion process
o Charge transfer polarization
o Concentration polarization
o Electrical double layer
o Ohmic resistance
o Self-discharge.
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 First principle battery model with constant current source

Bulk electrolyte concentration: C0

Diffusion process parameters: Cd(t)

Open-circuit voltage: E (t)

Charge transfer polarization: Ect

Double-layer capacitor: Cdbl

Concentration polarization: Ec(t)
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2. Empirical Models

• The simplest of all models were developed primarily for simple input-
output relationships of electrochemical devices.

• These models describe the performance of the device using arbitrary

mathematical relationships matched with experimental or theoretical
model data.

• The mathematical or empirical relationships are established by curve

fitting with experimental data.

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• One of the widely used empirical battery models is based on
Peukert’s equation relating discharge current with the battery
capacity

• The data obtained is used to fit Peukert’s equation to develop the

model as

I - constant discharge current

n, λ - curve fitting constants of a particular battery
n is a number between 1 and 2
n=1; smaller currents
n=2; larger currents.
tcut - time when the terminal voltage reaches the cut-off voltage

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 1. Range Prediction with Constant Current Discharge

• Peukert’s equation with constant current discharge characteristics

can be used to develop a fractional depletion model (FDM) of
batteries.

• FDM of a battery can be used to predict the range of an electric

vehicle.

• Using Peukert’s equation, we can establish the relationship between

Q and I.

• The practical capacity of a battery is

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 2. Range Prediction with Power Density Approach

• An alternative approach to using Peukert’s equation to develop a

battery model is through the use of its Ragone relationship.

• Ragone relationship and the corresponding plots are linear on the

log-log scale to a first-order approximation.

• Battery model in terms of SP and SE is

where n and λ are curve fitting constants.

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 TRACTION BATTERIES
• An EV traction battery is rechargeable energy storage that quickly
supplies power to the electric motor, giving EVs high performance &
rapid acceleration.
▪ Lead-Acid Battery
▪ Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) Battery
▪ Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Battery
▪ Li-Based Batteries
• Li-Ion Battery
• Li-Polymer Battery
▪ Zinc-air Battery
▪ Sodium-Sulfur Battery
▪ Sodium-Metal-Chloride Battery
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 Battery Management System (BMS)
3. b) what is bms? explain its design requirements.

• A BMS is an embedded system, purpose-built electronics plus

processing to enable a specific application.

• IEEE Standard defines a BMS as “A permanently installed system for

measuring, storing, and reporting battery operating parameters.”

• The BMS includes:

✓ Monitoring the battery
✓ Providing battery protection
✓ Estimating the battery’s operational state
✓ Continually optimising battery performance
✓ Reporting operational status to external devices
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54
 Primary Purposes/Benefits of BMS

1. Functional Safety:
• Detect unsafe operating conditions and respond.
• Disconnecting & isolating the battery pack from the load.
• Warning the operator by some display or alert.

2. Protect Cells of the Battery Pack:

• Protect cells from damage in abuse or failure cases.
• Active intervention under software control can detect failure.
• Isolate the failing components from the rest of the battery
pack.

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3. Life Span and Reliability:
• Battery pack protection management, electrical and thermal,
ensures that all the cells are used within declared SOA
requirements.

4. Performance and Range:

• BMS battery pack capacity management, where cell-to-cell
balancing is employed to equalize the SOC of adjacent cells
across the pack assembly.

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 Battery-Pack Topology

• To achieve a design requirement of max. power, the battery-pack

engineer must make decisions regarding the topology of the pack.

• Individual cell fixes their voltage range; for high-voltage packs, we

must connect multiple cells in series.

• Groups of cells termed modules are designed to have a max. voltage

< 50V for safety.

• Battery-pack total voltage is kept to <600V because PE that operates

at higher voltages are presently very expensive.

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Approaches to modularizing 300 cells in a high-power battery pack: PCM versus SCM.

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Wires cells in parallel to make
modules then wires modules in
series to create a battery pack.

Configures 300 cells by wiring 3

cells in parallel to make a PCM,
& then wiring 100 PCMs in series
to make the pack.

Wires cells in series to make

modules then wires modules in
parallel to make a battery pack.

Configures 300 cells by wiring

100 cells in series to make an
SCM, and then wiring three
SCMs in parallel to make the
pack.

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 BMS Design Requirements
• The BMS is interconnected with all major components in the battery pack.

• These include the battery stack, comprising all of the cells, the sensing and
control electronics, and at least some part of the thermal management
system.

The context of the BMS inside the battery pack

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 Functional Requirements of BMS

1. Sensing and high-voltage control:

• The BMS must measure cell voltages, module temperatures,
and battery-pack current.
• Detect isolation faults & control the contactors and the
thermal management system.

2. Protection:
• Include electronics and logic to protect the operator of the
battery-powered system and the battery pack itself against
overcharge, over-discharge, overcurrent, cell short circuits,
and extreme temperatures.

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3. Interface:
• BMS must communicate regularly with the application that the
battery pack powers, reporting available energy & power and
other indicators of battery-pack status.
• It must record unusual errors or abuse events.

4. Performance management:
• Able to estimate the SoC for all the cells of the battery pack.
• Compute battery-pack available energy & power limits, &
balance cells in the battery pack.

5. Diagnostics:
• Able to estimate SoH, and SoL including detecting abuse of the
battery cells & pack.
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 The battery-management system main algorithm control loop

• Development of equivalent-circuit-based algorithms for battery

management.

• These algorithms are invoked repeatedly within the main BMS

control loop.
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battery-pack current, health estimate for battery-pack energy and
cell voltages, & every cell is updated power limits are calculated
temperatures are and transmitted to the
measured. load management system.

State of every battery

cell is estimated, Cells having unequal
which includes SOCs may be balanced
computing an at this point
estimate of SOC 64
 Benefits of Accurate SoC Estimation
1. Longevity:
• Over charging / over discharging a battery cell may cause
permanent damage and result in a reduced lifetime.
• An accurate SoC estimate is necessary to guarantee that the
battery pack is never over charged / over discharged.

2. Performance:
• Without a good SoC estimator, one must be overly
conservative when using the battery pack to avoid over
charge / over discharge due to trusting the poor estimate.

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3. Reliability:
• Poor estimators behave differently for different battery pack
usage profiles.
• A good SoC estimator is consistent and dependable for any
profile, enhancing overall power-system reliability.

4. Density:
• Accurate state of charge & battery-state information allow the
battery pack to be used aggressively within its design limits.
• This allows smaller, lighter battery packs.

5. Economy:
• Smaller battery systems cost less. Reliable battery systems
incur lower levels of warranty-servicing costs.
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 Model Based State Estimation
4. b) what is State of Charge? explain various approaches to estimate SOC.

• An alternative to a voltage-only method or a current-only method

is to combine the approaches.

• We can use a model of cell input/output (current/voltage)

behaviors, within a model-based estimation approach.

• The resulting method will also estimate SoC and all other internal
states of the model.

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The model-based estimation approach

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• The top branch shows the operation of the actual cell - True system.

• Complicating the issue is the fact that current & voltage sensor
measurements are both noisy.

• Model the uncertainty in the current as a Process noise.

• Model the uncertainty in the voltage as a Sensor noise.

• Model-based estimation measures the true system’s state, first

measure the input to the true system, and propagate that same
input through a model of the system.
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 Battery Charging

• The charging of secondary batteries is accomplished in several

phases using different charging currents.

• The phases are structured based on the battery chemistry to

minimize the damage on the cells.

1. Bulk Charging Phase

2. Absorption Charging Phase

3. Equalization Phase

4. Float Charge Phase

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Multi-step charging profile with PWM control

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when the cells are charged with the starts once the battery is fully
max. current to replenish most of charged to compensate for
the charge lost during discharge energy lost over time due to
self-discharge.

The last few % of

SoC are replenished

Fully charge
& balance all the cells
in the battery pack

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 Cell Balancing
3. a) what is cell balancing? explain various generic arch that maybe used in a cell-balancing
system.
• A balanced battery pack is one in which, at some point in its cycle, all
the cells are at exactly the same SOC.

• There are other ways of thinking about what the distribution of SoCs
should be in a balanced battery pack at any point of time.

• If this balancing condition is not met, then one or more cells has SoC
that is too high & one or more cells has SoC that is too low w.r.t. the
balancing condition.

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• We must somehow modify the SoCs of specific cells individually to
bring the battery pack into balance.

Two Basic Approaches

Dissipative (Passive) Balancing

Nondissipative (Active) Balancing

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Dissipative (Passive) Balancing

• Works by draining charge from cells having too much charge with
respect to the balancing condition and dissipates the drained
energy as heat.
• Only passive circuit elements were used to equalize the cells.

Nondissipative (Active) Balancing

• Works by moving charge from cells having too much charge either
to cells having too little charge or to an auxiliary load circuit.
• It attempts to conserve energy by redistributing charge among cells
so that more energy is available to the load.
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The primary advantage of dissipative balancing approaches,
compared with Nondissipative designs, is the circuitry's simplicity
(lower cost).
4. a) drawbacks of dissipative balancing approaches used in cell balancing?

The drawbacks are:

• Energy that might otherwise be used productively is wasted as heat.
• In a balance-at-top design, energy remains in some cells when the
weakest cell is completely discharged.
• Heat is generated (power dissipation).
• Battery-pack life could be shorter than a pack with a Nondissipative
balancing design.

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 Circuits for Balancing

Taxonomy of cell-balancing circuits

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Before designing balancing methods, we first discuss why balancing is
important.

An out-of-balance series connected battery pack

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▪ Causes of Imbalance

▪ Not causes of Imbalance

▪ When to Balance?

▪ How to Balance?

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▪ Causes of Imbalance

Battery-pack imbalance Imbalance growing during charge

growing over time

Imbalance growing during discharge

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▪ Not Causes of Imbalance

Differences in total capacities do not cause long-term growth in imbalance

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