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HL IB Biology Your notes

Neural Signalling
Contents
Neurones: Function & Structure
Nerve Impulses
Nerve Impulses: Skills
Synapses
Action Potentials (HL)
Interpreting Oscilloscope Traces: Skills (HL)
Nerve Conduction Velocity (HL)
Synaptic Transmission (HL)
Neurones in the Brain (HL)

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Neurones: Function & Structure

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Neurones: Function & Structure
The nervous system
The human nervous system consists of:
Central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all of the nerves in the body
It allows us to make sense of our surroundings and respond to them, and to coordinate and regulate
body functions
Information is sent through the nervous system in the form of electrical impulses – these are electrical
signals that pass along nerve cells known as neurones
A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve
The nerves spread out from the central nervous system to all other regions of the body and
importantly, to all of the sense organs
The CNS acts as a central coordinating centre for the impulses that come in from, and are sent out
to, any part of the body
Central Nervous System Diagram

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Your notes

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The human nervous system is comprised of the CNS and the PNS
Neurones
The following features are found in neurones:
Neurones have a main, long, fibre known as an axon

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The axon is often insulated by Schwann cells which form the myelin sheath which prevents loss of
nerve impulses along the axon
They have a cell body that contains the nucleus and other cellular structures Your notes
Their cell bodies and axon terminals contain many extensions called dendrites
These dendrites allow them to connect to many other neurones and receive impulses from them,
forming a network for easy communication
Structure of a Neurone Diagram

Neurones have a characteristically elongated structure which allows them to transfer information
between the central nervous system and the rest of the body
Different types of neurone
There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
Sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the CNS (brain or spinal cord)
Relay (intermediate) neurones are found entirely within the CNS and connect sensory and motor
neurones
Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
Each type of neurone has a slightly different structure
Motor neurones have:
A large cell body at one end that lies within the spinal cord or brain
A nucleus that is always in its cell body

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Many highly-branched dendrites extending from the cell body, providing a large surface area for
the axon terminals of other neurones
Relay neurones have: Your notes
Short, but highly branched, axons and dendrites
Sensory neurones have:
A cell body that branches off in the middle of the cell
A single long dendron that carries impulses to the cell body and a single long axon that carries
impulses away from the cell body
Three Types of Neurone Diagram

The three types of neurone – the red line shows the direction of impulses. Note that the axon always
carried impulses away from the cell body.

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Nerve Impulses
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Generating the Resting Potential
Neurones transmit information in the form of impulses, which travel extremely quickly along the
neurone from one end to the other
Note that an impulse is not an electrical current that flows along neurones as if they were wires
Instead, an impulse is a momentary reversal in the electrical potential difference across the
neurone cell surface membrane
The electrical potential difference across a membrane can also be described as the voltage
across a membrane, the difference in charge across a membrane, or the membrane potential
In an axon that is not transmitting an impulse the inside of the axon always has a negative electrical
potential, or charge, compared to outside the axon, which has a positive electrical potential
This membrane potential in a resting neurone is known as resting potential
The resting potential is usually about -70 millivolts (mV)
This means that the inside of the resting axon has a more negative electrical charge than the
outside by about 70 mV
Two main processes contribute to establishing and maintaining resting potential:
The active transport of sodium ions and potassium ions
A difference in rates of diffusion of sodium ions and potassium ions
In addition to these two main processes, negatively charged proteins inside the axon also contribute
to the negative resting potential
The active transport of sodium ions and potassium ions
Carrier proteins called sodium-potassium pumps are present in the cell surface membranes of
neurones
These pumps use ATP to actively transport sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the axon and potassium ions (K⁺)
into the axon
The two types of ion are pumped at an unequal rate; for every 3 sodium ions that are pumped out of
the axon, only 2 potassium ions are pumped in
This creates a concentration gradient across the membrane for both sodium ions and potassium ions
Difference in rates of diffusion of sodium ions and potassium ions
Because of the concentration gradient generated by the sodium-potassium pumps, both sodium
and potassium ions will diffuse back across the membrane
The neurone cell surface membrane has sodium ion channels and potassium ion
channels that allow sodium and potassium ions to move across the membrane by facilitated
diffusion
The neurone membrane is much less permeable to sodium ions than potassium ions, so potassium
ions inside the neurone can diffuse out at a faster rate than sodium ions can diffuse back in
This results in far more positive ions on the outside of the neurone than on the inside, generating a
negative charge inside the neurone in relation to the outside
The result of this is that the neurone has a resting membrane potential of around -70 millivolts
(mV)

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Resting Potential Diagram

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Sodium-potassium pumps in the membrane of a resting neurone generate a concentration gradient for
both sodium ions and potassium ions. This process, together with the facilitated diffusion of potassium
ions back out of the cell at a faster rate than sodium ions diffuse back into the cell, generates a negative
resting potential across the membrane.
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Nerve Impulses
Once resting potential is reached, the neurone membrane is said to be polarised Your notes
To initiate a nerve impulse in a neurone, the neurone membrane needs to be depolarised
Depolarisation is the reversal of the electrical potential difference across the membrane
The depolarisation of the membrane occurs when an action potential is generated
Action potentials lead to the reversal of resting potential from around -70 mV to around +40 mV
Action potentials involve the rapid movement of sodium ions and potassium ions across the
membrane of the axon
An action potential is the potential electrical difference produced across the axon membrane when a
neurone is stimulated e.g. when an environmental stimulus is detected by a receptor cell

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Nerve Impulses: Skills

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Speed of Nerve Impulses
Comparing the speed of transmission
There are well documented correlations between specific structural features of neurones and the
speed of transmission
Two key features that should be considered include
Myelination of the neurone
Myelinated neurones conduct electrical impulses much more quickly than unmyelinated
fibres
This is because of the insulation offered by the myelin sheath which allows faster saltatory
conduction along the neurone
Diameter of the neuron
An axon with a wider diameter conducts an electrical impulse more quickly than a narrow axon
This is because a wider axon offers less resistance to the action potential
Squid have giant axons which are unmyelinated and can be up to 1 mm wide, whereas the average
diameter of a human neurone is somewhere between 4 and 100 µm
The graph shows the relationship between axon diameter and speed of transmission in a giant
unmyelinated axon from a squid and a 'normal' sized myelinated axon of a mammal
Despite the axon being significantly wider, the speed of transmission is much faster in the axon which is
insulated by a myelin sheath
Comparing Speed of Nerve Transmission Graph

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Unmyelinated axons have a much slower speed of conduction compared to a myelinated axon
Myelination
Neurones have a main, long, fibre known as an axon
The axons of neurones are surrounded by specialised cells called Schwann cells
Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axon, forming a structure known as a myelin sheath
Myelin contains the phospholipids of the Schwann cell membranes; it is built up in layers as the
Schwann cells grow around the axon
The lipid content of the myelin sheath gives it a high electrical resistance
The myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator; impulses cannot pass through the myelin sheath
The myelin sheath has small, uninsulated sections in the gaps between the individual Schwann cells
These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier
Electrical impulses effectively jump from one node of Ranvier to the next
This process is known as saltatory conduction
It greatly speeds up the rate of transmission of impulses along myelinated neurones
In non-myelinated neurones the axon is not insulated by myelin, so the impulse travels more slowly
Diagram to show the myelination of neurones

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Your notes

An impulse travels down a neurone via saltatory conduction

Describing a correlation using a correlation coefficient
When studying the relationship between two variables such as diameter or myelination and speed of
transmission, it is important to collect data which allows us to analyse the strength of the correlation
Correlation is an association or relationship between variables
There is a clear distinction between correlation and causation: a correlation does not necessarily
imply a causative relationship
Causation occurs when one variable has an influence or is influenced by, another
For the variables discussed here:
There may be a correlation between diameter of a neurone and the speed of impulse conduction
There may be a correlation between the myelination of a neurone and speed of impulse
conduction
The apparent correlation between variables can be analysed using scatter graphs and different
statistical tests

Correlation between variables

In order to get a broad overview of the correlation between two variables the data points for both
variables can be plotted on a scatter graph
The correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength of the relationship between variables

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Perfect correlation occurs when all of the data points lie on a straight line with a correlation
coefficient of 1 or -1
Correlation can be positive or negative Your notes
Positive correlation: as variable A increases, variable B increases
Negative correlation: as variable A increases, variable B decreases
If there is no correlation between variables the correlation coefficient will be 0
Correlation in Data Graphs

Different types of correlation in scatter graphs

The correlation coefficient (R) can be calculated to determine whether a linear relationship exists
between variables and how strong that relationship is
The coefficient of determination (R2) can then be calculated to test the strength of the association
between the variables

Pearson's linear correlation

Pearson's linear correlation is a statistical test that determines whether there is linear correlation
between two variables
The data must:
Be quantitative
Show normal distribution
Method:
Step 1: Create a scatter graph of data gathered and identify if a linear correlation exists
Step 2: State a null hypthessis
Step 3: Use the following equation to work out Pearson’s correlation coefficient r
If the correlation coefficient r is close to 1 or -1 or the then it can be stated that there is a strong linear
correlation between the two variables and the null hypothesis can be rejected

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n (Σxy ) − (Σx ) (Σy )

R=n
2 2⎤ ⎡ 2 2⎤
⎣ nΣx − (Σx ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ nΣy − (Σy ) ⎥⎦
⎡⎢
Your notes
∑x = total of the first variable value

∑y = total of the second variable value

∑xy = sum of the product of the first and second value

∑x2 = sum of the squares of the first value

∑y2 = sum of the squares of the second value

The coefficient of determination

The coefficient of determination ( R 2) = ( Pearson correlation coefficient ) 2
The to find the coefficient of determination...
Method:
Step 1: Square the value found for R
Step 2: Convert the value into a percentage
2
An R value of closer to 1 (or 100%) shows that the variables have a strong correlation, or, you can
predict the dependent variable accurately from the independent variable
The null hypothesis can be rejected
An R2 value closer to 0 indicates that there is no correlation, or, the dependent variable cannot be
predicted from the independent variable

Examiner Tip
You will be provided with the formula for Pearson’s linear correlation in the exam. You need to be able
to carry out the calculation to test for correlation, as you could be asked to do this in the exam. You
should understand when it is appropriate to use the different statistical tests that crop up in this topic,
and the conditions in which each is valid.

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Synapses
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Synapses
Where two neurones meet, they do not actually come into physical contact with each other
Instead, a very small gap, known as the synaptic cleft, separates them
The ends of the two neurones, along with the synaptic cleft, form a structure known as a synapse
Synapses act as the junctions between any cells in the nervous system, e.g.
In the sense organs, there are synapses between sensory receptor cells and sensory neurones
In muscles, there are synapses between motor neurones and muscle fibres
Structure of a Synapse Diagram

A synapse

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Release of Neurotransmitters
Synaptic transmission: How do synapses work? Your notes
Electrical impulses cannot ‘jump’ across the synaptic cleft
When an electrical impulse arrives at the end of the axon on the presynaptic neurone, the membrane
of the presynaptic neurone becomes depolarised, triggering an influx of calcium ions into the
presynaptic cell via calcium ion channels in the membrane
The calcium ions cause vesicles in the presynaptic neurone to move towards the presynaptic
membrane where they fuse with it and release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft
A common neurotransmitter is acetylcholine, or ACh
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptor molecules on the
postsynaptic membrane; this causes associated sodium ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane
to open, allowing sodium ions to diffuse into the postsynaptic cell
If enough neurotransmitter molecules bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane then an
action potential is generated, which then travels down the axon of the postsynaptic neurone
The neurotransmitters are then broken down to prevent continued stimulation of the postsynaptic
neurone
The enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine is acetylcholinesterase

Transmission of a Nerve Impulse Diagram

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Your notes

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Synaptic transmission using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

Unidirectionality
Synapses ensure the one-way transmission of impulses
Impulses can only pass in one direction at synapses because neurotransmitter is released on one side
and its receptors are on the other – chemical transmission cannot occur in the opposite direction
This prevents impulses from travelling the wrong way

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Generating a Postsynaptic Potential

There are over 40 different known neurotransmitters Your notes
Examples include dopamine and noradrenaline
One of the key neurotransmitters used throughout the nervous system is acetylcholine (ACh)
ACh is produced in the presynaptic neurone by combing choline with an acetyl group
Synapses that use the neurotransmitter ACh are known as cholinergic synapses
Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft when ACh-containing vesicles fuse with the
presynaptic membrane, releasing ACh molecules into the synaptic cleft
ACh binds to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, where it can generate an action
potential in the postsynaptic cell by opening associated sodium ion channels to allow sodium ions
into the cytoplasm of the postsynaptic neurone until the threshold level is achieved
To prevent the sodium ion channels staying permanently open and to stop permanent depolarisation
of the postsynaptic membrane, the ACh molecules are broken down and recycled
The enzyme acetylcholinesterase catalyses the hydrolysis of ACh molecules into acetate and
choline
The products of hydrolysis are then absorbed back into the presynaptic neurone, and the active
neurotransmitter ACh is reformed

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Action Potentials (HL)

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Depolarisation & Repolarisation
An action potential is generated when a stimulus causes an influx of positively charged sodium ions
into the axon of the neurone
This leads to depolarisation of the membrane of the neurone, the action potential then moves through
the neurone in a wave of depolarisation and repolarisation events as follows:
Depolarisation
Some of the ion channels in the membrane of a neurone are voltage gated, meaning that they open
and close in response to changes in the electrical potential across the membrane
Voltage gated ion channels are closed when the membrane is at rest, but they are involved in the
generation and transmission of action potentials
Note that not all of the channels in a neurone membrane are voltage gated e.g. some types of
potassium ion channel are open when a neurone is at rest to enable potassium ions to diffuse out
of the axon and generate resting potential
When a neurone is stimulated, the following steps occur:
A small number of sodium ion channels in the axon membrane open
Sodium ions begin to move into the axon down their concentration gradient
There is a greater concentration of sodium ions outside the axon than inside due to the action
of sodium-potassium pumps
This reduces the potential difference across the axon membrane as the inside of the axon
becomes less negative
If enough sodium ions enter the axon and the potential difference is reduced enough, voltage
gated sodium ion channels open, leading to a further, large influx of sodium ions
Once the charge has been reversed from -70 mV to around +40 mV, an action potential is said to
have been generated
How an action potential is propagated
Once an action potential has been generated, it can be propagated, or transmitted, along the length
of the axon
The depolarisation of the membrane at the site of the first action potential causes sodium ions to
diffuse along the cytoplasm into the next section of the axon, depolarising the membrane in this
new section, and causing voltage gated sodium channels to open
This triggers another action potential in this section of the axon membrane
This process then repeats along the length of the axon
In the body, this allows action potentials to begin at one end of an axon and then pass along the entire
length of the axon membrane
Propagation of Nerve Impulse Diagram

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Your notes

How an impulse is propagated in one direction along the axon of a neurone

Repolarisation
About 1 ms after an action potential is generated, all the voltage gated sodium channels in this section
of membrane close
Voltage gated potassium channels in this section of axon membrane now open, allowing the diffusion
of potassium ions out of the axon, down their concentration gradient
Remember that the sodium-potassium pumps have not stopped working during the action
potential; hence the potassium ion gradient is still present

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This movement of potassium ions causes the inside of the axon to become negatively charged again,
a process known as repolarisation
There is a short period during which the membrane potential is more negative than resting Your notes
potential; this is known as hyperpolarisation
The period during which the membrane is hyperpolarised is known as the refractory period
The membrane is unresponsive to stimulation during the refractory period, so a new action
potential cannot be generated at this time
This makes the action potentials discrete events and means the impulse can only travel in one
direction
This is essential for the successful and efficient transmission of nerve impulses along neurones
The voltage gated potassium channels then close, and the sodium-potassium pumps work to restore
resting potential
Only once resting potential is restored can the membrane be stimulated again
Action Potential Graph

The depolarisation and repolarisation of an action potential can be clearly seen in a graph of membrane
potential against time
An action potential is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached
When a neurone is stimulated, sodium ion channels in the axon membrane open and sodium ions pass
into the axon down their concentration gradient

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This causes the inside of the axon to become less negative, but exactly how much less negative it
becomes is dependent on the number of sodium ion channels that open
A large stimulus will cause more channels to open than a small stimulus Your notes
If more channels open, then more sodium ions will enter the axon, causing it to become less
negative
If the potential difference reaches around -50 mV, known as the threshold potential, voltage gated
sodium ion channels open and many more sodium ions enter the axon
This causes the membrane potential to reach around +40 mV
Once the charge has been reversed from -70 mV to +40 mV, an action potential is generated
The all-or-nothing principle
Action potentials are either generated or not generated depending on whether the threshold potential
is reached; there is no such thing as a small or large action potential
If a stimulus is weak, only a few sodium ion channels will open and the membrane won’t be
sufficiently depolarised to reach the threshold potential; an action potential will not be generated
If a stimulus is strong enough to raise the membrane potential above the threshold potential then
an action potential will be generated
This is the all-or-nothing principle
An impulse is only transmitted if the initial stimulus is sufficient to increase the membrane
potential above a threshold potential
Stimulus size can be detected by the brain because as the intensity of a stimulus increases, the
frequency of action potentials transmitted along the neurone increases
This means that a small stimulus may only lead to one action potential, while a large stimulus may
lead to several action potentials in a row
Depolarisation Diagram

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Your notes

As the strength of a stimulus increases beyond the threshold potential, the frequency of action
potentials increases

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Local Currents
The propagation of nerve impulses along axons occurs due to local currents that cause each Your notes
successive section of the axon to reach the threshold potential
Inside the depolarised section of the axon
There is a high concentration of sodium ions due to their recent influx
This creates a concentration gradient between the section of the axon that has depolarised and
the neighbouring section
Sodium ions diffuse within the axon to the neighbouring section of axon that has not yet
depolarised
This reduces the negative membrane potential in the new section of axon and, if a threshold is
reached, begins the initiation of an action potential
This enables the original action potential to be propagated
On the outside of the axon
There is a higher concentration of sodium ions outside the section of axon that has not yet
depolarised due to the diffusion of sodium ions into the depolarised section
Sodium ions diffuse from here along the outside of the axon to the section of axon that has just
become depolarised
These movements of sodium ions are known as local currents
These local currents cause a wave of depolarisation and repolarisation to travel along the axon,
resulting in the propagation of a nerve impulse
Propagation of Nerves Impulses Diagram

The propagation of nerve impulses along axons occurs due to local currents created by the diffusion of
sodium ions

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Interpreting Oscilloscope Traces: Skills (HL)

Your notes
Interpreting Oscilloscope Traces
It is possible to measure membrane potentials in neurones by placing electrodes on each side of the
membrane
A membrane potential is the difference in charge between one side of a membrane and the other,
sometimes described as the potential difference, or the voltage
The membrane potential can then be visually represented and displayed using an oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument that graphically displays varying signal
voltages
The display produced is like a graph with time in milliseconds on the x-axis and the membrane
potential in millivolts on the y-axis
How to analyse oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials
If there is a resting potential, a straight, horizontal line should be shown on the display screen of the
oscilloscope at a level of -70 mV
If an action potential occurs a spike, rising up to a maximum voltage of between +30 and +40
mV, should be shown on the display
The rising phase of the spike shows depolarisation
The falling phase of the spike shows repolarisation
Often not shown on an action potential graph is the gradual rise in membrane potential just before the
membrane rapidly depolarises
Before threshold potential is reached, only a small number of sodium channels in the membrane
are open, so the membrane depolarises slowly, but when the threshold is reached many more
sodium channels open
Instead of repolarisation causing the membrane potential to return immediately to the normal resting
potential of -70 mv, the trace often shows a short period of hyperpolarisation
This is when the membrane potential briefly becomes more negative than resting potential

Oscilloscope Trace Graph

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Your notes

An example of an oscilloscope trace showing resting potential and an action potential

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Nerve Conduction Velocity (HL)

Your notes
Saltatory Conduction
By insulating the axon membrane, the presence of myelin increases the speed at which action
potentials can travel along the neurone:
The myelin sheath is formed from Schwann cells
In sections of the axon that are surrounded by a myelin sheath, depolarisation (and the action
potentials that this would lead to) cannot occur, as the myelin sheath stops the diffusion of
sodium ions and potassium ions
There are small, uninsulated sections of the axon, called the nodes of Ranvier, which contain
clusters of ion pumps and channels which allow the action potential to occur
As a result, the action potentials ‘jump’ from one node to the next, this is known as saltatory
conduction
The local circuits of current that trigger depolarisation in the next section of the axon membrane
exist between the nodes of Ranvier
Saltatory conduction allows the impulse to travel much faster (up to 50 times faster) than in an
unmyelinated axon of the same diameter

Saltatory Conduction Diagram

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Your notes

Transmission of an action potential in a myelinated axon by saltatory conduction

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Synaptic Transmission (HL)

Your notes
Effects of Exogenous Chemicals
Neonicotinoids
Neonicotinoids are synthetic compounds similar to nicotine that are commonly found in pesticides
Neonicotinoids can block synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding to
acetylcholine receptors
This binding is irreversible, as acetylcholinesterase cannot break down neonicotinoids
As the acetylcholine receptors are blocked, acetylcholine is unable to bind, which stops impulses
from being transmitted across synapses
This leads to paralysis and death in insects
Neonicotinoids are considered to be especially suitable as pesticides because they're not toxic to
humans and other mammals
A much larger proportion of synapses in insects are cholinergic compared to mammals
Neonicotinoids bind much more strongly to acetylcholine receptors in insects
There is a great deal of controversy over the use of neonicotinoid pesticides because of the impact
that they are thought to have on essential pollinators such as bees

Cocaine
Cocaine is a drug which blocks the reuptake of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic knob
Primarily cocaine affects reuptake of dopamine as it binds to the dopamine transporter protein
This prevents dopamine from binding to the transporter so it is not able to move through the
membrane back into the presynaptic neurone
As a result dopamine builds up in the synapses which can lead to feelings of pleasure
Cocaine also blocks the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine which enhances feelings of
confidence and energy
In regular users of cocaine, the brain responds by increases numbers of dopamine receptors to
respond to the high levels of dopamine
Once levels return to normal, more dopamine receptors results in increased sensitivity and
depression

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Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials

Some neurotransmitters result in the generation of an action potential in a postsynaptic neurone Your notes
Other neurotransmitters can prevent the generation of an action potential in a postsynaptic neurone
This is inhibition - the impulse stops at the synapse
One way in which a neurotransmitter can inhibit an impulse is by opening the gated potassium ion
channels in the membrane so that potassium ions are able to diffuse out of the cell body
The result is that the postsynaptic neurone becomes even more negatively charged, or
hyperpolarised
If the neurone is hyperpolarised, the threshold will not be reached when the neurone is stimulated
and an action potential cannot be triggered
If the cell body of a motor neurone is subject to both excitatory and inhibitory synapses at the same
time the following happens:
Sodium ions enter the cell body following stimulation by the excitatory synapse
The stimulation of the inhibitory synapse causes potassium ions to diffuse out of the cell body
This cancels out the effect of the sodium ions entering
The threshold potential is not reached so no action potential is generated
Inhibitory Synapse Diagram

The inhibitory synapse (Y) causes the membrane potential to decrease, cancelling out the effect of the
excitatory synapse (X) so that the threshold is not reached and no action potential is generated

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Inhibitory synapses play a vital role in the nervous circuit

They prevent random impulses from being sent around the body
They allow for specific pathways to be stimulated Your notes
For example, reflex actions should be rapid but specific
If an individual grabs a plank of wood that has a nail sticking out they need their arm muscles to pull
their hand away
It would be unhelpful if their leg muscles contracted and moved their foot away
Inhibitory pathways can develop over time
These pathways are very important for skills such as painting and drawing
Children initially struggle with these skills as their inhibitory pathways have not yet developed to
refine their uncontrolled movements

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Summation of Neurotransmitter Effects in Postsynaptic Neuron

When an impulse arrives at a synapse it does not always cause impulses to be generated in the next Your notes
neurone
In some cases, a single impulse that arrives at a synaptic knob is insufficient to generate an action
potential in the post-synaptic neurone, for instance
Only a small amount of acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft
A small number of the gated ion channels are opened in the axon membrane
An insufficient number of sodium ions pass through the membrane
The threshold potential is not reached
The small amount of acetylcholine attached to receptors is broken down rapidly by
acetylcholinesterase
The effect of multiple impulses can be added together to overcome this in a process known as
summation
There are two types of summation:
Temporal
Spatial
There are several benefits of summation
It allows for the effect of a stimulus to be magnified
A combination of different stimuli can trigger a response
It avoids the nervous system being overwhelmed by impulses
Synapses act as a barrier and slow down the rate of transmission of a nerve impulse that has to
travel along two or more neurones
They only allow the impulses to pass on if there has been input from other neurones and
receptors
Temporal summation
If multiple impulses arrive within quick succession the effect of the impulses can be added
together to generate an action potential
A large amount of acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft
A large number of the gated ion channels open
A sufficient number of sodium ions pass through the membrane
Spatial summation
Multiple impulses arriving simultaneously at different synaptic knobs stimulating the same cell
body can also generate an action potential through spatial summation
The multiple impulses result in a large amount of acetylcholine being released into the synaptic
cleft which results in the generation of an action potential
Temporal and Spatial Summation Diagram

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Your notes

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Temporal summation involves only one synaptic knob whereas spatial summation involves multiple
synaptic knobs. The different types of summation produce different shaped graphs.
Your notes

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Neurones in the Brain (HL)

Your notes
Perception of Pain
Pain receptors (nociceptors) are sensory receptors
These receptors have free nerve endings which are unencapsulated nerve endings
The exposed dendrites on these nerves have transient receptor potential (TRP) channels which open
in response to stimuli which indicate a risk of damaged tissue
Stimuli might include:
High temperature
Acid
Chemicals e.g. capsaicin in chilli peppers
Entry of positively charged ions causes the threshold potential to be reached
An action potential is generated, it moves along the axon of the sensory neurone to the central
nervous system
Nerve impulses then pass through the neurones to the cerebral cortex in the brain, where pain is
perceived and a protective response results
The sensitivity of an organism to these stimuli provides a survival and reproductive advantage
Pain Receptors Diagram

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Your notes

Pain receptors in the skin can respond to a number of different stimuli as the nerve endings are exposed

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Interaction of Neurones in the Brain

The cerebrum Your notes
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain in humans (accounts for about 80% of the total mass of
the brain)
The cerebrum carries out a large variety of functions involved with conscious activities, including:
Vision
Hearing
Speech
Thinking
Memory
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, each of which have a thin outer layer known as the
cerebral cortex or 'grey matter'
The cerebral cortex consists of the cell bodies of neurones
It is highly folded, which increases its surface area and allows it to contain a greater number of
neurones
With more neurones in the brain, more connections between neurones can be made
This is important, as the more connections between neurones in the brain, the greater the ability of
the brain to carry out more complex behaviours
These behaviours that result from a combination of complex pathways, are called emergent
properties
It is in this part of the brain where interactions between neurones lead to consciousness
This idea of consciousness incorporates qualitative perception of feelings associated with
colour, temperature, sound as well as communication which results in a complex awareness of the
environment
The structure and function of the brain as an organ is covered in more detail here

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