SHREE H. N. SHUKLA COLLEGE OF I.T. & MGMT.

(AFFILIATED TO SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY)

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B.C.A./B.Sc.IT-SEMESTER-2
SUB :- DS

Shree H.N.Shukla College Shree H.N.Shukla College

Street No. 2, Vaishali Nagar, Street No. 2, Vaishali Nagar,
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1
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CS-07: ADVANCE C AND DATA STRUCUTRE

Sr No. Topic Details Mar
ks
1 Algorithm  The analysis of algorithm.
Analysis  Time and space complexities.
 Asymptotic notation.
 Classes of algorithm.
 Big-Oh Notation
 Big-Omega Notation
Advanced  Introduction
Concepts  Data types
of C and  Arrays
Introduction  Handling arrays
To data o Initializing the arrays
Structures  Multidimensional arrays
o Initialization of two
dimensional array
 Pointers
o Advantages and disadvantages
of pointers
o Declaring and initializing
pointers
o Pointer arithmetic
 Array of pointers
 Passing parameters to the functions
 Relation between pointers and arrays
 Scope rules and storage classes
o Automatic variables
o Static variables
o External variables
o Register variable
 Dynamic allocation and de-allocation
of memory
o function malloc(size)

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o function calloc(n,size)
o function free(block)
 Dangling pointer problem.
 Structures.
 Enumerated constants , Unions
2 Sorting and  Bubble sorting
Searching  Insertion sorting
 Quick sorting
 Bucket sorting
 Merge sorting
 Selection sorting
 Shell sorting
 Basic searching technique
 Sequential searching
 Binary searching
Graph  Introduction
 Adjacency matrix and adjacency lists
 Graph traversal
o Depth first search (dfs)
o Implementation
o Breadth first search (bfs)
o Implementation
 Shortest path problem
 Minimal spanning tree
3 Introduction  Introduction
To data  Primitive and simple structures
Structure  Linear andnonlinear structures file
organization.
Elementary  Introduction
Data Structure  Stack
o Definition
o Operations on stack
o Implementation of stacks using
arrays

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o Function to insert an element

into the stack
o Function to delete an element
from the stack
o Function to display the items
 Recursion and stacks
 Evaluation of expressions using
stacks
o Postfix expressions
o Prefix expression
 Queue
o Introduction
o Array implementation of
queues
o Function to insert an element
into the queue
o Function to delete an element
from the queue
 Circular queue
o Function to insert an element
into the queue
o Function for deletion from
circular queue
o Circular queue with array
implementation
 Deques
 Priority queues
4 Link List  Introduction
 Singly linked lists.
o Implementation of linked list
o Insertion of a node at the
beginning
o Insertion of a node at the end
o Insertion of a node after a
specified node
o Traversing the entire linked list

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o Deletion of a node from linked

list
 Concatenation of linked lists
 Merging of linked lists
 Reversing of linked list
 Doubly linked list.
 Circular linked list
 Applications of the linked lists
5 Tree  Introduction
o Basic terminology
o Properties of a tree
 Binary trees
o Properties of binary trees
o Implementation
o Traversals of a binary tree
 In order traversal
 Post order traversal
 Preorder traversal
 Binary search trees (bst)
o Insertion in bst
o Deletion of a node
o Search for a key in bst
o Height balanced tree
o b-tree
 Insertion & Deletion

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UNIT -1 – PART – 1 - ALGORITHM ANALYSIS

 The analysis of algorithm.

 Time and space complexities.
 Asymptotic notation.
 Classes of algorithm.
 Big-Oh Notation
 Big-Omega Notation

1. The analysis of algorithm

 An algorithm is a step by step sequence of instruction to solve the

computational problem in a finite amount of time in an English
language.
 An algorithm can be written in English but we are interested in
algorithms which have been precisely specified using an appropriate
mathematical formalism—such as programming language.
 Every algorithm should have the following five characteristics:
i. Input---The algorithm should take zero or more input.
ii. Output---The algorithm should produce one or more outputs.
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iii. Definiteness---Each and every step of algorithm should be

defined unambiguously.
iv. Effectiveness---A human should be able to calculate the
values involved in the procedure of the algorithm using paper
an pencil.
v. Termination---An algorithm must terminated after a finite
number of steps.
 Complexity of an algorithm is the measure of analysis of
algorithm. It is also known as computational complexity.
 Analyzing an algorithm means predicting the resources that the
algorithm requires such as memory, communication, bandwidth,
logic gates an time.
 The analysis of the program requires two main considerations:
i. Space Complexity
ii. Time Complexity

2. Time and space Complexities.

 The time complexity of a program/algorithm is the amount of

computer time that it needs to run to completion.
 The space complexity of a program/algorithm is the amount of
memory that it needs to run to completion.
i. SPACE COMPLEXITY
 The amount of memory required to run and completion
of an algorithm or program is known as space
complexity.

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 Its analysis is known as analysis of space complexity

of an algorithm or program.
 There are specific reasons available for studying space
complexity:
 If the program is run on multi user system then
it may be required to specify the amount of
memory to be allocated to the program.
 To know in advance that sufficient memory is
available or not to run the program.
 There may be several possible solutions with
different space requirements.
 It can be used to estimate the size of the largest
problem that program can solve.
 The space needed by a program consists of following
components.
 Instruction space
 Data space
 Environment stack space
ii. TIME COMPLEXITY
 The time complexity of an algorithm or a program is
the amount of time it needs to rum to completion.
 The exact time will depend on the implementation of
the algorithm, programming language, optimizing
capabilities of the compiler used and so on…
 Some of the reasons for studying time complexity are:
 We may be interested to know in advance
whether the program will provide a satisfactory
real time response.
 There may be several possible solutions with
different time requirement.
 When we analyze an algorithm depends on the input
data, there are three different types of time
complexities which can be analyzed for an algorithm.
 Best case time complexity
 Average case time complexity
 Worst case time complexity

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3. Asymptotic notation
 When we study algorithms, we are interested in characterizing them
according to their efficiency.
 We are usually interesting in the order of growth of the running time
of an algorithm, not in the exact running time. This is also referred
to as the asymptotic notation.
 We need to develop a way to talk about rate of growth of functions
so that we can compare algorithms.
 Asymptotic notation gives us a method for classifying functions
according to their rate of growth

4. Classes of algorithm
 By implementation way
i. It is further classified into following sub categories.
 Recursion or Iteration
 A recursive algorithm means that it invokes
itself repeatedly until a certain condition
matches.
 An iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs
like loops and sometimes additional data
structures like stacks to solve the given
problems.
 Logical
 The logic component expresses the axioms
(maximum) that may be used in the computation
and the control component determines the way
in which deduction is applied to the axioms.
 Serial or Parallel or Distributed
 A computer which can execute on instruction of
an algorithm at a time is known as serial
computers. An algorithm designed for such an
environment is called a serial algorithm.
 Deterministic of Non-Deterministic
 Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with
exact decision at every step of the algorithm.

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 Exact or Approximate
 While many algorithms reach an exact solution,
approximation algorithms try to find an
approximation that is close to the true solution.
 Quantum Algorithm
 This runs on a realistic model of quantum
computation.
 These algorithms use some essential feature of
quantum computation such as quantum
superposition or quantum embarrassing
situation.
 By design paradigm
i. There is a number of paradigms which is different from each
other. Also, it will include many different types of algorithm.
 Brute-force or exhaustive search
 This is the natural method of trying every
possible solution to see which is best.
 Divide and conquer
 A divide and conquer algorithm repeatedly
reduces into smaller problems until the problems
are not enough to solve easily.
 Dynamic programming
 When a problem shows optimal substructure,
meaning the optimal solution to a problem can
be constructed form optimal solutions to sub
problems, and overlapping sub problems,
meaning the same sub problems are used to
solve many different problem instances, a
quicker approach called dynamic programming
avoids recomputing solutions that have already
been computed
 The greedy method
 A greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic
programming algorithm, but the difference is
that solutions to the sub problems do not have to
be known at each stage, instead a “greedy”

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choice can be made of what looks best for the

moment.
 Linear programming
 When solving a problem using linear
programming, specific inequalities involving
the inputs are found and then an attempt is made
to maximize some linear function of the inputs.
 Reduction
 This technique involves solving a difficult
problem by transforming it into a better known
problem for which asymptotically optimal
algorithms.
 Search and enumeration
 Many problems can be modeled as problems on
graphs.
 A graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for
moving around a graph and is useful for such
problems.
 This category also includes search algorithms,
branch and bound enumeration and
backtracking.
 By field of study
i. In the field of computer science has its own problem and
requires efficient algorithm
ii. Related problems in one field are often studied together.
iii. Some example classes are search algorithms, sorting
algorithms, merge algorithms etc…..
 By Complexity
i. Algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they
require to complete compared to their input size.
ii. There is a wide variety of some algorithms
 Complete in linear time
 Some do so on in an exponential amount of time or
even worse and some never hal

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING CASE DOES NOT NULL CASE
EXIST IN COMPLEXITY THEORY?
2 AN ALGORITHM IS ___________ A PROCEDURE
FOR SOLVING A
PROBLEM
3 AN ALGORITHM IN WHICH WE DIVIDE THE DIVIDE AND
PROBLEM INTO SUBPROBLEM AND THEN WE CONQUER
COMBINE THE SUBSOLUTIONS TO FORM
SOLUTION TO THE ORIGINAL PROBLEM IS
KNOWN AS _________
4 AN ALGORITHM WHICH USES THE PAST DYNAMIC
RESULTS AND USES THEM TO FIND THE NEW PROGRAMMING
RESULTS IS _________ ALGORITHMS
5 A COMPLEXITY OF ALGORITHM DEPENDS TIME AND
UPON _________ SPACE
6 AN ALGORITHM WHICH TRIES ALL THE BRUTE FORCE
POSSIBILITIES UNLESS RESULTS ARE
SATISFACTORY IS AND GENERALLY IS TIME-
CONSUMING IS _________
7 FOR A RECURSIVE ALGORITHM _________ A BASE CASE IS
NOT
NECESSARY
8 FOR AN ALGORITHM WHICH IS THE MOST CORRECTNESS
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC THAT MAKES AND PRECISION
IT ACCEPTABLE _________
9 IF FOR AN ALGORITHM TIME COMPLEXITY CONSTANT
IS GIVEN BY O(1) THEN THE COMPLEXITY OF
IT IS ____________
10 IF FOR AN ALGORITHM TIME COMPLEXITY LINEAR

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IS GIVEN BY O(N) THEN THE COMPLEXITY

OF IT IS ___________
11 WHICH ALGORITHM IS BETTER FOR QUICK SORT
SORTING BETWEEN BUBBLE SORT AND
QUICKSORT?
12 PERFORMANCE BASED CRITERIA OF TIME
ALGORITHM, WHICH HAS TO DO WITH ITS COMPLEXITY
COMPUTING TIME IS_____________
13 PERFORMANCE BASED CRITERIA OF SPACE
ALGORITHM, WHICH HAS TO DO WITH ITS COMPLEXITY
STORAGE IS_____________

5. Big-Oh Notation
 “Big-O” notation was introduced in P.Bachmann’s 1892 book
Analytische Zahlentheorie.
 The notation works well to compare algorithm efficiencies because
we want to say that the growth of effort of a given algorithm
approximates the shape of standard function.
 Big –O is a characteristic scheme that measure properties of
algorithm complexity performance and/or memory requirements.
 The algorithm complexity can be determined by elimination
constant factors in the analysis of algorithm.
 Based on the complexity representation of the Big-O notation, the
algorithm can be categorized as:
i. Constant time O(1)
ii. Logarithmic time O(log n) and o(n log n)
iii. Linear time O(n)
iv. Polynomial time O(nc)
v. Exponential timeO(cn)/O(2n)
vi. Cubic timeo(n3)
vii. Quadratic timeO(n2)

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6. Big-Omega Notation
 Just as the big-OH notation provides an asymptotic way of saying
that a function is “less than or equal to” another function, the
following notations provide an asymptotic way of saying that a
function grows at a rate that is “greater than or equal to” that of
another.
 Let f(n) and g(n) be functions mapping non-negative integers to real
numbers.
 We say that f(n) is Ω (g(n)) (pronounce “f(n) is big-Omega of
g(n)” i.e. f(n)=Ω (g(n)) if g(n) is O(f(n)), if there is real constant
c>0 and an integer constant n0>1 such that

|f(n)|≥c|g(n)|,for n≥n0
If f(n) is non-negative, we can simplify the last condition to f(n)=(Ωg(n)) {there
exists positive constants such that

0≤c g(n)≤f(n) for all n, n≥0

 This definition allows us to say asymptotically that one function is
greater than or equal to another, up to constant factor.Ω(.) is used to
asymptotically lower bound a function. We say that “f(n) is omega
of g(n)”.

1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 TO VERIFY WHETHER A FUNCTION GROWS BIG OMEGA Ω
FASTER OR SLOWER THAN THE OTHER (F)
FUNCTION, WE HAVE SOME ASYMPTOTIC OR BIG THETA Θ (F)
MATHEMATICAL NOTATIONS, WHICH BIG OH O (F)
IS_________.
2 AN ALGORITHM THAT INDICATES THE SPACE
AMOUNT OF TEMPORARY STORAGE COMPLEXITY
REQUIRED FOR RUNNING THE ALGORITHM,
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I.E., THE AMOUNT OF MEMORY NEEDED BY

THE ALGORITHM TO RUN TO COMPLETION
IS TERMED AS_____.
3 THE AMOUNT OF TIME THE COMPUTER
NEEDS TO RUN TO COMPLETION IS KNOWN TIME
AS_____. COMPLEXITY

4 ___________ALGORITHM IS ONE WHICH BEST

UTILIZES MINIMUM PROCESSOR TIME AND EFFICIENT
REQUIRES MINIMUM MEMORY SPACE
DURING ITS EXECUTION.
5 A FUNCTION IN WHICH F(N) IS Ω(G(N)), IF BIG OMEGA Ω
THERE EXIST POSITIVE VALUES K AND C (F)
SUCH THAT F(N)>=C*G(N), FOR ALL N>=K.
THIS NOTATION DEFINES A LOWER BOUND
FOR A FUNCTION F(N):
6 THE COMPLEXITY OF ADDING TWO MN
MATRICES OF ORDER M*N IS
7 ALGORITHM
WHAT IS A SET OF STEPS FOR CARRYING
OUT A SPECIFIC TASK CALLED?

8 AN ALGORITHM MAY HAVE ZERO OR MORE

__________‘INPUTS’ QUANTITIES.
9 ___________ REFERS TO A FINITE SET OF ALGORITHM
STEPS, WHICH, WHEN FOLLOWED, SOLVES A
PARTICULAR PROBLEM.
10 THE TWO MAIN RESOURCES THAT WE MEMORY
CONSIDER FOR AN ALGORITHM SPACE AND
ARE__________. PROCESSOR
TIME

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SUMMARY

 Algorithms are the ideas behind computer programs.

 An algorithm is the thing which stays the same whether the program is in
Pascal running on a Cray in New York or is in BASIC running on a
Macintosh in Kathmandu!
 To be interesting, an algorithm has to solve a general, specified problem.
An algorithmic problem is specified by describing the set of instances it
must work on and what desired properties the output must have.

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Unit -1 Part-2 (Advance Concept of C)

 Introduction
 Data types
 Arrays
 Handling arrays
o Initializing the arrays
 Multidimensional arrays
o Initialization of two
dimensional array
 Pointers
o Advantages and
disadvantages of
pointers
o Declaring and
initializing pointers
o Pointer arithmetic
 Array of pointers
 Passing parameters to the
functions
 Relation between pointers and
arrays
 Scope rules and storage classes
o Automatic variables
o Static variables
o External variables
o Register variable
 Dynamic allocation and de-
allocation of memory
o function malloc(size)
o function calloc(n,size)
o function free(block)
 Dangling pointer problem.
 Structures.
 Enumerated constants
Unions
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Data Types
• To store data in computer variable is require. Now, which type of value
we want to store in variable that is known by data type
• C language has three basic data types:
1. Fundamental/Primary data type
2. Derived data type
3. User define data type

Primary
data type

Floating
Integral
point

Long
Integer Character Float Double
Double

Short Long
Integer
Integer Integer
• Derived Data Type
• Derived data type are those which are provided by ‘C’ language to
us.
• In general we can say that we are using Array and Pointer which
are derived data type of C language.
• User Define Data Type
• C language provides facility to create our own new data type using
typedef
• We can create user define data type using following.
• Syntax: typedef <language data type><new data type>
• Example typedef int number;
• Here now we can create a variable of integer type by
using numeric keywords.
• Example: number a,b,sum;

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1 WORD QUESTION – ANSWER

SR NO QUESTION ANSWER
1 DATA TYPES ARE USED TO DECIDE TYPE OF DATA OR
______ VALUE
2 C LANGUAGE SUPPORT _________ , __________ & PRIMARY
___________ CATEGORIES OF DATA TYPE. USER
DEFI
NED
DERIVED
3 TYPEDEF MEANS ____________ TYPE
DEFI
NITI
ON
4 LIST OUR USER DEFINED DATA TYPES IN C. STRUCTU
RE
UNION
ENUM
5 INTEGER DATATYPE OCCUPIES _____ BYTES OF 2
MEMORY
6 FLOAT DATATYPE OCCUPIES _____ BYPTES OF 4
MEMORY
7 CHARACTER DATATYPE OCCUPIES ___ BYTE 1
OF MEMORY

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Arrays

• An array is fixed size

ordered(sequence) collection of related elements(data items) that share a

common name and it has same data type.
OR
• An array is useful to store similar data items in a one single name.
• There are mainly three types of array available

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1. One dimensional array

2. Two dimensional array
3. Multi dimensional array

Array Element memory allocation with different data types

Data Type Memory occupied Example Total Size
(in Bytes)
Int 2 bytes int arr[5] 10 bytes
(5*2)
Float 4 bytes float a[5] 20 bytes
(5*4)
Char 1 bytes char ch[10] 10 bytes
(10*1)
Double 8 bytes double a[5] 40 bytes
(5*8)
Long double 10 bytes long double a[2] 20 bytes
(2*10)

One- Dimensional Array

• If data items in an array are arranged in a single row or line, it is called
one dimensional array.

Syntax:
datatype arrayname[size];
• Here, while declaring array we require following three things.
• A data type is the types of elements that will contained in the array
like int, char, float, double etc.
• An arrayname is name of valid array variable name and it must
follow all the identifiers rules.
• An size represents the maximum number of elements that can be
stored inside the array
• Example : inta avg[10];
•
Compile time initialization of array elements

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Syntax:
datatype
arrayname[size]={val1,val2,val3,……};
• First way
int number[5]={1,4,6,7,3};
• Second way
int number[5]={1,2,3} //rest of elements will be set to zero
• Third way
int number[ ]={1,2,3,4,5}
• Fourth way
char nm[ ]={‘h’,’a’,’r’,’d’,’I’,’k’,’\0’};
Run time initialization of array elements
int a[5];
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“\n enter array elements:”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}

Two- Dimensional Array

• If we want to represents data in table format means rows and columns at
that time two dimensional arrays is used.

Syntax:
datatype
arrayname[row_size][column_size];
• Here, while declaring array we require following three things.
• Initialization of array is done at compile time as well as run time.
• Int a[2][3]={0,1,2,0,1,2};
• Int a[2][3]={{0,1,2},{0,1,2}};

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• Int a[2][3]={{0,1},{2}};//rest of the elements will be initialized to

zero.

a[0][0] a[0][1]
0 a[0][2]
a[1][0] a[1][1]
1
RO a[1][2]
W a[2][0] a[2][1]
2 a[2][2]

column 0 column 1
column 2
MULTI-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY
• Multi dimensional array is also defined same like a one-dimensional
array, with a separate pair of square brackets for each subscript.
• It means that we know that two dimensional arrays will require tw0 pairs
of square brackets, so if we assume three dimensional arrays then it will
require three pairs of square brackets and so on.

Syntax:
datatype
arrayname[exp1][exp2]…….[expn];
• Example
• float table[5][5][5]; char page[2][2][2];

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1 WORD QUESTION – ANSWER

SR. QUESTION ANSWER

NO.
1 WHAT IS ARRAY? GROUP OF ELEMENTS
HAVING SAME NAME
AND TYPE.
2 ARRAY IS ______________ DATATYPE. DERIVED
3 ARRAY IS USED TO REPRESENT COLLECTION
_______
4 TYPES OF ARRAY CAN BE SINGLE/ONE
__________ & _______ DIMENSION&
MULTI/TWO DIMENSION
5 IF ARRAY ELEMENTS ARE COMPILE TIME
INITIALIZED AT THE TIME OF
DECLARATION THEN IT IS CALLED
________ INITIALIZATION.
6 IF ARRAY ELEMENTS ARE RUNTIME
INITIALIZED AT THE RUNTIME THEN
IT IS CALLED ________
INITIALIZATION.
7 IN __________ ARRAY COMPILE TIME
INITIALIZATION WE HAVE TO
ASSIGN FIX VALUE OR SIZE
COMPULSORY.

Pointers
DEFINITION OF POINTER
• The variable that holds(stores) address of other variable are called
pointers.
• In other words pointer is simply variable that contains address, which is a
location of another simple or ordinary variable or array elements in
memory.
• A pointer is a variable that “points to” another variable by storing its
address.

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Pointer has three concepts

1. Pointer constant
In computer memory, memory addresses are known as pointer constants.
We cannot change its value if we want to use it then only store its value in
another variable. It is same like house number.
2. Pointer value
We cannot access the value of a memory address directly. If we want to
access then with the use of address operator(&) with pointer variable we can do
it.
3. Pointer variable
If we have a pointer value, we need to store into another variable. It
means that the variable that contains a pointer value is called pointer variable.
ADVANTAGES OF POINTER
 Pointers are used to create dynamic data structures.
 A pointer can hold the address of any valid data element, array, single
variable, a function, a structure and a union.
 Pointers are strongly associated with arrays and therefore provide an
alternative way to access individual array elements.
 With the use of pointer, we can also return multiple data from a function
via arguments.

Array of Pointers
• As we know that pointer contains address, so an array of pointers would
be an collection of addresses.
• Syntax: datatype *array[subscript1];
datatype *array[subscript1][subscript2]….;
• Example: int *a[5];
int *arr[2][2];
Passing Parameters to the function
CALL BY VALUE CALL BY REFERENCE
This is the usual method to call a function In this method, the address of the
in which only the value of the variable is variable is passed as an argument
passed as an argument
Any alternation in the value of the Any alternation in the value of the
argument passed is local to the function argument passed is accepted in the

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and is not accepted in the calling calling program(since alternation is

program made indirectly in the memory
location using the pointer)
Memory location occupied by formal and Memory location occupied by
actual arguments is different formal and actual arguments is
same and there is a saving of
memory location
Since a new location is created, this Since the existing memory location
method is slow is used through its address, this
method is fast
There is no possibility of wrong data There is a possibility of wrong data
manipulation since the arguments are manipulation since the addresses
directly used in an application are used in an expression. A good
skill of programming is required
here

1 WORD QUESTION – ANSWER

SR. QUESTION ANSWER

NO.
1 COMMENT ON THE FOLLOWING PTR IS A POINTER TO
POINTER DECLARATION. INTEGER, P IS NOT
INT *PTR, P;

2 COMMENT ON THE FOLLOWING C YOU CANNOT CHANGE

STATEMENT. THE VALUE
CONST INT *PTR; POINTED BY PTR

3 WHICH IS AN INDIRECTION *
OPERATOR?
4 WHICH DOES NOT INITIALIZE PTR TO INT *PTR = &A;
NULL (ASSUMING VARIABLE
DECLARATION OF A AS INT A=0;)?

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Scope Rules & Storage Class

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Storage class determines the scope (region of the program in which a

variable is available for use.) and lifetime (duration in which a variable exist
in the memory during execution of a program.). Storage class tells:
 Where the variable is stored.
 Initial value of the variable.
 Scope of the variable. Scope specifies the part of the program which a
variable is accessed.
 Life of the variable.

There are four types of storage class:

1. Automatic Storage class
2. Register Storage class
3. Static Storage class
4. External Storage Class

1. Automatic Storage Class:

The variables that are local to the function are known as
automatic variables i.e. declared within the function. It is the default
storage class for the variables declared in a function.
 Keyword : auto
 Storage Location : Main memory
 Initial Value : Garbage Value
 Life : Local (function in which it is declared).
 Scope : Local to the block in which variable is declared.

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>

void main() Output:

{ 20
auto int i=10; 10
clrscr();
{
auto int i=20;

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printf("\n\t %d",i);
}
printf("\n\n\t %d",i);
getch();
}

2. Register Storage Class:

Register variables are declared inside the function. When the
variables are required very often during the program, they may be declared
as register variable. Register access is faster than memory access.
Generally, the register variables are used as loop counters which are used
multiple times in the program. Register variables are not applicable for
arrays, structures or pointers.

 Keyword : register
 Storage Location : CPU Register
 Initial Value : Garbage
 Life : Local to the block in which variable is declared.
 Scope : Local to the block.

Example: Output:
#include <stdio.h>
123456789
#include <conio.h>
10

void main()
{
register int i;
for(i=1;i<10;i++)
printf(“%d”,i);
getch();
}

3. Static Storage Class:

Static storage class can be used only if we want the value of a
variable to persist between different function calls. If the control comes

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back to the same function again, the static variables have the same values
they had last time around. By default, global variables are static variables.

 Keyword : static
 Storage Location : Main memory
 Initial Value: Zero and can be initialize only once.
 Life : depends on function calls and the whole application or
program.
 Scope : Local to the block.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h> Output:
void print();
void main() value of static variable is 0
{ value of static variable is 1
clrscr();
print();
print();
getch();
}
void print()
{
static int k=0;
printf(“\n the value of static variable is %d”,k);
k++;
}

4. External Storage Class:

The variables of external storage class can be referred to as
‘global or external variables.’ They are declared outside the functions and
can be invoked at anywhere in a program. The only drawback of declaring
the variables as extern is it wastes lot of memory because these variables
remain active throughout the life of the program.

 Keyword : extern

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 Storage Location : Main memory

 Initial Value : Zero
 Life : Until the program ends.
 Scope : Global to the program.
Output:
Example: 20
#include <stdio.h>
10
#include <conio.h>
extern int i=10;//global
void main()
{
int i=20;//local
void show();
clrscr();
printf("\n\t %d",i);
show();
getch();
}
void show()
{
printf("\n\n\t %d",i);
}

1 WORD QUESTION – ANSWER

SR. QUESTION ANSWER

NO.
1 WHICH IS NOT A STORAGE CLASS AUTO
SPECIFIER?
2 WHAT IS THE INITIAL VALUE OF REGISTER GARBAGE
STORAGE CLASS SPECIFIER?
3 WHAT IS THE SCOPE OF EXTERN CLASS GLOBAL
SPECIFIER? MULTIPLE
FILES
4 WHAT IS THE SCOPE OF STATIC CLASS WITHIN BLOCK
SPECIFIER?

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5 WHAT IS THE INITIAL VALUE OF EXTERN 0

STORAGE CLASS SPECIFIER?
6 HOW MANY STORAGE CLASSES IN C? 4

Dynamic Allocation & De-allocation of Memory

 DMA means Dynamic Memory Allocation. DMA means allocating the

memory dynamically (run time).
 DMA is used when we don’t know in advance the number of variables
that we will require.
 DMA saves the memory because in this the memory is allocated at run
time.
 The functions of DMA are:
 malloc()
 calloc()
 realloc()
 free()
1)malloc():-
Description:
malloc() is used to allocate the memory dynamically that is
at run time.
Syntax:
p=(int *)malloc(n*sizeof(int));
Header File: <stdlib.h>, <alloc.h>

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Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
int *array;
int n,i;
clrscr();

printf(“\n enter the size of array”);

scanf(“%d”,&n);
array=(int *)malloc(n*sizeof(int)); //memory
allocation

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n enter array elements”);
scanf(“%d”,&array[i]);
}

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(“\n array elements=%d”,array[i]);
}
getch();
}

2) calloc():
Description:
 calloc () is also used to allocate the memory dynamically (run
time) but calloc() and malloc() have the following
differences:

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malloc() calloc()
1) malloc() has only one 1) calloc() has two
argument. arguments.
2) malloc() allocates single 2) calloc() allocates multiple
block of storage space blocks of storage space.
3) malloc() gives the garbage 3) calloc() initializes the
value of memory memory to zero.

Syntax:
p=(int *)calloc(n,sizeof(int));
Header File: <stdlib.h>, <alloc.h>
Example showing the difference between malloc() and
calloc() :

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
int *p1;
int *p2;
int n=5;
clrscr();
p1=(int *)malloc(n*sizeof(int));
p2=(int *)calloc(n,sizeof(int));

printf(“\n p1=%d”,*p1);
printf(“\n p2=%d”,*p2);
getch();
}

Output:

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3) realloc():
Description:
 realloc() is used to change the size of previously
allocated memory(malloc() or calloc()).
 The new size of the memory can be smaller or
larger. If the size of memory is larger then it is
appended at the end of the data that is data will not
be changed but if the size of the memory is smaller
then the data will be changed. This is known as
reallocation of memory.
Syntax:
p=(int *)realloc(p,50);

new size to be allocated

Original block of memory
Header File:
<stdlib.h>, <alloc.h>
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<string.h>

void main()
{
char s[50];
char *msg;
clrscr();
printf(“\n enter the string”);

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gets(s);
msg=(char *)malloc(strlen(s)+1);
strcpy(msg,s);
printf(“\n MESSAGE=%s”,msg);
printf(“\n”);
printf(“\n enter new string”);
gets(s);
msg=(char *)realloc(msg,(strlen(msg)+strlen(s)+1));
strcat(msg,s);
printf(“\n FINAL MESSAGE=%s”,msg);
getch();
}
Output:

4) free():
Description:
 When memory is allocated using malloc() and calloc()
then that memory must be freed when the program
finishes using free() because the memory area is finite.
Syntax:
free(p1);
p1=NULL;

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Static Memory Allocation Dynamic Memory

Allocation
1) In static memory 1) In Dynamic memory
allocation, size is allocation, size can be
fixed which can not changed during runtime.
be changed during 2) In dynamic memory
runtime. allocation, memory is
2) In static memory allocated at run time.
allocation, memory is 3) In dynamic memory
allocated at compile allocation, memory is
time. saved.
3) In static memory 4) In dynamic memory
allocation, memory allocation, memory must
wastage takes place. be freed using free().
4) In static memory
allocation, there is no
need to free the
memory.

1 WORD QUESTION – ANSWER

SR. QUESTION ANSWER

NO.
1 THE FUNCTION ____ OBTAINS A BLOCK OF CALLOC &
MEMORY DYNAMICALLY. MALLOC
2 VOID * MALLOC(SIZE_T N) RETURNS? POINTER TO N
BYTES OF
UNINITIALIZED
STORAGE
3 CALLOC() RETURNS STORAGE THAT IS NULL
INITIALIZED TO.
4 IN FUNCTION FREE(P), P IS A _______ POINTER
RETURNED BY
MALLOC() &
CALLOC()

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5 CALLOC() INITIALIZE MEMORY WITH ALL TRUE

BITS SET TO ZERO.(TRUE OR FALSE)
6 MEMORY ALLOCATION USING MALLOC() HEAP AREA
IS DONE IN _________

Dangling Pointer Problem

 If any pointer is pointing the memory address of any variable but after some
variable has deleted from that memory location while pointer is still pointing
such memory location. Such pointer is known as dangling pointer and this
problem is known as dangling pointer problem.
Initially:

Later:

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Structure

 A structure is a collection of variables under a single name. These

variables can be of different types, and each has a name which is used to
select it from the structure. A structure is a convenient way of grouping
several pieces of related information together.
 A structure can be defined as a new named type, thus extending the
number of available types. It can use other structures, arrays or pointers
as some of its members, though this can get complicated unless you are
careful.

Enumerated Constants

 Enumeration type allows programmer to define their own data type .

Keyword enum is used to defined enumerated data type.
 enum type_name{ value1, value2,...,valueN };
 Here, type_name is the name of enumerated data type or tag. And value1,
value2,....,valueN are values of type type_name.
 By default, value1 will be equal to 0, value2 will be 1 and so on but, the
programmer can change the default value as below:

enum suit{
club=0;
diamonds=10;
hearts=20;
spades=3;
};

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 Declaration of enumerated variable

Above code defines the type of the data but, no any variable is
created. Variable of type enum can be created as:

enum boolean{
false;
true;
};
enum boolean check;

 Here, a variable check is declared which is of type enum boolean.

#include<stdio.h>
enum week{ sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday,
saturday};
int main(){
enum week today;
today=wednesday;
printf("%d day",today+1);
return0;
}
Output
4 day

Unions
 Unions are quite similar to the structures in C. Union is also a derived
type as structure. Union can be defined in same manner as structures just
the keyword used in defining union in union where keyword used in
defining structure was struct.
union car{
char name[50];
int price;
};
Union variables can be created in similar manner as structure variable.
union car{
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char name[50];
int price;
}c1, c2, *c3;
OR;
union car{
char name[50];
int price;
};
-------Inside Function-----------
union car c1, c2, *c3;

In both cases, union variables c1, c2 and union pointer variable c3 of type union
car is created.

Accessing members of an union

The member of unions can be accessed in similar manner as that structure.
Suppose, we you want to access price for union variable c1 in above example, it
can be accessed as c1.price. If you want to access price for union pointer
variable c3, it can be accessed as (*c3).price or as c3->price.

1 WORD QUESTION – ANSWER

SR. QUESTION ANSWER

NO.
1 WHICH IS A COLLECTION OF DIFFERENT STRUCTURES
DATA TYPES?
2 USER-DEFINED DATA TYPE CAN BE STRUCT
DERIVED BY___________ ENUM
TYPEDEF
3 WHICH OPERATOR CONNECTS THE NULL . (DOT)
STRUCTURE NAME TO ITS MEMBER NAME?
4 WHICH CANNOT BE A STRUCTURE FUNCTION
MEMBER?
5 THE SIZE OF A UNION IS DETERMINED BY BIGGEST
THE SIZE OF THE __________ MEMBER IN
THE UNION

41
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6 MEMBERS OF A UNION ARE ACCESSED UNION-

AS________________ NAME.MEMBER
& UNION-
POINTER-
>MEMBER
SUMMARY
 To make programming very simple and easy to debug then it is
required to break out large program into smaller sub programs that
perform well defined tasks which is known as function.
 OR It is self contained executable codes that can be called form
any other functions.
 There are two types of functions supported by C language.
o Library function: It is a directly used in our program
because already stored in a header files.For example
printf(),scanf(),getch(),clrscr() etc….
o User Define function:We have to write coding for user
defined function. For example, main() is a user define
function.
 Any user define function has mainly three components
o Function declaration:If we want to call(use) any function
before that is must be declated an then after we can use it,
same like as variable. This is as function declaration.
o Function call:If we want to use function
definition(program) than we need to invoke it at a specified
place in program. This is known as function call. The
program or function that call the function is known as calling
program or calling function. If function call does not require
any arguments, an empty pair of parenthesis must follow the
functions name
o Function definition:It is one type of program in which we
have to write the coding of main functionality of our
program. It is also known as function implementation. It
divides into two main parts.
 Function Header:It contains main three elements
 Function name is the name of the function.

42
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 Function type is which type of function will

return value
 Parameter list is the argument passing if
required. It becomes the input data to the
function to complete the specified task. It is also
known as formal parameter.
 Function Body:It contains one or more statement. It
contains three elements:
 Local variable declaration: is a one kind of
variable which contains any data and its scope
is limited to that particular block of code only.
 Function executable statement to perform
specific task it is specified task it is required to
write some instruction which describe in this
section.
 A return statement if our function return a
value to the calling function then it is done with
the use of the return statement. A function may
return a value or may not return value to the
calling program. If function doesn’t return any
value means that void specifier is used in the
function declaration. It is possible to pass more
than one arguments to the function but can
return only one value at a time. If functions
return type is not specified then its default type
is “int” means it returns integer value.
 Depending on whether arguments are passed to a function or not
and whether a function returns a value or not it divides a function
into four types as below:
o Function with no argument and no return value
o Function with argument and no return value
o Function with argument and with return value
o Function with no argument with return value
 When we pass data from one function to another then it is known
as parameter passing. It is done in two ways.

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 A recursion is a process by which a function calls itself repeatedly

until some specified condition has been fulfilled.
 It is also possible to pass array structure as function argument.
There are two ways (1) simply pass structure as simple parameter
values by passing the structure name (2) with the use of pointer.
 It is also possible to pass pointer as function argument. When we
are passing address to the function at that time changes made in the
function implementation is reflected back to the calling program.

44
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UNIT -2 – PART -1 - SORTING & SEARCHING

 Bubble sorting
 Insertion sorting
 Quick sorting
 Bucket sorting
 Merge sorting
 Selection sorting
 Shell sorting
 Basic searching
technique
 Sequential searching
 Binary searching

 The process of “looking up” a particular record in the data is called

“searching”.
 The process of ordering the records in a database is called “sorting”.

Sorting

 The operation is the most common task performed by computers.

 Sorting is the process of arranging data information in some logical order.
 This logical order may be ascending or descending in case of numeric
values.

45
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 Various techniques are available to sort data depending on length of data,

speed of sorting, number of swapping done during procedure of sorting
etc.

Types of sorting techniques

1. Bubble sort
2. Insertion sort
3. Quick sort
4. Bucket sort
5. Merge sort
6. Selection sort
7. Shell sort

Bubble sort

 It is the simplest sorting algorithm techniques.

 In this technique, we continually compare two adjacent items
(elements) from the list. If the first element is larger than the
second one, then the position of the elements are
interchanged (swap) otherwise not changed and then the
after sorting is completed. This process is used frequently
until no swaps are needed.

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 It is also known as “comparison sort” because it continually

compares two adjacent elements from the list.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Bubble sort
 One of the primary advantages of the bubble sort is that it is
comparatively easy to write and learn.
 It is also comparatively easy to understand in terms of
sorting algorithm.
 Unfortunately, the bubble sort is also a relatively slow
algorithm, taking O(n2) to complete sorting and therefore,
should not be used on large tables.

Algorithm for Bubble sort

 Let “a” be an array of n numbers. “temp” is a temporary variable for
swapping the position of the numbers.
Step 1: Input n numbers for an array “a”
Step 2: Initialize i=0 and repeat through step 4 if(i<n)
Step 3: Initialize j=0 and repeat through step 4 if(j<n-1)
Step 4: if(a[j]>a[j+1])
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;
Step 5: Display the sorted numbers of array a
Step 6: Exit

Program for Bubble sort

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[100],temp,i,j,n,changes,k;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)

47
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Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

{
printf("\nEnter array elements a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
changes=0;
for(j=0;j<n-1;j++)
{
if(a[j]>a[j+1])
{
temp=a[j];
a[j]=a[j+1];
a[j+1]=temp;
changes++;
}
}
if(changes==0)
break;
printf("\nAfter pass %d elements are:",i+1);
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
printf("\t%d",a[k]);
printf("\n");
}
printf("\nAfter sorting array elements are:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

48
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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHAT IS AN EXTERNAL SORTING ALGORITHM THAT
ALGORITHM? USES TAPE OR DISK
DURING THE SORT
2 WHAT IS AN INTERNAL SORTING ALGORITHM THAT
ALGORITHM? USES MAIN MEMORY
DURING THE SORT
3 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE O(N2)
COMPLEXITY OF BUBBLE SORT?
4 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE CASE O(N2)
COMPLEXITY OF BUBBLE SORT?
5 THE GIVEN ARRAY IS ARR = {1, 2, 4, 4
3}. BUBBLE SORT IS USED TO SORT
THE ARRAY ELEMENTS. HOW MANY
ITERATIONS WILL BE DONE TO
SORT THE ARRAY?
6 WHAT IS THE BEST CASE O(N)
EFFICIENCY OF BUBBLE SORT IN
THE IMPROVISED VERSION?

49
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Insertion sort

 It is very simple and efficient algorithms for the smallest

lists.
 Its mechanism is very simple just take elements from the list
one by one and insert them in their correct position into a
new sorted list.
 The name inserting sorting means that sorting is occurred by
inserting a particular element at proper position.
Algorithm for Insertion sort
 Let “a” be an array of n numbers. “temp” is a temporary variable for
swapping the position of the numbers. ”pos” is the control variable
to hold the position of each pass.
Step 1: Input n numbers for an array “a”
Step 2: Initialize i=0 and repeat through step 4 if(i<n-1)
temp=a[i]
j=i-1
Step 3: Repeat the step 3 if(temp<a[j] and (j>=0))
a[j+1]=a[j]
j=j-1
Step 4: a[j]=temp
Step 5: Exit

50
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Program for insertion sort

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[100],n,i,j,k,tmp,changes;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array element a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\n\nUnsorted array");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{
tmp=a[i];
changes=0;
for(j=i-1;j>=0;j--)
{
if(tmp<a[j])
{
a[j+1]=a[j];
a[j]=tmp;
}
changes++;
}
if(changes==0)
break;
printf("\nPass %d,element inserted at proper place:%d",i,tmp);
for(k=0;k<n;k++)

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printf("\t%d",a[k]);
printf("\n");

}
printf("\n\nSorted array");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.NO. QUESTION ANSWER

1 HOW MANY PASSES DOES AN INSERTION SORT N-1
ALGORITHM CONSIST OF?
2 WHICH ALGORITHM IMPLEMENTATIONS IS BINARY
SIMILAR TO THAT OF AN INSERTION SORT? HEAP
3 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE CASE RUNNING TIME O(N2)
OF AN INSERTION SORT ALGORITHM?
4 ANY ALGORITHM THAT SORTS BY TRUE
EXCHANGING ADJACENT ELEMENTS REQUIRE
O(N2) ON AVERAGE.(TRUE OR FALSE)
5 WHAT IS THE RUNNING TIME OF AN INSERTION O(N)
SORT ALGORITHM IF THE INPUT IS PRE-
SORTED?
6 WHAT WILL BE THE NUMBER OF PASSES TO 5
SORT THE ELEMENTS USING INSERTION SORT?
14, 12,16, 6, 3, 10
7 WHICH SORTING ALGORITHM IS BEST SUITED IF INSERTION
THE ELEMENTS ARE ALREADY SORTED? SORT
8 IN C, WHAT ARE THE BASIC LOOPS REQUIRED FOR AND
TO PERFORM AN INSERTION SORT? WHILE
52
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Quick sort

 It is widely used sorting techniques which uses divide and

conquer (also known as partition exchange sort)mechanism.
 The quick sort algorithm works by portioning the array to be
sorted. And each partition is internally sorted recursively.
 In the quick sort mechanism, first of all we have to select
middle element form the list and is known as pivot element.
 After that, the sort is divides the list into two sub lists.
 First list contains the elements that are less than the pivot
elements and a second list contains elements that are greater
than pivot elements.
Algorithm for Quick sort
 Let “a” be an array of n numbers. “temp” is a temporary
variable for swapping the position of the numbers.

Step 1: initialize low=first, high=last

pivot=(low+high)/2

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Step 2 repeat this step till low,=high

while(a[low]<pivot)
low++;
while(a[high]>pivot)
high--;
if(low<=high)
temp=a[low]
a[low]=a[high]
a[high]=temp
Step 3: if(first<high)
quicksort(a,first,high)
Step 4: if(low<last)
quicksort(a,low,last)
Step 5: Exit
Program for quick sort
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void quicksort(int [],int,int);//function declaration
void main()
{
int a[100],n,i;
clrscr();
printf("\nenter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n enter array elements a[%d]",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
quicksort(a,0,n-1);//function calling
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n sorted array elements %d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

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void quicksort(int a[], int first, int last)//function definition

{
int low, high, temp, pivot, i;
low=first;
high=last;
pivot=(low+high)/2;
while(low<=high)
{
while(a[low]<a[pivot])
low++;
while(a[high]>a[pivot])
high--;
if(low<=high)
{
temp=a[low];
a[low]=a[high];
a[high]=temp;
low++;
high--;
}
}
if(first<high)
quicksort(a,first,high);
if(low<last)
quicksort(a,low,last);
}

55
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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHICH SORTING ALGORITHMS IS THE QUICK SORT
FASTEST?
2 QUICK SORT FOLLOWS DIVIDE-AND- TRUE
CONQUER STRATEGY.(TRUE OR FALSE)
3 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE TIME O(N2)
COMPLEXITY OF A QUICK SORT
ALGORITHM?
4 FIND THE PIVOT ELEMENT FROM THE 6
GIVEN INPUT USING MEDIAN-OF-THREE
PARTITIONING METHOD.
8, 1, 4, 9, 6, 3, 5, 2, 7, 0.
5 WHICH IS THE SAFEST METHOD TO CHOOSING A
CHOOSE A PIVOT ELEMENT? RANDOM
ELEMENT AS
PIVOT
6 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE RUNNING TIME O(N LOG N)
OF A QUICK SORT ALGORITHM?
7 WHICH SORTING ALGORITHMS IS USED INSERTION SORT
ALONG WITH QUICK SORT TO SORT THE
SUB ARRAYS?
8 QUICK SORT USES JOIN OPERATION TRUE
RATHER THAN MERGE OPERATION.(TRUE
OR FALSE)

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Bucket sort

 Bucket sort is a sorting method that can be used to sort a list

of numbers by its base.
 If we want to sort list of English words where base is 26,
then 26 buckets is used to sort the words.
 To sort array of decimal numbers where base is 10 we need
10 buckets and it can be numbered as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
 On the basis of the largest number’s digit that many passes
are required.
 Mechanism includes comparison of the first position of digit
with the digit of bucket and place it. (recursive)
Algorithm for Bucket sort
Step 1: Input n number of elements in array a.
Step 2: Find out the largest element and the digit of the largest element
Step 3: Initialize i=1 and repeat steps 4 and 5 until (i<digitcnt)
Step 4: Initialize the buckets j=0 and repeat the steps (a) until (j<n)
(a)Compare i the position of each element of the array with
the bucket number and place it int the corresponding bucket.
Step 5: Read the elements of the bucket from 0th bucket to 9th bucket
and from first position to higher one to generate new array a.
Step 6: Display the sorted array a
Step 7: Exit

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Program for Bucket sort

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[100],n,lrg,i,j,k,p,digcnt,divsr,r;
int bucktcnt[10],buckt[10][10];
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array elements a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
i=0;
lrg=a[i];
while(i<n)/* find the largest element in array */
{
if(a[i]>lrg)
lrg=a[i];
i++;
}
/*count the no of digit in the largest no*/
digcnt=0;
while(lrg>0)
{
digcnt++;
lrg=lrg/10;
}
i=1;
divsr=1;
while(i<=digcnt)
{
j=0;
while(j<10)

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{
bucktcnt[j]=0;
j++;
}
j=0;
while(j<n)
{
r=(a[j]/divsr)%10;
buckt[r][bucktcnt[r]]=a[j];
bucktcnt[r]++;
j++;
}
/*collect all elements in order*/
j=0;
p=0;
while(j<10)
{
k=0;
while(k<bucktcnt[j])
{
a[p]=buckt[j][k];
p++;
k++;
}
j++;
}
i++;
divsr=divsr*10;
}
printf("\nSorted Elements:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 HOW MANY COMPARISONS WILL BE MADE TO 0
SORT THE ARRAY ARR={1, 5, 3, 8, 2} USING
BUCKET SORT?
2 WHAT IS THE ALTERNATE NAME OF BUCKET BIN SORT
SORT?
3 WHICH NON-COMPARISON SORT CAN ALSO BE BUCKET
CONSIDERED AS A COMPARISON BASED SORT? SORT
4 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE TIME COMPLEXITY O(N2)
OF BUCKET SORT (K = NUMBER OF BUCKETS)?
5 WHAT IS THE BEST TIME COMPLEXITY OF O(N + K)
BUCKET SORT (K= NUMBER OF BUCKETS)?
6 BUCKET SORT IS AN IN PLACE SORTING FALSE
ALGORITHM. (TRUE OR FALSE)
7 WHAT IS THE WORST SPACE COMPLEXITY OF O(N.K)
BUCKET SORT (K = NUMBER OF BUCKETS)?

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Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

Selection sort

 Selection Sort algorithm is a simple sorting algorithm which

specially is an in-place comparison sorts. It is a technique to
arrange the data in proper order.
 This type of sorting is called “Selection sort” because it
works by repeatedly selecting smallest element.
 If we want to sort array in increasing order(i.e smallest
element at the beginning of the array and the largest element
at the end.) then find the minimum element and place it in
the first position (recursion).

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Algorithm for Selection sort

Step 1: Input n number of elements in array a.
Step 2: Initialize i TO 0 (i=0)
Step 3: Repeat through step 8 while i<n-1(i=0,1,2….,n-1)
Step 4: Initialize min TO i (min=i)
Step 5: Initialize j=i+1
Step 6: Repeat through j=j+1 while j<n(j=i+1,i+2,….)
If(a[j]<a[min])
min = j (min=j)
Step 7: if(min!=i)
temp = a[i]
a[i] = a[min]
a[min] = temp
Step 8: i=i+1
Step 9: Exit

Program for Selection sort

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[100],n,i,j,temp,min;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array elements a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
min=i;
for(j=i+1;j<n;j++)
{
if(a[j]<a[min])

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min=j;
}
if(min!=i)
{
temp=a[i];
a[i]=a[min];
a[min]=temp;
}

}
printf("\n\nSorted array:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE COMPLEXITY OF O(N2)
SELECTION SORT?
2 WHAT IS THE BEST CASE COMPLEXITY OF O(N2)
SELECTION SORT?
3 THE GIVEN ARRAY IS ARR = {3,4,5,2,1}. THE 5 AND 4
NUMBER OF ITERATIONS IN BUBBLE SORT AND
SELECTION SORT RESPECTIVELY ARE,
4 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE CASE COMPLEXITY OF O(N2)
SELECTION SORT?

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Merge sort

 It is widely used sorting technique which uses divide &

conquer mechanism.
 In this type of method the problems which can be broken
into smaller problems, solve the smallest problems and then
merge them to get the final answer. It means that we
continue dividing till only one element is left.
 In this techniques, our large list is broken down into smaller
lists and then after merge together.
 It is the process of combining two or more sorted array into
third sorted array.
 When we are using these techniques different lists available
are:
1. First divide the list into half
2. Then sort the left half
3. Then sort the right half
4. Then merge the two sorted halves into one sorted list.
Algorithm for Merge sort
Mergesort(n,list1,m,list2);
n:- represent number of elements in first list
list1:- represent list of elements (first list)
m:- represent number of elements in second list

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list2: represent list of elements (second list)

Step 1: first, the array is divided into two parts. i.e. mid is determined
between low index and high index.
midsort(low, high);
low: low index
high: high index
mid=(low+high)/2
step 2: then first part(from low to mid) and second part (mid+1 to high)
are sorted by calling the function midsort
midsort(low,mid);
midsort(mid+1,high)
step 3: then, above two sorted parts are merged by calling mergesort function
step 4: initialize i low, j mid+1, k high(low)
step 5: repeat this step till i<=mid and j<=high
if(a[i]>=a[j])
temp[k]=a[j];
k++;
j++;
else
temp[k]=a[i];
k++;
i++
step 6: repeat this step till i<=mid.
temp[k]=a[i];
k++;
i++;

step 7: repeat this step till j<=high

temp[k]=a[j];
k++;
j++;
step 8: repeat this step till i<=high
for(i=low;i<=high;i++) copying final array to a
a[i]=temp[i]
step 9: STOP

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Program for Merge sort

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int a[100];
void m_sort(int,int);
void merge_sort(int,int,int);
void main()
{
int n,i;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array elements a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\n\nUnsorted array");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
m_sort(0,n-1);
printf("\n\nSorted array");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t%d",a[i]);
}
getch();
}
void m_sort(int low,int high)
{
int mid;
if(low!=high)
{
mid=(low+high)/2;

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m_sort(low,mid);
m_sort(mid+1,high);
merge_sort(low,mid,high);
}
}
void merge_sort(int low,int mid,int high)
{
int i,j,k,temp[100];
i=low;
j=mid+1;
k=low;
do
{
if(a[i]>=a[j])
temp[k++]=a[j++];
else
temp[k++]=a[i++];
}while((i<=mid)&&(j<=high));
while(i<=mid)
temp[k++]=a[i++];
while(j<=high)
temp[k++]=a[j++];
for(i=low;i<=high;i++)
{
a[i]=temp[i];
}
}

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 MERGE SORT USES WHICH TECHNIQUE TO DIVIDE
IMPLEMENT SORTING? AND
CONQUER
2 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE CASE TIME COMPLEXITY O(N LOG N)
OF MERGE SORT?
3 MERGE SORT CAN BE IMPLEMENTED USING O(1) TRUE
AUXILIARY SPACE.(TRUE OR FALSE)
4 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE TIME COMPLEXITY O(N LOG N)
OF MERGE SORT?
5 WHICH METHOD IS USED FOR SORTING IN MERGING
MERGE SORT?
6 WHAT WILL BE THE BEST CASE TIME O(N LOG N)
COMPLEXITY OF MERGE SORT?
7 MERGE SORT IS PREFERRED FOR ARRAYS OVER FALSE
LINKED LISTS.(TRUE OR FALSE)

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Shell sort

 Shell sort is introduced to improve the efficiency of simple

insertion sort.
 Shell sort is also called diminishing increment sort
Algorithm for Shell sort
Step 1: Input n number of elements in array a.
Step 2: Initialize i= 0 and repeat through step 6 if(i<x)
Step 3: span=incr[i]
Step 4: Initialize j=span and repeat through step 6 if (j<n)
temp=a[j]
Step 5: Initialize k=j-span and repeat through step 5 if(k>=0) and
(temp<a[k])
a[k+span]=a[k]
Step 6: a[k+span]=temp
Step 7: Exit

Program for Shell sort

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[100],n,i,num,k,j;

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clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array elements a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\nEnter maximum number (odd value):");
scanf("%d",&num);
while(num>=1)
{
for(j=num;j<n;j++)
{
k=a[j];
for(i=j-num;i>=0 && k<a[i];i=i-num)
a[i+num]=a[i];
a[i+num]=k;
}
printf("\nIncrement=%d\n",num);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("%d\t",a[i]);
printf("\n");
num=num-2;
}
printf("\nSorted array");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("%d\t",a[i]);
}
getch();
}

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHAT IS THE OTHER NAME FOR A SHELL DIMINISHING
SORT ALGORITHM? INCREMENT
SORT
2 THE WORST CASE RUNNING TIME OF SHELL O(N2)
SORT, USING SHELL’S INCREMENTS IS?
3 WHO INVENTED THE SHELL SORT DONALD SHELL
ALGORITHM?
4 SHELL SORT ALGORITHM IS AN EXAMPLE INTERNAL
OF? SORTING

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SEARCHING METHOD

1. Sequential searching

 To search (locate, find) an element from the unsorted array list we

are using this simplest technique.
 It simply traverses from top to bottom in the array and searches for
the key value from the list and displays output as well. It is called
sequential searching method.
Algorithm for sequential searching
a represents array
n represent number of elements in array
ele represents element to be searched
Step 1: Initialize flag=0
Step 2: Initialize i=0 and repeat till if(i<n)

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Get array elements (&a[i])

Step 3:Repeat step 4 for i=0,1,2….n-1
Step 4:if(a[i]==ele)
Output “successful searching”
flag=1
Step 5: if flag==0
Output “unsuccessful search”
Step 6: STOP
Program for sequential searching
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[100],n,ele,i,flag=0;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array elements a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
}
printf("\nEnter the element you want to search:");
scanf("%d",&ele);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i]==ele)
{
printf("\nYour element %d is at position %d",ele,i);
flag=1;
}
}
if(flag==0)
printf("\nNo such element avaialable in array");
getch();
}

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Binary searching

 The main characteristics of binary search is that it works only on

sorted array lists and so it becomes easy to find any information
very fast.
Algorithm for binary searching
a represents array
n represent number of elements in array
ele represents element to be searched
Step 1: Initialize flag=0,start:
Step 2: Initialize i=0 and repeat through step 3 till if(i<n)
Get array elements (&a[i])
Step 3:if(i>0)
if(a[i-1]>a[i])
break;
goto start; //label
Step 4: Repeat step 4 for i=0,1,2….n-1
Step 5:if(a[i]==ele)
Output “successful searching”
flag=1
Step 6: if flag==0
Output “unsuccessful search”
Step 7: STOP
Program for binary searching
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
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int a[100],n,i,ele,flag=0;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter array size:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\nEnter array element a[%d]:",i);
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
if(i>0)
{
if(a[i-1]>a[i])
{
printf("\nnumber should be greater than
previous value");
getch();
break;
} }}
printf("\nEnter element to be searched");
scanf("%d",&ele);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i]==ele)
{
printf("\nYour element %d is at position %d",ele,i);
flag==1;
}}
if(flag==0)
printf("\nElement not found");
getch();
}

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHAT IS THE BEST CASE FOR LINEAR O(1)
SEARCH?
2 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE FOR LINEAR O(N)
SEARCH?
3 WHAT IS THE BEST CASE AND WORST CASE O(1), O(N)
COMPLEXITY OF ORDERED LINEAR
SEARCH?
4 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE RUNTIME OF O(N)
LINEAR SEARCH(RECURSIVE) ALGORITHM?
5 LINEAR SEARCH(RECURSIVE) ALGORITHM WHEN THE SIZE
USED IN _____________ OF THE
DATASET IS
LOW
6 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE COMPLEXITY OF O(LOGN)
BINARY SEARCH USING RECURSION?
7 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE CASE TIME O(LOGN)
COMPLEXITY OF BINARY SEARCH USING
RECURSION?
8 WHAT IS THE TIME COMPLEXITY OF O(LOGN)
BINARY SEARCH WITH ITERATION?

SUMMARY
 The process of arranging the data or information in some logical
order is known as sorting
 The logical order may be ascending or descending based on our
requirement.
 There are mainly two types of sorting available are.
o Internal sorting
o External sorting
 There are mainly five sorting techniques

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o Bubble sort
o Insertion sort
o Quick sort
o Bucket sort
o Merge sort
o Selection sort
o Shell sort
 The process of “looking up” specific records from the database is
known as searching
 There are mainly two types:
o Binary
o Sequential

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UNIT - 2 PART – 2 - GRAPH

 Introduction
 Adjacency matrix and
adjacency lists
 Graph traversal
 Depth first search
(dfs) Implementation
 Breadth first search
(bfs)
Implementation
 Shortest path problem
 Minimal spanning tree
1. Introduction
 A graph is a general tree with no parent-child relationship.
 Graphs have many applications in computer science and other
fields of science such as mapping, transportation, geography and so
on. Graphs are used in various types of modeling. For example
graphs can be used to represent connecting roads between cities.
 In general graphs represent a relatively less restrictive relationship
between the data items. It is a way of representing relationships
that exists between pairs of objects.
 A graph consist of
i. Set of vertices V(V={v1,v2,v3……})
ii. Set of edges E(E={1,2,3,4,5……})

2. Adjacency Matrix and Adjacent Lists

 Graph is a mathematical structure and finds its application in many
areas, where the problem is to be solved by computers.

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 The problem related to graph G must be represented in computer

memory using any suitable data structure to solve the same.
 There are two standard ways of maintaining a graph G in the
memory of computer.
i. Sequential representation of a graph using adjacent(i.e.
Adjacency matrix representation)
ii. Linked representation of graph using linked list(i.e.
Adjacency list representation)

1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 IN GRAPH EVERY PATH IS TRAIL PATH? (TRUE OR TRUE
FALSE)
2 WHAT IS THE NUMBER OF EDGES PRESENT IN A (N*(N-
COMPLETE GRAPH HAVING N VERTICES? 1))/2
3 IN A SIMPLE GRAPH, THE NUMBER OF EDGES IS FALSE
EQUAL TO TWICE THE SUM OF THE DEGREES OF
THE VERTICES.
4 A GRAPH MAY CONTAIN MANY EDGES AND NO TRUE
VERTICES.(TRUE OR FALSE)
5 THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN THE ADJACENCY 49
MATRIX OF A GRAPH HAVING 7 VERTICES IS
__________
6 ADJACENCY MATRIX OF ALL GRAPHS ARE FALSE
SYMMETRIC.(TRUE OR FALSE)

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3. Graph Traversal
 A graph can be traversed using two methods as below:
a. Depth First Search(DFS)-Implementation
 When a graph is traversed by visiting the nodes in the
forward direction as long as possible the traversal is called
depth-first traversal.
 The algorithm repeatedly searches deeper by visiting
unvisited vertices and whenever an unvisited vertex is not
found, it backtracks to previous vertex to find out whether
there are still unvisited vertices.

b. Breadth First Search(BFS)-Implementation

 When a graph is traversed by visiting all the adjacent
nodes/vertices of node/vertex first, the traversal is called
breadth first traversal
 When breath first is applied the vertices of the graph are
divided into two categories.
 The vertices which are visited as part of search and those
vertices which are not visited as part of the search.

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 BREADTH FIRST SEARCH IS EQUIVALENT LEVEL-ORDER
TO WHICH OF THE TRAVERSAL IN THE TRAVERSAL
BINARY TREES?
2 TIME COMPLEXITY OF BREADTH FIRST O(V + E)
SEARCH IS? (V – NUMBER OF VERTICES, E –
NUMBER OF EDGES)
3 THE DATA STRUCTURE USED IN QUEUE
STANDARD IMPLEMENTATION OF
BREADTH FIRST SEARCH IS?
4 THE BREADTH FIRST SEARCH TRAVERSAL TREE
OF A GRAPH WILL RESULT INTO?
5 WHEN THE BREADTH FIRST SEARCH OF A WHEN THE
GRAPH IS UNIQUE? GRAPH IS A
LINKED LIST
6 THE DATA STRUCTURE USED IN STACK
STANDARD IMPLEMENTATION OF DFS IS?
7 WHAT WILL BE THE TIME COMPLEXITY OF O(V+E)
THE ITERATIVE DEPTH FIRST TRAVERSAL
CODE(V=NO. OF VERTICES E=NO.OF
EDGES)?

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8 WHAT IS THE SPACE COMPLEXITY OF O(V)

STANDARD DFS(V: NO. OF VERTICES E: NO.
OF EDGES)?
9 DEPTH FIRST SEARCH IS EQUIVALENT TO PRE-ORDER
WHICH OF THE TRAVERSAL IN THE TRAVERSAL
BINARY TREES?
10 THE DEPTH FIRST SEARCH TRAVERSAL OF TREE
A GRAPH WILL RESULT INTO?

4. Shortest Path Problem

 As we ever that when we want to reach from one station to another
at that time driver takes shortest possible route to reach destination.
There are many instances to find the shortest path for traveling
from one place to another. That is to find which route can reach as
quick as possible of a route for which the traveling cost is
minimum.
 In a graph finding shortest path is the most important problem.
 Dijkstra’s Algorithm is used to find the shortest path.
 The single source shortest path algorithm is based on assumption
that no edges have negative weights.
DIJKSTRA’S ALGORITHM
 It is invented by Dutch computer scientist E.W. Dijkstra’s
which solves the problem of finding the shortest path from a
point in a graph to destination with non-negative weight
edge.

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5. Minimal Spanning Tree

 A spanning tree of a graph is just a sub graph that contains all the
vertices and is a tree(with no cycle).
 A graph may have many spanning trees.
 A minimum spanning tree(MST) for graph is a subgraph of graph
that contains all the vertices of G(graph).
 If a graph G is not a connected graph, then it cannot have any
spanning tree.
 In this case, it will have a spanning forest. Suppose a graph(G)
with n vertices then the MST will have (n-1) edges, assuming that
the graph is connected.
 To obtain minimum spanning tree of connected weighted and
undirected graph, different algorithms are use which are listed as
under:
i. Krukal’s Algorithm
ii. Prim’s Algorithm
iii. Sollin’s Algorithm

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR. QUESTION ANSWER

NO.
1 DIJKSTRA’S ALGORITHM IS USED TO SOLVE SINGLE
_____________ PROBLEMS. SOURCE
SHORTES
T PATH
2 WHICH IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED DATA MIN
STRUCTURE FOR IMPLEMENTING DIJKSTRA’S PRIORITY
ALGORITHM? QUEUE
3 PRIM’S ALGORITHM IS A ______ GREEDY
ALGORIT
HM
4 CONSIDER A COMPLETE GRAPH G WITH 4 13
VERTICES. THE GRAPH G HAS ____ SPANNING
TREES.
5 TO IMPLEMENT DIJKSTRA’S SHORTEST PATH QUEUE
ALGORITHM ON UNWEIGHTED GRAPHS SO
THAT IT RUNS IN LINEAR TIME, THE DATA
STRUCTURE TO BE USED IS:

SUMMARY
 In mathematics and computer science, graph theory is the study of
graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise
relations between objects.
 A "graph" in this context is made up of "vertices" or "nodes" and
lines called edges that connect them.
 A graph may be undirected, meaning that there is no distinction
between the two vertices associated with each edge, or its edges
may be directed from one vertex to another; see graph
(mathematics) for more detailed definitions and for other variations
in the types of graph that are commonly considered. Graphs are
one of the prime objects of study in discrete mathematics.

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UNIT-3 - PART - 1- INTRODUCTION TO DATA STRUCTURE

 Introduction
 Primitive and simple structures
 Linear and nonlinear structures
file organization.

Some Important Terms

1. DATA
Information which is input to a computer system and is then processed by
mathematical and logical operation. So that it can ultimately be output in a
sensible form. It usually has numbers facts letter or system that refer to or
describe an object idea, condition, situation relationship or other type of
information
2. DATA-TYPE
Data type is the set of permitted data values and certain operation on data.
DATA TYPE = PERMITTED DATA VALUES +
OPERATION

3. DATA-STRUCTURE
Data structure is the possible ways of organizing data items that
defines how the data items are stored in memory and relationship with
each other. Data structure is the possible ways that defines the
relationship between data items.
DATA STRUCTURE = ORGANIZED DATA + ALLOWEDOPE

4. CELLS
Cells is the memory area that used to store elementary data items, it
can be refered as a single bit, byte, group of bytes.

5. FIELDS
Field is a smallest piece of information that can be reference by a
programming language.

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TYPES OF DATA STRUCTURE

 The collection of organized data is known as data structure.
Data structure=Organized Data + Allowed operation

There are main two types of data structure:

1) Primitive data structure
2) Non-primitive data structure

Data Structure

Primitive Non-primitive

Integer
Numeric Character
Non-Numeric Array
Linear Non-Linear
Tree
Real Linked List
Graph
Double Stack
Long Queue
Logical File and structure

Non-Primitive data structure:-

 Non-primitive data structure means the data structure constructed by
using primitive data structure.
 Non-primitive data structure is also known as composite types.
 Non-primitive data structure is classified into two parts as shown
above:
a) Linear data structure:-
 In this type of data structure, the elements are arranged in
sequence like an array.
 i) Array:
 An array is the collection of structured set that holds fix
number of data elements.

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 An array is set of homogeneous elements (having same data

type).
 There are mainly 2 types of array:
 One-dimensional
 Two-dimensional
ii) Stack:
 Stack is one type of data structure where information is
based on LIFO (Last In First Out).
 All the insertions and deletions take place at only one end
which is known as Top Of Stack(TOS).
 There are two types of stack:
 Static stack (using array)
 Dynamic stack (using structure or linked list).
iii) Queue:
 Queue is one type of data structure where information is based
on
FIFO(First In First Out).
 All the insertions and deletion takes place at only end known
as front end.
 There are two types of queue:
 Static Queue (using array)
 Dynamic Queue (using structure or linked list).
iv) Linked List:-
 Linked list is defined as the collection of nodes and each node
contain two parts:
 Information part
 Pointer to next node.
 Information part contains the data and it may consists of one
or more fields.
 Pointer to next node contains the location where next
information is stored.
Node

Information part Pointer to next node

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 There are two types of linked list:

 Singly linked list
 Doubly linked list

v) File and structure:-

 File is the collection of data that is available to program
whenever needed.
 There are various operations that can be performed on file.
 Read
 Write
 Append
 Copy
 Structure is the collection of data elements that may or may
not have same data type (non-homogeneous data type).

b) Non-linear data structure

 In this type of data structure, data elements are not arranged in the
sequence.
i) Tree:
 It is the most important non-linear data structure which stores
data as branches.
 There are different types of trees like binary tree etc.

ii) Graph:
 It is also non-linear data structure which contains two main
pair:- Vertices and edges.
 Depending on nature of representation, there are different
types of graph.

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 AN ALGORITHM SHOULD HAVE ________ FREE OF
FEATURES.? AMBIGUITYCON
CISE
CONCISE
EFFICIENT
2 IF ELEMENTS OF THE DATA STRUCTURE LINEAR DATA
FORM A SEQUENCE OF THE LIST THEN IT STRUCTURE
IS CALLED AS _________.
3 WHICH DATA STRUCTURES ARE INDEXED LINEAR ARRAYS
STRUCTURES?
4 OPERATIONS ON A DATA STRUCTURE CREATION
MAY BE …. DESTRUCTION
SELECTION
5 WHICH DATA STRUCTURE IS NON-LINEAR TREE
TYPE?
6 FINDING THE LOCATION OF THE SEARCH
ELEMENT WITH A GIVEN VALUE IS:
7 WHICH DATA STRUCTURE CAN'T STORE ARRAYS
THE NON-HOMOGENEOUS DATA
ELEMENTS?

SUMMARY
 A collection of organized data is known as DATA STRUCTURE
 A data structure mainly divides into two parts
o Primitive data structure
o Non primitive data structure
 Linear data structure
 Non-linear data structure
 There are mainly three types of array:
o 1 D Array
o 2 D Array
o Multi dimensional array

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 An array and structure are related with each other in two way:
o Array as member of structure.
o Array of structure means structure variable as an array.
 Any data structure whose size is fixed at compile time is known as
static data structure(allocation)
 Any data structure whose size is not fixed means during the
program executing, but it expands at run time is known as dynamic
data structure(allocation)
 When we using dynamic memory allocation, it allocates memory at
run time that’s why it saves memory space.
 There are mainly four types of dynamic memory allocation
functions are as below:
o malloc: it allocates memory for the requested byte of size
p=(structure *) malloc (size * size of(structure))
o calloc: it allocates memory for elements of an array. It
initializes value to zero
p=(structure *)calloc(n,element size)
o free: it removes previously allocated memory
free(p);
o realloc: it modifies the size of previously allocated memory
p=realloc(p,newsize)

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UNIT-3 PART – 2 - ELEMENTARY DATA STRUCTURE

 Introduction
 Stack
o Definition
o Operations on
stack
o Implementation of
stacks using arrays
o Function to insert
an element into the
stack
o Function to delete
an element from
the stack
o Function to
display the items
 Recursion and stacks
 Evaluation of
expressions using stacks
o Postfix
expressions
o Prefix expression
 Queue
o Introduction
o Array
implementation of
queues
o Function to insert
an element into the
queue
o Function to delete
an element from
the queue
 Circular queue

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o Function to insert
an element into the
queue
o Function for
deletion from
circular queue
o Circular queue
with array
implementation
 Deques
 Priority Queues

What is stack?
 Stack is a linear data structure in which insertions and deletions of
an element are done at one end which is known as TOS (Top Of
Stack).
 Stack supports LIFO( Last In First Out)

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 Application of Stacks
o Stack is used in the mobile. Message sent by one user and
another message sent by same user after some time, in that
case the message that was sent last by the user arrives in the
inbox first
o Consider a stack of plates placed on counter in a restaurant,
During dinner time, plates are taken from the top of
place(stack) and waiter puts the washed plates on the top of
position which is known as TOS
o The most important application of stack is recursion.
o It is also used in memory management and in operating
systems
 Types of stack/implementation of stack
o Static Stack/Stack(array)
o Dynamic Stack(linked list)
 Static stack:
a. Push operation
 To insert an element on the stack we are using push
operation
 This operation inserts the element only on the TOS
 Algorithm (we have to define size first)
 Step-1:First we have to check for stack overflow
If(tos>=size)
Stack is full
 Step-2:Tos=tos+1(increment the pointer value by 1)
 Step-3:Stack[tos]=ele; where ele is an element that is to be
inserted
 Step-4: End

b. Pop operation
 To delete an element from the stack we are using pop
operation
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 This operation removes or deletes the top most element from

stack
 Algorithm
 Step-1:First we have to check for stack underflow
If(tos<0)
Stack is empty
 Step-2: tos=tos-1
 Step-3: Print stack[tos]
 Step-4: End

c. Peep operation
 If we want to access some information stored at some
location in stack then peep operation is required.
 The index value is subtracted from tos
 Algorithm
 Step-1: If tos<0---stack is empty
 Step-2:Input the position of the element that you want to
read
 Step-3:If(element<0 || element>tos+1)
Out of range
 Step-4: Else Print peeped element
Stack[tos-pos+1]
 Step-5: End

d. Display operation
 Step-1: If(tos<0)—stack is empty
 Step-2: else
for(i=tos;i>=0;i--)
print element that is stack[i]
 Step-3: End
e. Update operation
 Step-1: If tos<0—stack is empty

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 Step-2: Input the position of the element that you want to

change
 Step-3: if(pos<0 || pos>tos+1)
out of range
 Step-4:else
Enter new data and print the new data [tos-pos+1]
 Step-5: End
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define size 100
int tos=-1;
int stack[size];
void push(int);
void display();
void peep();
void pop();
void update();
void main()
{
clrscr();
push(10);
push(11);
push(12);
display();
peep();
update();
display();
pop();
display();
getch();
}
void push(int ele)
{
if(tos>=size)

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printf("\nStack is full");
else
tos++;
stack[tos]=ele;
}
void display()
{
int i;
if(tos<0)
printf("\nstack is empty");
else
{
for(i=tos;i>=0;i--)
printf("\nElement at position %d is %d",i,stack[i]);
}
}
void peep()
{
int pos;
if(tos<0)
printf("\nstack is empty");
else
printf("\nEnter value of pos:");
scanf("%d",&pos);
if(pos<0 || pos>tos+1)
printf("\nout of range");
else
printf("\nPeeped element is %d",stack[tos-pos+1]);
}
void pop()
{
if(tos<0)
printf("\nStack is empty");
else
printf("\nelement deleted");
tos--;

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}
void update()
{
int pos;
if(tos<0)
printf("\nstack is empty");
else
{
printf("\nEnter postion:");
scanf("%d",&pos);
if(pos<=0 || pos>tos+1)
printf("\nout of range");
else
{
printf("\nenter new value:");
scanf("%d",&stack[tos-pos+1]);
//printf("\nelement=%d",stack[tos-pos+1]);
}
}
}
 Dynamic stack:
a. Push operation
 Step-1:Allocate the memory to the node (node *t)
t=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
 Step-2:Assign data part and next part of node
t->info=ele;
t->next=tos;
top=t;
 Step-3: End
b. Pop operation
 Step-1:Check whether stack is empty or not.
If(tos==NULL)
Stack is empty
 Step-2: If the stack is not empty then
t=tos

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tos=t->next
free(t)
 Step-3: End

c. Peep operation
 Step-1: Enter the position from user
 Step-2:Initialize i=0,j=1;
 Step-3:node *temp
for(temp=tos; temp!=NULL;temp=temp->next)
i++;
 Step-4:if(pos>i)—stack is full
 Step-5:else
temp=tos;
for(j=1;j<pos;j++)
temp=temp->next;
printf(“%d”,temp->info)
 Step-5: End

d. Display operation
 Step-1: while(temp!=NULL)
printf(“%d”,temp->info)
temp=temp->next;
 Step-2: End

e. Update operation
 Step-1: Enter the position from user
 Step-2:Initialize i=0,j=1;
 Step-3:node *temp
for(temp=tos; temp!=NULL;temp=temp->next)
i++;
 Step-4:if(pos>i)—stack is full
 Step-5:else
temp=tos;

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new1=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node)
scanf(“%d”,new1->info)
for(j=1;j<pos;j++)
temp=temp->next;
temp->info=new1->info
 Step-5: End
Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct list
{
int info;
struct list *next;
};
typedef struct list node;
struct list *new1;
node *tos;
void push(int);
void pop();
void peep();
void display();
void update();
void main()
{
tos=NULL;
clrscr();
push(10);
push(11);
push(12);
push(13);
push(14);
display();
pop();
display();
peep();
update();

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display();
getch();
}
void push(int ele)
{
node *t;
t=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
t->info=ele;
t->next=tos;
tos=t;
}
void display()
{
node *temp;
temp=tos;
while(temp!=NULL)
{
printf("\nStack Element is:%d",temp->info);
temp=temp->next;
}
}
void pop()
{
node *temp;
if(tos==NULL)
printf("\nStack is empty");
else
temp=tos;
tos=temp->next;
free(temp);
}
void peep()
{
int pos,i,j;
node *temp;
printf("\nEnter position:");

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scanf("%d",&pos);
for(temp=pos;temp!=NULL;temp=temp->next)
{
i++;
}
if(pos>i)
printf("\nStack is empty");
else
{
temp=tos;
for(j=1;j<pos;j++)
{
temp=temp->next;
}
printf("\nValue at %d is %d",pos,temp->info);
}
}
void update()
{
int pos,i=0,j;
node *temp;
printf("\nEnter position:");
scanf("%d",&pos);
for(temp=pos;temp!=NULL;temp=temp->next)
{
i++;
}
if(pos>i)
printf("\nStack is full");
else
{
new1=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
printf("\nenter new value");
scanf("%d",&new1->info);
temp=tos;
for(j=1;j<pos;j++)

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{
temp=temp->next;
}
temp->info=new1->info;
}
}

Recursion & Evaluation of expression using Stack

 The main applications of stack are:
1) Polish Notation
2) Recursion

1) Polish Notation:- The process of writing the operators either before or

after the operands in known as polish notation. It has 3 categories:
1. Infix : Operators are written between two operands.
2. Prefix: operators are written before their operands.
3. Postfix: Operators are written after their operands.
Example:
Infix: a+b*c
Prefix: +a*bc
Postfix: abc*+

Lets see how the stack is used in polish notation.

Step 1: Suppose we want to convert infix to prefix then we have to start the
infix statement from back. When the operator comes then they should not be
pushed in stack.
Infix: a+b*c

Operator
b
c c
*
 After the insertion of b in the stack, operator + comes so now the
precedence should be checked. As the precedence of + is less than * so
now elements should be popped.

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 The first element that will be popped is b then c. Then * operator is

written. So we get: *bc
 Now the stack is empty as b and c are popped.

Operator
+
 Then a is pushed in the stack.

Operator
+
So athe element a is popped. Now we get
+a *bc which is our prefix expression.
Step 2: Suppose we want to convert infix to postfix then we have to start the
infix statement from front. When the operator comes then they should not be
pushed in stack.
Infix: a+b*

Operator

+ b
a a
 After the insertion of b in the stack, operator * comes so now the
precedence should be checked. As the precedence of * is more than + so it
remains as it is.

Operator
+,*
b
a
 Then last element c is pushed.
Operator
+,*
c
b
 So now
a as the expression is complete, the elements are popped.
 First + have low precedence so it is placed at last then * operator. After
that elements are popped and are written from back that is as c is popped
first then c*+ then b is popped so bc*+ and then a is popped so abc*+.
Finally we get

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abc*+ which is our postfix expression

2) Recursion:- The process in which function calls itself is known as recursion.
Example:
int fact(int n)
{
if(n==1)
return 1;
else
return n*fact(n-1);
}
Stack in recursion is used in following way:
 Suppose we want to find factorial of 4. So n=4.and fact() will be
recursively called.
Step 1: 4*fact(4-1). Step 3: now n=2, so 4*3*2*fact(2-
1)
2
3
4 4
Step 2: now n=3 , so 4* 3*fact(3-1) step 4: now n=1, so it will return 1.
1
2
3 3
Now the elements
4 are popped in following way: 4

1
2 2
3 3 6
4 4 4 24

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 PROCESS OF INSERTING AN ELEMENT IN STACK PUSH
IS CALLED ____________
2 PROCESS OF REMOVING AN ELEMENT FROM POP
STACK IS CALLED __________
3 IN A STACK, IF A USER TRIES TO REMOVE AN UNDERFLO
ELEMENT FROM AN EMPTY STACK IT IS CALLED W
_________
4 PUSHING AN ELEMENT INTO STACK ALREADY OVERFLOW
HAVING FIVE ELEMENTS AND STACK SIZE OF 5,
THEN STACK BECOMES _______
5 FULL FORM OF LIFO________ LAST IN
FIRST OUT
6 THE DATA STRUCTURE REQUIRED TO CHECK STACK
WHETHER AN EXPRESSION CONTAINS A
BALANCED PARENTHESIS IS?
7 WHAT DATA STRUCTURE WOULD YOU MOSTLY STACK
LIKELY SEE IN NON RECURSIVE
IMPLEMENTATION OF A RECURSIVE
ALGORITHM?
8 THE PROCESS OF ACCESSING DATA STORED IN STACK
A SERIAL ACCESS MEMORY IS SIMILAR TO
MANIPULATING DATA ON A ________
9 WHICH DATA STRUCTURE IS USED FOR STACK
IMPLEMENTING RECURSION?
10 WHICH DATA STRUCTURE IS NEEDED TO STACK
CONVERT INFIX NOTATION TO POSTFIX
NOTATION?
11 THE POSTFIX FORM OF A*B+C/D IS? AB*CD/+
12 THE TYPE OF EXPRESSION IN WHICH OPERATOR POSTFIX
SUCCEEDS ITS OPERANDS IS? EXPRESSION

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What is queue?

 Queue is the linear data structure in which information is based on

FIFO(First In First Out) or FCFS(First Come First Server)
 In queue insertion of an element is performed at one end known as
back or rear end and deletion is performed at another end known as
front end.

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 Insertion operation is known as enqueue and deletion operation is

known as dqueue

STACK QUEUE
In stack both the insertion and In queue insertion takes place at
deletion takes place at only one rear and deletion takes place at
end know as TOS (top of stack) front
In stack we have to keep track of In queue we have to keep track of
only TOS both the ends that is front and rear
 Types of queue/implementation of queue
o Static Queue/Queue(array)

o Dynamic Queue(linked list)

o Circular Queue
 Static queue:
a. Insert operation
 Algorithm (we have to define size first)
 Step-1:If rear>=size
Output “queue overflow”

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 Step-2:rear = rear +1
 Step-3:q[rear]=element
 Step-4: End

b. Delete operation
 Algorithm
 Step-1:If front <0
Output “queue underflow”
 Step-2: front ++;
 Step-3: End

c. Display operation
 Algorithm
 Step-1: If fornt<0---queue underflow
 Step-2:for(i=front;i<=rear;i++)
Printf(“%d”,queue[i]);
 Step-3:End
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define size 100
int front=-1,rear=-1;
int queue[size];
void insert(int);
void deleted();
void display();
void main()
{
clrscr();
insert(10);
insert(11);
insert(12);
insert(13);
insert(14);
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display();
printf("\n\n");
deleted();
display();
getch();
}
void insert(int ele)
{
if(rear>size)
printf("\nQueue is full");
else
{
rear++;
queue[rear]=ele;
if(rear==0)
front=0;
}
}
void deleted()
{
if(front<0)
printf("\nQueue is empty");
else
{
if(front==rear)
{
front=-1;
rear=-1;
}
else
front++;
}
}
void display()
{
int i;

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if(front<0)
printf("\nQueue empty");
else
{
for(i=front;i<=rear;i++)
{
printf("\nElement at position %d is %d",i,queue[i]);
}
}
}

 Dynamic queue:
a. Insert operation
 Step-1:Allocate the memory to the node (node *q)
q=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
 Step-2:Assign data part and next part of node
q->info=ele;
q->next=NULL;
 Step-3:If queue is empty then:
if(front==NULL)
front=rear=q
 Step-4:If queue is not empty
rear-next=q;
rear=q;
 Step-5: End

b. Delete operation
 Step-1:Check whether queue is empty or not.
 Step-2: If the queue is empty then
If(front==NULL)---queue empty
 Step-3: If queue is not empty then
node *q
q=front
front=q->next

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 Step-4:free(q)
 Step-5:End

c. Display operation
 Step-1: node *q
q=front
 Step-2:Check if queue is empty or not
If(q==NULL)---queue empty
 Step-3: If queue is not empty then
While(q!=NULL)
Printf(“%d”,q->info);
q=q->next
 Step-4:END

Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct list
{
int info;
struct list *next;
};
typedef struct list node;
node *front,*rear;
void insert(int);
void deleted();
void display();
void main()
{
front=rear=NULL;
clrscr();
insert(10);
insert(11);
insert(12);
display();

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deleted();
display();
getch();
}
void insert(int ele)
{
node *t;
t=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
t->info=ele;
t->next=NULL;
if(front==NULL)
{
front=rear=t;
}
else
{
rear->next=t;
rear=t;
}
}
void deleted()
{
node *temp;
temp=front;
if(temp==NULL)
printf("\nQueue is empty");
else
front=temp->next;
free(temp);
}
void display()
{
node *temp;
int i=0;
temp=front;
if(temp==NULL)

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printf("\nQueue is empty");
else
{
while(temp!=NULL)
{
printf("\nElement is %d",temp->info);
temp=temp->next;
}
}
}

 Circular queue:
 The problem with simple queue is that once we insert the elements
and when we are removing elements using front pointer these
elements becomes blank. As the elements become blank we cannot
insert any elements in that blank space.
 So to overcome this problem there is technique available known as
circular queue. In this technique when rear reaches the queue’s size
the first element will become the queue’s new rear

 NOTE: When the queue is full, the first element of queue

becomes the rear if and only if front has moved forward otherwise
it will be again in a “queue full(overflow)” state.

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a. Insert operation
 Step-1:If front==1 and rear==size (output queue overflow)
 Step-2:else if (front==0)
Front=rear=1
q[rear]=element
 Step-3:else if (rear==size)
rear=1
q[rear]=element
 Step-4:else
rear=rear+1
q[rear]=element
 Step-5: End

b. Delete operation
 Step-1:If front==0 (output queue is empty)
 Step-2: If front==rear
front=rear=0
 Step-3: else if (front==size)
front=1
 Step-4:else

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front=front+1
 Step-5:End

c. Display operation
 Step-1: If front==0 (output queue is empty)
 Step-2:else if (front >rear)
for(i=1;i<=rear;i++)
printf(“%d”,queue[i])
for(i=front;i<=size;i++)
printf(“%d”,queue[i])

 Step-3: else
for(i=front;i<=rear;i++)
printf(“%d”,queue[i])
 Step-4:END

Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define size 5
int queue[size];
int front=0,rear=0;
void insert(int);
void deleted();
void display();

void main()
{
clrscr();
insert(10);
insert(20);
insert(30);
insert(40);
insert(50);
display();
printf("\n\n");

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deleted();
display();
printf("\n\n");
insert(60);
display();
getch();
}
void insert(int ele)
{
if(front==1 && rear==size)
printf("\nQueue is full");
else if(front==0)
{
front=rear=1;
queue[rear]=ele;
}
else if(rear==size)
{
rear=1;
queue[rear]=ele;
}
else
{
rear++;
queue[rear]=ele;
}
}
void deleted()
{
if(front==0)
printf("\nQueue is empty");
else if(front==rear)
front=rear=0;
else if(front==size)
front=1;
else

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front++;
}
void display()
{
int i;
if(front==0)
printf("\nQueue is empty");
else if(front>rear)
{
for(i=1;i<=rear;i++)
{
printf("\nElement at %d is %d",i,queue[i]);
}
for(i=front;i<=size;i++)
{
printf("\nElement at %d is %d",i,queue[i]);
}
}
else
{
for(i=front;i<=rear;i++)
{
printf("\nElement at %d is %d",i,queue[i]);
}
}
}

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 A LINEAR LIST OF ELEMENTS IN WHICH QUEUE
DELETION CAN BE DONE FROM ONE END
(FRONT) AND INSERTION CAN TAKE PLACE
ONLY AT THE OTHER END (REAR) IS KNOWN AS
_____________
2 THE DATA STRUCTURE REQUIRED FOR QUEUE
BREADTH FIRST TRAVERSAL ON A GRAPH IS?
3 A QUEUE FOLLOWS __________ PRINCIPLE FIFO (FIRST
IN FIRST OUT)
4 FULL FORM OF FIFO________________ FIRST IN
FIRST OUT
5 CIRCULAR QUEUE IS ALSO KNOWN AS ________ RING BUFFER
6 IF THE ELEMENTS “A”, “B”, “C” AND “D” ARE ABCD
PLACED IN A QUEUE AND ARE DELETED ONE AT
A TIME, IN WHAT ORDER WILL THEY BE
REMOVED?
7 A DATA STRUCTURE IN WHICH ELEMENTS CAN DEQUEUE
BE INSERTED OR DELETED AT/FROM BOTH
ENDS BUT NOT IN THE MIDDLE IS?
8 A NORMAL QUEUE, IF IMPLEMENTED USING AN REAR =
ARRAY OF SIZE MAX_SIZE, GETS FULL WHEN? MAX_SIZE – 1
9 WITH WHAT DATA STRUCTURE CAN A TREE
PRIORITY QUEUE BE IMPLEMENTED?
10 WHAT IS THE TIME COMPLEXITY TO INSERT A O(N)
NODE BASED ON KEY IN A PRIORITY QUEUE?
11 WHAT IS THE TIME COMPLEXITY TO INSERT A O(N)
NODE BASED ON POSITION IN A PRIORITY
QUEUE?

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SUMMARY
 Stack is a linear data structure.
 It has LIFO structure means that last inputted element is the first out
from the stack.
 The place from insertion of elements and deletions of elements are take
place is known as TOS(Top of the stack)
 It supports various operations for the manipulation of elements. If we
want to insert elements then push operations is used.
 If we want to deleted elements then pop operation is used.
 If we want to know the top of the stack element then peep operation is
used.
 If we want to know the size of stack elements then we have to create
size() function through which we find out the size of it.
 If we want to know the stack is full or empty and based on that
appropriated message is display then we have to create isFull() and
isEmpty()function for that.
 Stack is very important part and very useful in large applications
 For example,it is used in memory management and in operating system.
 Another example is the tennis balls in their container(we cannot remove
2 balls at the same time)
 There are two ways through stack is implemented are static stack and
dynamic stack.
 Static stack uses array to perform all the operations on stack and
dynamic stack uses structure and pointer to perform all the operations
 Queue is a linear data structure which works FCFS (first come first
serve) basis.
 A queue insert element at one end is known as rear pointer variable
whereas it delete element
 From one end is known as front pointer variable. It means that insertion
of elements and
 Deletion of it occurs at different end of a queue.
 To insert elements at rear end a queue performs enqueue operations. To
delete elements from the front end a queue performs dequeue operations
and we can retrieve elements from the both end also.

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 We can implement static queue as well as dynamic queue in a data

structure.
 There are lots many application In which we are using queues.
Consider one example of time sharing computer. System in which many
users share the system simultaneously. The procedure is designed with
the use of round robin technique. The railway reservation counter is also
an example of queue where the people collect their tickets on FIFO or
FCFS based.
 There is a main problem in simple queue is that our array size is fixed
and there fore when rear pointer variable is equal to array size (i.e.
rear=size) we can’t insert any elements into queue.
 With the use of front pointer variable we can delete elements from the
queue. Each time the front pointer variable is increased by 1 when we
delete elements from it. But the main problem is that when our front=
rear (i.e. front variable value becomes equal to rear pointer variable) at
that time previously deleted element’s memory space is free though we
can’t insert elements into it. Because we can only insert elements at rear
end but rear=front that’s why not possible.
 To overcome this problem fortunately it has another type which is
known as circular queue.
 So in this when ‘rear’ reaches the queue’s size the first element will
become the queue’s new ‘rear’.
 Once the queue is full the ‘first’ element of the queue becomes the ‘rear’
most element, if and only if the ‘front’ has moved forward; otherwise it
will again be in a ‘queue overflow’ state.
 In a circular queue when rear = n, if we insert and element then this
element is assigned to Q [1] instead of increasing rear to n + 1 . Suppose
queue contains only one element that is front = rear != NULL and
suppose that the element is removed then the front and rear pointers are
now assigned NULL to indicate that the queue is empty.
 There is another technique also available which is known as double
ended queue (DEQUE). It works same like as simple queue but insertion
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and deletions are possible at either end. Elements can be inserted or

deleted from the front or rear end. It is a general form of stack and
queue.
 There are mainly two types of de queue:
o Input restricted dequeue:
 It allows insetions at only one end of the list whereas
deletion can occur either both the ends.
o Output restricted dequeue:
 It allows deletions at only one end of the list whereas
insertion can occur either both the ends of list.

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UNIT -4 - LINK LIST

 Introduction
 Singly linked lists.
o Implementation of
linked list
o Insertion of a node at
the beginning
o Insertion of a node at
the end
o Insertion of a node
after a specified node
o Traversing the entire
linked list
o Deletion of a node
from linked list
 Concatenation of linked
lists
 Merging of linked lists
 Reversing of linked list
 Doubly linked list.
o Implementation of
doubly linked list
 Circular linked list
Applications of the linked lists

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Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge
Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

What is Linked list?

 A linked list is defined as collection (sequence) of nodes. Each

node has two parts
o Information
o Pointer to next node
 Information
o Information part may consist of one or more than one fields.
 Pointer to next node
o Pointer to next node contains the address of location where
next information is stored
o The last node of the list contains NULL in the pointer field

Information part Pointer to next node

Note: Linked list is also known as self-referential data type because it
contains pointer that points to same data type
Advantage: A link list is a dynamic data structure and so the size of
linked list can be changed during execution of program.

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

Disadvantage: The limitation of linked list is that it consumes extra

space when compared to array because each node must also contain the
address of next item.
Types of linked list are:
1. Singly Linked List
2. Doubly Linked List
3. Circular Linked List ( Singly & Doubly)
4. Header Linked List

Applications of linked list are:

1. In line editor:
 One interesting use of linked list is line editor. We can keep
a link list of lines nodes. Each containing line number, a line
of text and pointer to next line information node.
2. In string manipulation:
 Variable string length can be represented as linked list. A
string may be declared as a record that contains a string
count & pointer to linked list of characters.

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

3. In implementation of space matrix:

 A space matrix is a table which relatively with few non-zero
elements.
4. In operating system:
 The allocation of memory space may be managed by doubly
linked list of various size block of memory. In multi-user
system the operating system may keep track of user jobs
waiting to execute through linked list queue.
5. Implementing stack and queue:
 It is easy to implement stack & queue operation using linked
list rather than array implementations of stack & queue.
6. Polynomial manipulation:
 A linked list uses as a typical term of polynomial. The
common operation performs on polynomial are addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, integration and
differentiation.
7. Linked dictionary:
 An important part of any compiler is the construction and
maintenance of a dictionary containing name and their
associated values, such dictionary is also called a symbol
table

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

 Singly Linked List:

a. Singly linked list is the most basic of all the linked data structure
b. A singly linked list is a collection of nodes and each node contains
the pointer to next element
c. In singly link list we can move from left to right that is only in one
dimension but we cannot return back.
d. Each node represents structure, containing variables for
information and a structure pointer to itself.
struct list
{
int info;
struct node *next;
};
typedef struct list node;
node *p;

e. Create operation
 Algorithm
 Step-1Check whether any node exists in the list or not
 Step-2:If list is Empty then create node
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

if(q==NULL)
{
q=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
q->data=info;
q->next=NULL;
}
 Step-3:If the list is not Empty then create the node after the
last node
while(q->next!=NULL)
{
q=q->next;
}
q->next=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
q->next->data=info;
q->next->next=NULL;
 Step-4: End

f. Display operation
 Algorithm
 Step-1: while(q!=NULL)
{
printf(“\nElement is %d”,q->info);
q=q->next;
}
 Step-2: End

g. Add node at beginning operation

 Algorithm
 Step-1: Allocate the memory to the node P that is to be
inserted in the beginning
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node))
 Step-2:Allocate the data and pointer to next node part
p->data=info
p->next=q;
 Step-3:End

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

h. Add node at after operation

 Algorithm
 Step-1: Take a temporary node which is to be inserted (node
*temp)
 Step-2:for(i=1;i<pos;i++)
{
q=q->next;
if(q==NULL)
printf(“\nout of range”);
}

 Step-3:Allocate memory to temporary node and data and

next part
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node))
temp->info=ele
temp->next=q->next;
q->next=temp;
 Step-4:End

i. Count operation
 Algorithm
 Step-1: Initialize one counter variable for counting total no
of nodes (c=0)
 Step-2:while(q!=NULL)
{
q=q->next
}
return c;
 Step-3:End
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct list
{
int info;
struct list *next;

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

};
typedef struct list node;
node *p;
void create(int,node *);
void display(node *);
void addbeg(int,node *);
void addafter(int,int,node *);
void deleted(int,node *);
int count(node *);
void sort(node *);
void search(int,node *);
void main()
{
p=NULL;
clrscr();
create(10,p);
create(20,p);
create(5,p);
display(p);
addbeg(0,p);
printf("\n\n");
addafter(2,500,p);
deleted(20,p);
display(p);
sort(p);
printf("\n\n");
display(p);
search(15,p);
getch();
}
void create(int ele,node *q)
{
if(q==NULL)
{
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
p->info=ele;

129
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

p->next=NULL;
}
else
{
while(q->next!=NULL)
{
q=q->next;
}
q->next=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
q->next->info=ele;
q->next->next=NULL;
}
}
void display(node *q)
{
while(q!=NULL)
{
printf("\nElement is %d",q->info);
q=q->next;
}
}
int count(node *q)
{
int c=0;
while(q!=NULL)
{
q=q->next;
c++;
}
return (c);
}
void addbeg(int ele,node *q)
{
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
p->info=ele;
p->next=q;

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Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

}
void addafter(int c,int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
int i;
for(i=1;i<c;i++)
{
q=q->next;
if(q==NULL)
{
printf("\nposition is out of range");
return;
}
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->info=ele;
temp->next=q->next;
q->next=temp;
}
void deleted(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
if(q->info==ele)
{
p=q->next;
free(q);
return;
}
while(q->next->next!=NULL)
{
if(q->next->info==ele)
{
temp=q->next;
q->next=q->next->next;
free(temp);
return;

131
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Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

}
q=q->next;
}
}
void sort(node *q)
{
int t;
node *temp;
while(q!=NULL)
{
temp=q->next;
while(temp!=NULL)
{
if(q->info > temp->info)
{
t=q->info;
q->info=temp->info;
temp->info=t;
}
temp=temp->next;
}
q=q->next;
}
}
void search(int num,node *q)
{
while(q!=NULL)
{
if(q->info==num)
{
printf("\nSearch success");
printf("\nSearch element %d ",num);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}

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Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

printf("\nSearch unsuccessful");
getch();
}
1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 A LINEAR COLLECTION OF DATA LINKED LIST
ELEMENTS WHERE THE LINEAR
NODE IS GIVEN BY MEANS OF
POINTER IS CALLED?
2 IN LINKED LIST EACH NODE POINTER TO NODE
CONTAINS A MINIMUM OF TWO
FIELDS. ONE FIELD IS DATA FIELD TO
STORE THE DATA SECOND FIELD IS?
3 WHAT KIND OF LINKED LIST IS BEST ARRAY
TO ANSWER QUESTIONS LIKE “WHAT IMPLEMENTATION OF
IS THE ITEM AT POSITION N?” LINKED LIST
4 LINKED LISTS ARE NOT SUITABLE BINARY SEARCH
FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
___________
5 LINKED LIST IS CONSIDERED AS AN DYNAMIC
EXAMPLE OF ___________ TYPE OF
MEMORY ALLOCATION.
6 IN LINKED LIST IMPLEMENTATION, A LINK
NODE CARRIES INFORMATION
REGARDING ___________
7 LINKED LIST DATA STRUCTURE SPACE UTILIZATION
OFFERS CONSIDERABLE SAVING IN AND COMPUTATIONAL
_____________ TIME

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Raiya Road Raiya Road
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

 Doubly Linked List:

Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct list
{
int info;
struct list *next,*prev;
};
typedef struct list node;
node *p;
void create(int,node *);
void display(node *);
void addbeg(int,node *);
void addafter(int,int,node *);
void deleted(int,node *);
int count(node *);
void sort(node *);
void search(int,node *);
void main()
{
p=NULL;
clrscr();
create(10,p);
create(20,p);
create(30,p);
display(p);
addbeg(0,p);
printf("\n\n");
addafter(2,500,p);
deleted(20,p);
display(p);
sort(p);

134
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Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

printf("\n\n");
display(p);
search(15,p);
getch();

}
void create(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
if(q==NULL)
{
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
p->prev=NULL;
p->info=ele;
p->next=NULL;
}
else
{
while(q->next!=NULL)
{
q=q->next;
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->next=NULL;
temp->info=ele;
temp->prev=q;
q->next=temp;
}
}
void display(node *q)
{
while(q!=NULL)
{
printf("\nElement is %d",q->info);
q=q->next;
}

135
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Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

}
int count(node *q)
{
int c=0;
while(q!=NULL)
{
q=q->next;
c++;
}
return (c);
}
void addbeg(int ele,node *q)
{
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
p->prev=NULL;
p->info=ele;
p->next=q;
q->prev=p;
}
void addafter(int c,int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
int i;
for(i=1;i<c;i++)
{
q=q->next;
if(q==NULL)
{
printf("\nposition is out of range");
return;
}
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->prev=q;
temp->next=q->next;
temp->info=ele;

136
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

temp->next->prev=temp;
q->next=temp;
return;
}
void deleted(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
if(q->info==ele)
{
p=q->next;
q->next->prev=NULL;
free(q);
return;
}
while(q->next->next!=NULL)
{
if(q->next->info==ele)
{
temp=q->next;
q->next=q->next->next;
q->next->prev=temp->prev;
free(temp);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}
}
void sort(node *q)
{
int t;
node *temp;
while(q!=NULL)
{
temp=q->next;
while(temp!=NULL)
{

137
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

if(q->info>temp->info)
{
t=q->info;
q->info=temp->info;
temp->info=t;
}
temp=temp->next;
}
q=q->next;
}
}
void search(int num,node *q)
{
while(q!=NULL)
{
if(q->info==num)
{
printf("\nSearch success");
printf("\nSearch element %d ",num);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}
printf("\nSearch unsuccessful");
getch();
}

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 HOW DO YOU CALCULATE THE POINTER TO
POINTER DIFFERENCE IN A PREVIOUS NODE XOR
MEMORY EFFICIENT DOUBLE POINTER TO NEXT
LINKED LIST? NODE
2 WHAT IS THE WORST CASE TIME O(N)
COMPLEXITY OF INSERTING A NODE
IN A DOUBLY LINKED LIST?

 Circular Singly Linked List:

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct list
{
int info;
struct list *next;
};
typedef struct list node;
node *p;
void create(int,node *);
void display(node *);
void addbeg(int,node *);
void addafter(int,int,node *);
void deleted(int,node *);
int count(node *);
void sort(node *);
void search(int,node *);
void main()
{
p=NULL;
clrscr();
create(10,p);
create(11,p);
create(12,p);
display(p);
printf("\n\n");
addbeg(0,p);
addafter(3,12,p);
deleted(11,p);
sort(p);
search(5,p);
display(p);
getch();

140
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Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

void create(int ele,node *q)

{
if(q==NULL)
{
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
p->info=ele;
p->next=p;
}
else
{
while(q->next!=p)
{
q=q->next;
}
q->next=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
q->next->info=ele;
q->next->next=p;
}
}
void display(node *q)
{
do
{
printf("\nElement is %d",q->info);
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);
}
int count(node *q)
{
int c=0;
do
{
q=q->next;
c++;
}while(q!=p);
return (c);

141
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

}
void addbeg(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->info=ele;
temp->next=q;
while(q->next!=p)
{
q=q->next;
}
q->next=temp;
p=temp;
}
void addafter(int c,int ele,node *q)//pos is same as c var.
{
node *temp;
int i;
for(i=1;i<c;i++)
{
q=q->next;
if(q==p)
{
printf("\nposition is out of range");
return;
}
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->info=ele;
temp->next=q->next;
q->next=temp;
}
void deleted(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
if(q->info==ele)

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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

{
do
{
q=q->next;
}while(q->next!=p);
q->next=p;
p=p->next;
return;
}
while(q->next->next!=p)
{
if(q->next->info==ele)
{
temp=q->next;
q->next=temp->next;
free(temp);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}
}
void sort(node *q)
{
int t;
node *temp;
do
{
temp=q->next;
while(temp!=p)
{
if(q->info>temp->info)
{
t=q->info;
q->info=temp->info;
temp->info=t;
}

143
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Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

temp=temp->next;
}
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);
}
void search(int num,node *q)
{
do
{
if(q->info==num)
{
printf("\nSearch success");
printf("\nSearch element %d",num);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);
printf("\nSearch unsuccessful");
getch();
}

 Circular Doubly Linked List:

Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct list
{
int info;
struct list *next,*prev;
};
typedef struct list node;
node *p;
void create(int,node *);
void display(node *);
void addbeg(int,node *);

144
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Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

void addafter(int,int,node *);

void deleted(int,node *);
int count(node *);
void sort(node *);
void search(int,node *);
void main()
{
p=NULL;
clrscr();
create(10,p);
create(5,p);
create(15,p);
addbeg(0,p);
//search(5,p);
//sort(p);
//deleted(15,p);
display(p);
getch();
}
void create(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
if(q==NULL)
{
p=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
p->prev=p;
p->info=ele;
p->next=p;
}
else
{
while(q->next!=p)
{
q=q->next;
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));

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temp->next=p;
temp->info=ele;
temp->prev=q;
q->next=temp;
}
}
void display(node *q)
{
do
{
printf("\nElement is %d",q->info);
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);
}
int count(node *q)
{
int c=0;
do
{
q=q->next;
c++;
}while(q!=p);
return (c);
}
void addbeg(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
while(q->next!=p)
{
q=q->next;
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->prev=q;
temp->info=ele;
temp->next=p;
p->prev=temp;

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q->next=temp;
p=temp;

}
void addafter(int c,int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
int i;
for(i=1;i<c;i++)
{
q=q->next;
if(q==p)
{
printf("\nposition is out of range");
return;
}
}
temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node));
temp->prev=q;
temp->next=q->next;
temp->info=ele;
temp->next->prev=temp;
q->next=temp;
return;
}
void deleted(int ele,node *q)
{
node *temp;
if(q->info==ele)
{
temp=q;
p=temp->next;
while(q->next!=p)
{
q=q->next;
}

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p->prev=q;
return;

}
do
{
if(q->next->info==ele)
{
temp=q->next;
q->next=temp->next;
temp->next->prev=q;
// free(temp);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);
}
void sort(node *q)
{
int t;
node *temp;
do
{
temp=q->next;
while(temp!=p)
{
if(q->info>temp->info)
{
t=q->info;
q->info=temp->info;
temp->info=t;
}
temp=temp->next;
}
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);

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}
void search(int num,node *q)
{
do
{
if(q->info==num)
{
printf("\nSearch success");
printf("\nSearch element %d",num);
return;
}
q=q->next;
}while(q!=p);
printf("\nSearch unsuccessful");
getch();

NOTE: All the algorithms will be same only conditions will be changed.

1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHAT DIFFERENTIATES A CIRCULAR YOU MAY OR MAY NOT
LINKED LIST FROM A NORMAL HAVE THE ‘NEXT’
LINKED LIST? POINTER POINT TO
NULL IN A CIRCULAR
LINKED LIST
2 WHAT IS THE TIME COMPLEXITY OF O(N)
SEARCHING FOR AN ELEMENT IN A
CIRCULAR LINKED LIST?
3 WHICH APPLICATION MAKES USE OF ALLOCATING CPU TO
A CIRCULAR LINKED LIST? RESOURCES

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SUMMARY
 Linked list is a non linear data structure which defines as a collection of
nodes.
 A main limitation of an array (used in stack and queue ) is that elements
must be stored in ho-mogeneous manner and fixed amount of data is
stored. Where as in linked list representation this limitation is overcome
with the use of node.
 There are mainly five types of linked list which listed below:
o Singly linked list contains information part and address of next
node. In this last node contains NULL value in address part.
o Doubly linked list contains information part and address of next
node as well address of previous node. In this last node contains
NULL value, in the next node address part.
o Circular doubly linked list Is same like as doubly linked list but in
the last node next address contains the address of first node. And
first node previous part contains the address of last node.
o Circular doubly linked list is same like as doubly linked list but in
the last node next address contains the address of first node. And
first node previous part contains the address of last node.
o Header linked list contains a special type of information that how
many number of nodes are there in linked list. There are two types
of header linked lists:
 Grounded header linked list
 Circular header linked list
 Operations performed in a linked list are as below:

 Creation  Insertion  Deletion  Find  Appen

d
 Sorting  Display/view  Count  

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UNIT-5 - TREE
 Introduction
o Objectives
o Basic terminology
o Properties of a tree
 Binary trees
o Properties of binary
trees
o Implementation
o Traversals of a binary
tree
 In order traversal
 Post order
traversal
 Preorder
traversal
 Binary search trees (bst)
o Insertion in bst
o Deletion of a node
o Search for a key in bst
o Height balanced tree
o b-tree
Insertion & Deletion
1) What is tree? What is root of the node?
Ans:
 Tree is a non-linear data structure which is a set of one or more nodes
such that:
1) There is specially designated node known as root of the tree.
2) The remaining nodes are divided into n disjoint se of nodes T1,
T2…..Tn, each of which is a tree.

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 The above figure shows tree which is divided into two disjoint sets.
{B,D,E} and {C,F}
2) What are leaf and non-leaf nodes?
Ans:
 Leaf nodes are the nodes that do not have any children.
 Non-leaf nodes are the nodes that have children.

Example:

 In the above example, nodes D, E and F are leaf nodes and nodes A,B and
c are non-leaf nodes.

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3) What are ancestor and descendant?

Ans:
 Every node which is parent to leaf and non-leaf nodes is known as
ancestor.
A
Example:
B C

D E H I

 In the above example, A is known as ancestor of E.

 All the nodes you can reach from the given node is known as descendant.
 In the above example, node H is known as descendant of node C.

4) What is the meaning of Siblings?

Ans:-
 Siblings are the nodes that share the same parent node.
A
Example:

B C

D E F

 In the above example, nodes B and C are known as siblings.

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5) What is the meaning of in-degree of vertex?

Ans:
 In-degree of vertex is defined as number of edges (lines) arriving at node.
Example: A

B C

D E F
 In the above example, all the nodes except A have in-degree 1.
Note: Root is the only tree which have in-degree 0.

5) What is Binary tree?

Ans:
 Binary tree is the tree in which every node has maximum of two children.
OR
 Binary tree is the set of elements that is either empty or is divided into three
disjoint subsets.
 The first subset contains single element called root of the tree.
 The other two subsets are binary tree themselves which are known as left
and right sub tree. It can be empty.

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 So in the above example, the depth of tree is 2.

6) Explain types of binary tree.

Ans:
There are 3 types of binary tree.
1) Strictly binary tree
2) Complete binary tree
3) Almost complete binary tree

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1) Strictly binary tree:-

 Every non-leaf node in binary tree has exactly two non-empty
children (left and right subtree) is known as strictly binary tree.
Example:
A

B C

D E F G
2) Complete binary tree:-
 If all the leaves of strictly binary tree are at same depth / level
‘d’ is known as complete binary tree.
Example:

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Advantage:
 The main advantage of complete binary tree is that we can easily
find out parent or root node of any node and left and right sub tree
of any node.
Example:
Suppose we want to find the parent or root node of node E then we
have to write
floor(N/2)
=floor (5/2)
=floor(2.5)
=2
=B
 So, Parent node of node E is node B.
 Now, suppose that we want to find left and right sub tree of node B,
so we have to write
Left Sub tree Right Sub tree
2N 2N+1
=2*2 =2*2+1
=4 =5
=D =E
 So, left and right sub tree of node B is D and E

 Note: Total no. of nodes in the complete binary tree is calculated as

t=2(d+1)-1
3) Almost complete binary tree:
 A binary tree of depth / level d is known as almost complete binary
tree if each node in tree is at level d or d-1 and for each node in tree
is at level d or d-1 and for any node in a tree with right descendant at
depth d, all the left descendant of this node are also at level d.

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7) Explain difference between binary tree and strictly binary tree.

Binary Tree Strictly Binary Tree
1) In binary tree, each node 1) In strictly binary tree, each node
have Has exactly two nodes.
maximum two nodes

8) Explain implementation of binary tree.

Ans:
 Binary tree can be implemented by two methods:-
1) Sequential representation (Linear)
2) Linked List representation (Non-linear)

1) Sequential Representation:-
 In sequential representation, nodes are stored in one dimension array.
Also assign level number to every node in tree.
 We can assign node numbers in such a way that root is assigned the
number 1. Then, left sub tree must be assigned 2p+1 and right sub tree
must be assigned 2p+2.
Example:

The above tree is represented in the array as:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
A B C D E F G

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2) Linked List Representation:-

 In linked list representation, every node is stored separately and keeps
the address of other nodes.

Pointer to Information Pointer to right child

left child part
Example:-
A
1

C
2B
3
4 5 6 7
D E
A F G

C
B
F G
NULL NULL NULL NULL NULL NULL NULL
NULL E
D
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *lefttree;
struct node *righttree;
};

9)Explain the steps for creating the binary tree.

Ans:
 The rule or method of creating the binary tree is as follows:

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Step 1: Compare with the root element.

Step 2: If the element is less than root, move left side

Step 3: If the element is greater than root, move right side

Example:
Create the binary tree for following example
20 5 15 17 45 10

Taking first element as root element

2
0

4
5
5

1
5

1 1
0 7

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1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 THE NUMBER OF EDGES FROM THE DEPTH
ROOT TO THE NODE IS CALLED
__________ OF THE TREE.
2 THE NUMBER OF EDGES FROM THE HEIGHT
NODE TO THE DEEPEST LEAF IS
CALLED _________ OF THE TREE.
3 WHAT IS A FULL BINARY TREE? EACH NODE HAS
EXACTLY ZERO OR
TWO CHILDREN
4 WHAT IS THE AVERAGE CASE TIME H = O(LOG N)
COMPLEXITY FOR FINDING THE
HEIGHT OF THE BINARY TREE?
5 HOW MANY CHILDREN DOES A 0 OR 1 OR 2
BINARY TREE HAVE?
6 LEVEL ORDER TRAVERSAL OF A TREE BREADTH FIRST
IS FORMED WITH THE HELP OF SEARCH
7 WHAT IS THE SPECIALITY ABOUT THE IT TRAVERSES IN AN
INORDER TRAVERSAL OF A BINARY INCREASING ORDER
SEARCH TREE?
8 WHAT ARE THE WORST CASE AND O(N), O(LOGN)
AVERAGE CASE COMPLEXITIES OF A
BINARY SEARCH TREE?
9 WHAT WILL BE THE HEIGHT OF A 4
BALANCED FULL BINARY TREE WITH
8 LEAVES?
10 THE BALANCE FACTOR OF A NODE IN HEIGHT OF LEFT
A BINARY TREE IS DEFINED AS _____ SUBTREE MINUS
HEIGHT OF RIGHT
SUBTREE
11 A BINARY TREE IS BALANCED IF THE 1
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEFT AND
RIGHT SUBTREE OF EVERY NODE IS

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NOT MORE THAN ____

12 WHICH TREE DATA STRUCTURES IS B-TREE
NOT A BALANCED BINARY TREE?
13 BALANCED BINARY TREE WITH N O(LOG N)
ITEMS ALLOWS THE LOOKUP OF AN
ITEM IN ____ WORST-CASE TIME.
14 WHICH DATA STRUCTURES CAN BE SETS AND PRIORITY
EFFICIENTLY IMPLEMENTED USING QUEUE
HEIGHT BALANCED BINARY SEARCH
TREE?
15 ANOTHER NAME FOR THE DIRECTED DIGRAPH
GRAPH IS___
16 THE OPERATION OF PROCESSING TRAVERSAL
EACH ELEMENT IN THE LIST IS
KNOWN AS ……
17 GRAPH G IS ………….. IF FOR ANY PAIR UNLITERALLY
U, V OF NODES IN G THERE IS A PATH CONNECTED
FROM U TO V OR PATH FROM V TO U.
18 A BINARY TREE WHOSE EVERY NODE EXTENDED BINARY
HAS EITHER ZERO OR TWO CHILDREN TREE
IS CALLED …….
19 A TERMINAL NODE IN A BINARY TREE LEAF
IS CALLED__
20 IN EXTENDED-BINARY TREE NODES INTERNAL NODE
WITH 2 CHILDREN ARE CALLED ……..

10) What is tree traversal? Explain tree traversal techniques with example.
Ans:
 Tree traversal is the method or technique to display data in binary
tree.
 In traversing method, tree is processed in such a way that each node
is visited only once.
 There are 3 main tree traversal techniques:
 Preorder traversal
 Inorder traversal
 Postorder traversal

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1) Preorder traversal:-
 It follows three rules:
If the tree is not empty then:-
1) Visit the root node
2) Traverse left sub tree-recursively
3) Traverse right sub tree-recursively
In this, (D) is used for root node, (L) is used for left sub tree
and ( R ) is used for right sub tree.

D-Root 1
D-L-R
L R

2 3

Left sub Right

tree sub tree

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Example:

1 A

2 5
B C

3 4 6 7
A – B -C- D – E – F – G
D D E
L FR G
2) Inorder traversal:-
 It follows three rules:
If the tree is not empty then:-
1) Traverse left sub tree-recursively
2) Visit root node
4) Traverse right sub tree-recursively
In this, (D) is used for root node, (L) is used for left sub tree
and ( R ) is used for right sub tree.
D-Root 2
L-D-R
L R

1 3

Example:
Left sub Right
tree sub tree
4 A
2 6

B C

1 3 5 7
C -B- D –A- F – E – G
D E L F D RG

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3) Postorder traversal:-
 It follows three rules:
If the tree is not empty then:-
1) Traverse left sub tree-recursively
2) Traverse right sub tree-recursively
3) Visit root node.
In this, (D) is used for root node, (L) is used for left sub tree
and ( R ) is used for right sub tree.
D-Root 2
L-R-D
L R

1 3
Left sub Right
tree sub tree

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Example:
7
A
3 6

B C
1 2 4 5
C -B- D - F – E – G-A

D E F G
L R D
1 WORD QUESTION ANSWER

SR.N QUESTION ANSWER

O.
1 WHAT IS THE TIME COMPLEXITY OF O(N)
PRE-ORDER TRAVERSAL IN THE
ITERATIVE FASHION?
2 WHAT IS THE SPACE COMPLEXITY OF O(D)
THE POST-ORDER TRAVERSAL IN THE
RECURSIVE FASHION? (D IS THE TREE
DEPTH AND N IS THE NUMBER OF
NODES)
3 TO OBTAIN A PREFIX EXPRESSION, PRE-ORDER
WHICH OF THE TREE TRAVERSALS IS TRAVERSAL
USED?
4 IN POSTORDER TRAVERSAL OF BINARY TRUE
TREE RIGHT SUBTREE IS TRAVERSED
BEFORE VISITING ROOT. (TRUE OR
FALSE)
5 WHAT IS THE POSSIBLE NUMBER OF 5
BINARY TREES THAT CAN BE CREATED
WITH 3 NODES, GIVING THE SEQUENCE
N, M, L WHEN TRAVERSED IN POST-
ORDER.
6 THE POST-ORDER TRAVERSAL OF A TQOPSR

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BINARY TREE IS O P Q R S T. THEN

POSSIBLE PRE-ORDER TRAVERSAL
WILL BE ________
7 A FULL BINARY TREE CAN BE POST-ORDER AND
GENERATED USING ______ PRE-ORDER
TRAVERSAL
8 THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF NODES IN 1
A TREE FOR WHICH POST-ORDER AND
PRE-ORDER TRAVERSALS MAY BE
EQUAL IS ______
9 THE STEPS FOR FINDING POST-ORDER FALSE
TRAVERSAL ARE TRAVERSE THE RIGHT
SUBTREE, TRAVERSE THE LEFT
SUBTREE OR VISIT THE CURRENT
NODE.(TRUE OR FALSE)
10 THE PRE-ORDER AND IN-ORDER ARE LNMOQPT
TRAVERSALS OF A BINARY TREE ARE T
M L N P O Q AND L M N T O P Q. WHICH
OF FOLLOWING IS POST-ORDER
TRAVERSAL OF THE TREE?
11 FOR A BINARY TREE THE FIRST NODE FALSE
VISITED IN IN-ORDER AND POST-ORDER
TRAVERSAL IS SAME.(TRUE OR FALSE)
12 WHAT IS THE SPACE COMPLEXITY OF O(D)
THE IN-ORDER TRAVERSAL IN THE
RECURSIVE FASHION? (D IS THE TREE
DEPTH AND N IS THE NUMBER OF
NODES)
13 WHAT IS THE TIME COMPLEXITY OF O(N)
LEVEL ORDER TRAVERSAL?
14 WHICH GRAPH TRAVERSALS CLOSELY BREADTH FIRST
IMITATES LEVEL ORDER TRAVERSAL SEARCH
OF A BINARY TREE?
15 IN A BINARY SEARCH TREE, WHICH IN-ORDER
TRAVERSALS WOULD PRINT THE TRAVERSAL
NUMBERS IN THE ASCENDING ORDER?

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Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge
Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

SUMMARY
 A tree is hierarchical non-liner data structure that is used to store
information.
 The tree data structure has the mainly three components: root (for a base),
branches (for growth) and leaves (for existence).
 The root node of a tree is the node with no parents. There is at most one
root node in a rooted tree.
 A leaf node has no children.
 A directed edge refers to the link from the parent to the child (the arrows
in the picture of the tree).
 The binary tree creation follows a very simple principle – for the new
element to be added, compare it with the current element in the tree.
 If its value is less than the current element in the tree.
 If its value is less than the current element in the tree then move towards
the left side of that element.
 If its value is greater than the current element in the tree then move
towards the right side of that element.
 If there is no sub tree on the left, make our new element as the left child
of that current element or else compare it with the existing left child and
follow the same rule.
 Exactly the same hs to be done for the case when our new element is
greater than the current element in the tree but this time with the right
child.
 The depth of a node n is the length of the path from the root to the node.
The set of all nodes at a given depth is sometimes called a level of the
tree. The root node is at depth zero. A tree with only a root node has a
height of zero.
 We can also find out the level of a node in a binary tree. For example,
root is at level ‘0’ and level of any other node is one or more than the
level of its ancestor.
 Siblings are nodes that share the same parent node.

168
SHREE H. N. SHUKLA COLLEGE OF I.T. & MGMT.
(AFFILIATED TO SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY)
2 – Vaishalinagar 3 – Vaishalinagar
Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge
Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

 In-degree of a vertex is the number of edges arriving at that vertex.

 Root is the only node in the tree with in-degree=0.
 The trees will have their root at the top and leaves at the bottom.
 The direction from root to the leaves in ‘down’ and the opposite direction
is ‘up’.
 If going from the leaves to the root then it is known as ‘climbing’ the tree.
 If going from the root to the leaves then it is known as ‘descending’ the
tree
 In a non-empty tree the root node is having no incoming edge (link).
 If there isn’t any node in a tree then it is known as NULL tree.
 Every nodes in a tree has a maximum of two children are known as
binary trees.
 Depends on he depth/level of binary tree, it can be classified into 3 types:
o Strictly binary tree
o Complete binary tree
o Almost complete binary tree
 There are mainly two popular techniques that are used to maintain binary
tree into memory.
 These are:
o Sequential representation(Linear)
o Linked list representation(Non-Linear)
 If we want to display data in a binary tree then we have to use traversal
method.
 In the traversing mechanism, tree is processing such a way that, each
node is visited only once (this is a procedure by which each node in the
tree is processed exactly once).
 There are mainly three different ways available in a binary tree to visit
each and every element of a tree. They are as follows:
o Preorder traversal
o Inorder traversal
o Postorder traversal

169
SHREE H. N. SHUKLA COLLEGE OF I.T. & MGMT.
(AFFILIATED TO SAURASHTRA UNIVERSITY)
2 – Vaishalinagar 3 – Vaishalinagar
Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge Nr. Amrapali Under Bridge
Raiya Road Raiya Road
Rajkot – 360001 Rajkot - 360001
Ph.No–(0281)2440478,2472590 Ph.No–(0281)2471645

 These traversal methods are limited to binary trees only and it’s not
implemented for any other tree.
 Here, given below short summary of 3 methods:
 Pre  Display  Go to left  Go to
order info right

 In  Go to left  Display  Go to
order info right

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