FORM4PHYS

ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

FORMFOURPHYS
ICSNOTES
(
isa
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l.
com)

TOPI
C1:
THI
NLENS
ES

1.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Alensisg
enera
llyat
rans
par
entmater
ial
havinga
tle
astonec
urve
dsur
fac
e.Al
enswor
ksbywa
yofr
efr
act
ionof
l
ight.
Therea
retwocommontypesofl
enses
:

1.Conve
rgi
ng/
conve
xle
ns-i
tist
hic
kera
tthemi
ddl
e.

2.Di
ver
ging
/conc
avel
ens
-iti
sthi
nne
ratt
hemi
ddl
e.

1.
2:Te
rmsus
ed

a)Centr
eofcur
vat
ure
,C-i
tist
hec
ent
reoft
hes
phe
reofwhi
cht
hes
urf
aceoft
hel
ensi
spa
rt.
Ale
nsha
stwoc
ent
res
ofcurva
tur
e.

C F F C
C F P FC
C

b)Ra
diusofc
urva
tur
e,r
-iti
sther
adi
usoft
hes
phe
reofwhi
cht
hel
ensi
spa
rt.

c
)Pr
inc
ipa
lax
is-as
tra
ightl
inej
oini
ngt
het
woc
ent
resofc
urva
tur
e.

d)Opt
ica
lce
ntr
e,P-i
tisapoi
ntont
hepr
inc
ipa
lax
ismi
dwa
ybe
twe
ent
hel
enss
urf
ace
s.

e
)Pri
nci
palf
ocus,
F-forac onvergi
nglens,
iti
sthepoi
ntalongthepri
nci
pala
xisa twhi
chr ayspa
ral
lelandcl
oseto
t
hepr
inc
ipal
axisconverg
ea ft
errefra
cti
onbythelens
.Foradivergi
ngle
ns,i
tisthepointalongt
heprinci
palax
is
f
romwhic
hraysparall
elandc l
osetothepri
nci
palaxi
sseemtodivergef
romafte
rr ef
racti
onbythelens.
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F F

f f

f
)Foc
alleng
th,f
-iti
sthedist
a nc
ebe t
we e
nt heopt
ica
lce
ntr
eandt
hepr
inc
ipa
lfoc
us.
Iti
sre
alf
orac
onve
rgi
ngl
ens
a
ndvirt
ual(ne
gati
ve)foradivergi
nglens.

g)Focal
plane-whe nparal
lelr
ayswhi
char
enotpa r
all
elt
othepri
ncipal
a x
isa
reinc
identonale
ns,ther
ays
conve
rgeatora ppeartodive
rgefr
omapointwhic
hisperpe
ndic
ulartothepr
inc
ipala
x i
sandpass
esthr
ought
he
pri
nci
palfocus,
F. t
hispla
neiscal
ledt
hef
ocalpl
ane.

1.
3:Le
nsr
aydi
agr
ams

The
rea
ret
hre
ema
inr
aysi
nra
ydi
agr
amsa
sshownbe
low:

a
. Ar
aypa
ral
lel
tot
hepr
inc
ipa
lax
is

Foraconver
ginglens,thera
ysconvergeatFaft
erref
ract
ionwhi
lef
oradi
ver
gingl
ens
,ther
aysa
ppe
art
odi
ver
ge
fr
omFa ft
errefr
action.
b.Ar aypassi
ngt hroughorappe
ar i
ngtopasst
hroughF.

I
nbot
hca
ses
,ther
efr
act
edr
aysa
repa
ral
lel
tot
hepr
inc
ipa
lax
is.

c
. Ar
aydi
rec
tedt
otheopt
ica
lce
ntr
eoft
hel
ens
.

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

I
nbot
hca
ses
,ther
ayspa
ssunde
via
ted.

NB:
inr
aydi
agr
ams
,thef
oll
owi
ngs
ymbol
sar
eus
edf
ort
het
wol
ens
es:

Conve
rgi
ngl
ens Di
ver
gingl
ens

Not
etha
tinr
aydi
agr
ams
:

1.Re
alr
ays
,re
alobj
ect
sandr
eal
ima
gesa
rer
epr
ese
nte
dus
ingc
ont
inuousl
ine
s.

2.Vi
rtua
lra
ysa
ndvi
rtua
lima
gesa
rer
epr
ese
nte
dus
ingbr
oke
nli
nes
.

3.Tol
oca
tea
nima
ge,
the
remus
tbea
tle
astt
wor
aysi
nte
rse
cti
ng,
whe
the
rre
alorvi
rtua
l.

Someti
mes,asc
alemaybeuse
dinraydi
agrams
.Ifus
ed,t
henthes
calec
hos
enf
orobj
ectandi
magedis
tanc
esne
ed
notbenec
essa
ril
yequal
totha
toft
heobjec
tandimagehei
ght
sbutthet
womus
tbegivenont
hedia
gram.

1.
4:I
ma gef
ormationbythi
nl e
nses
1.
4.
1:Imagefor
ma ti
onbyac onver
gingl
ens
.
Thi
sissumma ri
zedbythetablebel
ow:

Posi
tionof Ra
ydi
agr
am Cha
rac
ter
ist
icsofi
mag
e
objec
t
Betwe e
nFand I
magei
s:
thelens - Virt
ua l
I O - Upright/er
ect
- Ma gni
fied
- Ons ames i
deas
theobject
AtF I
magei
s:
O - Real
- Invert
ed
- Atinfi
nity

Be
twe
enFa
ndC I
magei
s:
O - Real
- Inver
ted
I - Ma g
nifi
ed
- BeyondC
AtC I
magei
s:
- Real
- Inver
ted
- Sames i
zeas
objec
t
- AtC
Be
yondC I
magei
s:
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
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- Real
- Inve
rted
- Dimini
shed

Ati
nfi
nit
y I
magei
s:
- Real
- Inve
rted
- Dimini
shed
- AtF

1.
2:I
mag
efor
mat
ionbyadi
ver
gingl
ens

Ge
ner
all
y,adi
ver
gingl
ensf
ormsavi
rtua
l,upr
ighta
nddi
mini
she
dima
ger
ega
rdl
essoft
hepos
iti
onoft
heobj
ect
.

1.
5:Thel
ensf
ormul
aandma
gni
fi
cat
ion

Theequati
on1/ f
=1/u+1/ vwherefist
hefoca
lleng
thoft hele
ns,ui
stheobj
ectdi
sta
nceandvthei
magedi
sta
nce,
i
scall
edthelensformul
a.Theequati
ontakesi
ntoaccountthesi
gnsofu,
vandfandholdsf
orbotht
hec
onverg
ing
anddive
rgingle
ns .

Therati
ooftheimages
izetot
heobj
ects
izei
scal
ledmagni
fi
cati
onofthele
ns.Whenthemagni
fi
cati
onislessthan
onetheimageisdi
mini
shedwhil
ewheniti
smorethanone
,theimageismagni
fi
ed.
Whe nt
hema gnif
ica
tionisone,
the
nt heobj
ectandima
geareoft
hesamesiz
e.

Ma
gni
fi
cat
ionc
ana
lsobeobt
aine
dfr
omt
her
ati
oofi
mag
edi
sta
ncet
oobj
ectdi
sta
ncei
.
e.

Ma
gni
fi
cat
ion,
m=i
mag
ehe
ight
/obj
ecthe
ight=i
mag
edi
sta
nce
,v/
obj
ectdi
sta
nce
,u

Ex
ample1.
1
1.Anobj
ecti
splacedinf
rontofaconver
gingl
ensoffoc
al l
engt
h12c
m.det
erminet
hepos
iti
onoft
heimage
andt
hema gni
fi
cati
onoftheima
g e.He
ncest
atethenatureoft
hei
magefor
me dwhe
ntheobj
ectdi
sta
nceis
:

a
. 16c
m(a
ns:
v=48c
m,i
mag
ere
ala
ndma
gni
fi
ed)

b.8c
m(a
ns:
v=-
24c
m,i
mag
eisvi
rtua
landupr
ight
)

2.Anobjectispl
a c
ed4cmi nfr
ontofadi
vergi
ngle
nsoffoc
all
engt
h6cm.fi
ndthepos
iti
onandmag
nifi
cat
ion
oft
heimageformed.Hencesta
teit
snat
ure.
3.Anobject10cmhi ghi
splaced5cminf
rontofaconve
rgi
ngl
ensoff
oca
lleng
th20cm.det
ermi
netheposi
ti
on
andhei
ghtoftheimageby:
a. Cal
cul
ati
on

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ICSLES
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b.S ca
ledrawi
ng
1.
6:Det
erminat
ionofthef
oca
lleng
thofac
onve
rgi
ngl
ens
.
Method1:Byusingt
helensf
ormula
S
cre
en

 Foc
usc
lear
lytheimageofadi
sta
ntobj
ectli
ketre
eorwindowonthes
cre
enbya
djus
tingt
hepos
iti
on
oft
hel
ensappropri
ate
ly.
Measuret
hedis
tancebetwe
enthel
ensa
ndscre
en,

f
=……………….
.
cm.

 Nows
etupt
hea
ppa
rat
usa
sshownbe
low:

u v

S
ettheobje
ctdi
sta
nce
,u=65cm.adjustt
hepos
iti
onoft
hes
cre
enunt
ilas
har
pima
geoft
heobj
ecti
s
obse
rved.Mea
suret
hedist
anc
e, v.

Re
duc
etheobj
ectdi
sta
ncei
nst
epsof10c
mandme
asur
ethec
orr
espondi
ngva
lue
sofv.

Re
cor
dyourr
esul
tsa
ndc
ompl
etet
het
abl
ethet
abl
ebe
low:
u(
cm) 65.
0 55.
0 45.
0 10.
0 25.
0

V(
cm)

1/
u(m-1)
c

1/
v(m-1)
c

 Pl
otag
raphof1/
uag
ains
t1/
v.he
ncede
ter
minet
hef
oca
lle
ngt
h,foft
hel
ens
.

Not
et hatf
romt helensf ormula,1/f=1/u+1/ v
Making1/uthes ubjectoftheformul a,
weha ve1/u=-1/v+1/f.
When1/ v=0,1/u=1/ fi.
e.y-i
ntercept
Andwhe n1/u=0, 1/v=1/ fi
.e.
x -
int
e rce
pt.
Ther
e f
orethegraphi sas tr
aightli
newhos eslopei
s-1a ndthey-i
nte
rce
pta
ndx
-int
erc
eptg
ive1/
f.i
ftheva
lue
s
oft
het woint
e r
ce pt
sa rediff
erent,thenthe
iraverag
ei sobt
ained.

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1/
f

1/
u(m-1)
c

1/
f 1/
v(m-1)
c

Me
thod2:
Dis
pla
ceme
ntme
thod
P1 P2

u v

u1 v1

 Es
tima
tet
hef
oca
lle
ngt
hoft
hel
ensbyf
ocus
ingadi
sta
ntobj
ect
.

f
=……….
.
cm

 Setupthea
ppa
rat
usasshownabove.
Thedis
tanc
e,Sshoul
dbee qua
ltoormoretha
n4f.a
djustt
heposi
ti
on
ofthel
enst
oapos
iti
onP1wher
eas harpi
mageoftheobj
ecti
sobtai
nedonthesc
reen.
Me as
ureandre
cord
uandv.

 Keepi
ngScons
tant
,movethele
nst
oanot
herposi
ti
onP2wherea
not
herc
lea
rbutdi
mini
she
dima
geoft
he
obj
ecti
sfor
medonthescr
e e
n.Mea
sur
eandrecor
du1andv1.

 I
ncr
eas
etheva
lueofSi
nst
epsof5c
mandr
epe
ats
teps2a
nd3a
bove
.Compl
etet
het
abl
ebe
low:
S
(cm)

U(
cm)

V(
cm)

U1

V2

d=v-
u
2 2
(
S -
d) (
cm2)

2 2
 Pl
otag
raphof(
S -
d)ag
ains
tS.
2
 Gi venthatthee
quati
onS =4fS+d2sat
isf
iesthegr
aphdra
wn,det
erminetheva
lueoff
.
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ICSLES
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Not
etha
tS=u+v…………………………………………(
i)

Andd=u1-
uord=v-v1

Butu1=va
ndv1=u

The
ref
ore
,d=v–u …………………………………………….
(ii
)

Addi
nge
qua
tions(
i)a
nd(
ii
),weobt
ain;

S+d=u+v+v–u=2v

V=(
S+d)
/2 …………………………………………………(
ii
i)

Al
sos
ubt
rac
tinge
qua
tion(
ii
)fr
om(
i),
weg
et;

S–d=u+v–v+u=2u

u=(
S–d)
/2 ………………………………………………….
.(i
v)

S
ubs
tit
uti
nge
qua
tions(
ii
i)a
nd(
iv)i
nthel
ensf
ormul
a,weg
et;

1/
f=1/
{(S
-d)
/2}+1/
{(S
+d)
/2}

1/
f=2/
(S-
d)+2/
(S+d)
2 2
1/
f=4S
/(S-d)
2 2
(
S -
d)=4S
f
2 2
He
nceag
raphof(
S -
d)ag
ains
tSi
sas
tra
ightl
inet
hroug
htheor
igi
nandwhos
esl
opee
qua
lto4f
.

Thet
wopos
iti
onsP1a
ndP2a
reknowna
sconj
uga
tepoi
nts
.

1.
7:Ot
herpos
sibl
egr
aphsf
romt
hel
ensf
ormul
a

1.Fr
omt
hel
ensf
ormul
a;1/
f=1/
u+1/
v

1/
f=(
v+u)
/uv

uv=(
u+v)
f

Henc
eag ra
phofuvag
ains
t(u+v)i
sas
tra
ightl
inet
hroug
htheor
igi
nandwhos
esl
opee
qua
ltot
hef
oca
l
l
engt
h,fofthel
ens
.

2.Al
so,
fromt
hel
ensf
ormul
a;1/
f=1/
u+1/
v

Mul
ti
plyi
ngt
hroug
hbyv,
weobt
ainv/
f=v/
u+1

Butv/
u=m

The
ref
ore
,m=v/
f–1

He
nceag
raphofma
gai
nstvi
sas
tra
ightl
inewhos
esl
opee
qua
lto1/
fandt
hey-
int
erc
ept
=-1.

Me
thod3:
Pla
nemi
rrorme
thod
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Cr
osswi
re

(
a) f (
b) I
mag
eoft
hec
ros
swi
re

Adj
ustt
heposi
ti
onoftheobje
ctunti
lasha
rpimageofthecros
swirei
sfor
medalongs
ide(c
loset
o)t
heobj
ectc
ross
wir
easshownin(b)a
bove.Thedis
tanc
ebetwee
nt heobj
ectandt
hecentr
eoft
helensgi
vesthef
oca
lle
ngt
hfofthe
l
ens.

Al
ter
nat
ive
ly,
thes
etupbe
lowc
anbeus
edt
ode
ter
minef
:

I
mag
eofpi
nEye

Pi
n S
lidi
ngc
ork

Gl
assr
od

Le
ns

Pl
anemi
rror

Adj
usttheposi
ti
onofthecor
kupa nddownunt
ilt
hepinanditsi
ma g
ejus
tcoi
nci
dei.
e.nopa
rall
axbet
weent
he
obj
ectpinandi
tsimag
e .
Thedis
tancebet
weent
hec e
ntreoft
helensandt
hepingi
vest
hefocal
leng
thoft
hel
ens
.

1.
8:Powe
rofal
ens

I
tist
heme
asur
eoft
her
efr
act
inga
bil
it
yoft
hel
ens
.Iti
sex
pre
sse
dast
her
eci
proc
aloft
hef
oca
lle
ngt
h

i
.
e.powe
rofal
ens
=1/
foc
all
eng
th

I
tisme
asur
edi
ndi
opt
re(
D).

Theshor
tert
hefoca
lle
ng t
hthehi
ghe
rit
sre
fra
cti
nga
bil
it
y.Thepowe
rofac
onve
rgi
ngl
ensi
spos
iti
vewhi
let
hatof
adive
rgi
nglensi
snegat
ive.

1.
9:Appl
ic
ati
onsofl
ens
es

 As
impl
emi
cros
cope

Itisa
lsoknowna samagni
fyi
ngglas
s.Whenaconver
gingl
ensi
susedsuc
hthatt
heobj
ecti
sfoundbetwee
nit
s
princ
ipalf
ocusandthel
ens,i
tfor
msavirt
ual
,upri
ghtandmagni
fi
edimage.
Whenusedthi
swayitse
rvesasa
simplemicr
oscope.
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 Ac
ompoundmi
cros
cope

I
tconsi
stsoft
woc onver
ginglense
s,obje
ctivelensande yepi
ecelensbothofshortf
ocall
engths.Thelenscl
oserto
t
heobjecti
scall
edtheobjec
tivel
enswhilet hatcl
osertotheeyeiscall
edtheeyepie
celens.
Thef ocall
engthofthe
e
yepie
cel e
nsislong
erthanthatoftheobje
c ti
velens.Theobjec
tisfoundbetweenFa ndCoft heobje
ctivel
ens.

O I
2F0 F0F0 2F0 FeFe

Thefir
stima g
ef ormedbytheobjec
tivele
nsisreal,
inver
tedandmag ni
fie
d.Thisimagethe
na c
tsa
stheobjec
tfor
theeyepiecel
ens .
Theeyepie
celensformsafina
lima gewhic
hisgre
a tl
yma gni
fie
d.Assumingt
hemagni
fic
ati
onof
theobjecti
velensismoandthatoft
hee yepi
ecelensisme,t
henthetotalmagni
ficat
ionoft
hecompound
micros
c opem=mo*me.

Ex
ampl
e1.
2

1.Inacompoundmicros
cope,
thef
ocall
eng
thoft
heobje
cti
velensi
s2.0c
ma ndt
hatoftheeye
pie
c el
ensi
s
2.2c
ma ndthe
yar
eplace
datadi
sta
nceof8.
0cm.ar
ealobj
ectofs
ize1.
00mmisplace
d3.0cmfromthe
objec
tivele
ns.

a
) Us
ethel
ensf
ormul
aint
urnf
ore
achl
enst
ofi
ndt
hepos
iti
onoft
hef
ina
lima
gef
orme
d.

b)Cal
cul
atet
hemagni
fi
cat
ionpr
oduc
edbyt
hea
rra
nge
mentoft
hes
ele
nse
sandt
hes
izeoft
hef
ina
lima
ge
vi
ewedbythee
ye.

 Thel
ensc
ame
ra

Ac a
me raisadevicethatisusedtot akephotogra
phs .Itconsist
sofaconverginglens,
alight-s ensit
ivefil
m
encl
osedinal i
ght-
tightboxbl ac
kene dontheinsidea ndas hutter
.Li
ghtfromt heobjec
te nterst hecame rathrough
t
hes hutt
e rwhic
hc l
os esautoma t
ica
llyaft
erag i
venl engthoftime.Theamountofl ig
htrea chingt helensis
contr
olle
dbyt hediaphr a
gm( stop).Theli
ghtreachingt helensisref
rac
tedt ofor
mar ea
l,inve rt
e danddi minishe
d
i
ma geont hefi
lm.Toc lear
lyfocustheima ge
, t
hedi s
tanc ebetweenthelensandfil
mi sadjus t
e da cc
ordingly.The
f
ilmha ssomelight
-se nsi
tivechemicalswhichcha ngeone xposuretoli
ght.Thiscanthenbede ve l
opeda ndpr i
nted
t
og etaphotograph.

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 Thehuma
neye
S
cle
rot
icl
aye
r(whi
te) Chor
oidl
aye
r(bl
ack) Ci
li
arymus
cle
s

Re
tinaS
uspe
nsor
yli
game
nts

Vi
tre
oushumour
Fove
a I
ris

Le
ns Cor
nea

Toc
ent
ral
ner
vousS
yst
em Bl
inds
pot Aque
oushumour

Pupi
l

Thehuma
neyei
sana
tur
alopt
ica
lins
trume
nt.
Itc
ompr
ise
soft
hef
oll
owi
ngpa
rts
:

 Scl
erot
icl
aye
r-e
ncl
ose
sthee
ye.
Thef
rontpa
rt(
cor
nea
)ist
rans
par
entt
oal
lowi
nli
ght
.Iti
sthewhi
tepa
rt
oft
heeye.

 Aqueoushumour-i
tisac
lea
rfl
uid/
liqui
dfoundbe
twe
ent
hec
orne
aandt
hel
ens
.Thi
she
lpst
oma
int
aint
he
shapeoft
heeye.

 Ir
is-itisr
espons
iblef
orthecol
ouroft
heeye
.Ithasthepupi
lint
hemiddl
ewhicha
llowsf
orpa
ssa
geofl
ight
.
Byc hangi
ngthesiz
eofthepupi
l,t
heir
isc
ontrol
stheamountofl
ighte
nte
ringt
heeye.

 Lens
-iti
sanat
ura
lconve
rgi
ngl
ens
.Wi
tht
hehe
lpoft
hec
il
iar
ymus
cle
s,i
tsf
oca
lle
ngt
hca
nbea
djus
tedf
or
fi
nefoc
usi
ng.

 Vi
tre
oushumour
-iti
saj
ell
y-l
ikes
ubs
tanc
eandt
rans
par
enti
nna
tur
efoundbe
twe
ent
hel
ensa
ndr
eti
na.

 Re
tina
-ima
gesa
ref
orme
dhe
re.
Itha
sli
ght
-se
nsi
ti
vec
ell
s.

 Fove
a-i
tist
hec
ent
ral
par
toft
her
eti
na.
Thi
siswhe
ret
hee
yeha
sthebe
stde
tai
lsa
ndc
olourvi
si
on.

 Bl
inds
pot
-ha
sce
llswhi
cha
renon-
sens
iti
vet
oli
ght
.

 Ci
li
arymus
cle
s-t
heys
uspe
nd/
suppor
tthel
ens
.Iti
sal
sor
espons
ibl
eforc
ont
rol
li
ngt
hes
hapeoft
hel
ens
.

Whe nthemus cl
esrel
ax,t
hefoc
all
engt
hofthel
ensi
ncr
e a
ses.
Thi
senabl
esthee
yetofoc
usadis
tantobj
ect
.
Contrac
tionofthemuscl
esontheot
herha
ndr e
duce
stensi
onint
hele
ns,t
husreduc
ingi
tsf
oca
llengt
h.Thi
s
enable
sitfocusnearobj
ects
.

Thi
saut
omat
icadj
ust
mentofthee
yel
enst
obr
ingt
ofoc
usont
her
eti
nai
mag
esofbot
hdi
sta
nta
ndne
arobj
ect
s
i
sref
err
edt
oa sac
commodat
ion.

Theclose
st/
shor
testdi
sta
nceanormaleyec
anfoc
uscle
arlyi
sknownasi
tsnearpointwhil
ethefart
hes
t
dis
tanceanormale
yecanfocusc
lea
rlyi
sknownasit
sfarpoi
nt.
Foranor
ma l
eye,thenearpointi
susual
ly
25cm.

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Not
etha
tthedi
sta
ncebe
twe
ent
her
eti
naa
ndt
hee
yel
ensi
sal
waysc
ons
tant
.

1.
9.
1:Eyede
fec
ts

Despit
etheadj
ust
ment
smadebytheeye
,somee
yesc
annotproducecl
eari
mageswi
thi
nthenor
malra
ngeof
vi
sion.The
rearet
wocommoneyedef
ect
snamel
ymyopi
a(shorts
ight
ednes
s)a
ndhypermet
ropi
a(l
ong-
si
ghtednes
s).

Myopi
a(s
hor
tsi
ght
edne
ss)

Havingthisdef
ectme a
nsc l
earvis
ionfornearobje
ctsbutimag
esofdi
stantobj
ectsa
reforme dinfrontoft
he
ret
ina.Thecauseofthedefecti
stheeyebal
lbeingtoolongors
hort
erfocall
engt
h.Thede f
ectiscorrec
tedby
usi
ngadi verg
inglensofappropri
atef
ocall
eng t
hsotha tt
hera
ysreac
hingtheeyele
nsa ppearasiftheyar
e
comingfromane arobjec
t.

De
fec
t Cor
rec
tion

Hype
rme
tropi
a(l
ong
-si
ght
edne
ss)

Ape r
sonwhoi sl
ong-si
ght
edhascle
arvi
si
onofdist
antobje
ctsbutcannotseecle
arlyclos
erobj
ectscl
ear
ly.
Itis
ca
us edbytheeyebal
lbei
ngtooshor
torl
ongerf
ocall
engthsothatt
heima geofac l
oserobje
cti
sformedbehindthe
r
etina.Thedef
ectisc
orrec
tedbyusi
ngaconver
gingl
ensofappropri
atefoc
a ll
ength.

De
fec
t Cor
rec
tion

1.
9.
2:S
imi
lar
iti
esa
nddi
ff
ere
nce
sbe
twe
ent
hee
yea
ndl
ensc
ame
ra

S
imi
lar
iti
es

1.Bot
hus
econve
rgi
ngl
ens
es.

2.I
nbot
hcas
es,
theamountofli
ghtal
lowedi
nca
nbec
ont
rol
led.
Thee
yedoe
sitt
hroug
hthei
ri
swhi
let
he
c
amer
adoest
hist
hroughthedia
phragm.

3.I
nboth,area
l,i
nve
rtedanddimi
nis
hedimageisf
ormed.Fort
hee
ye,
thei
mag
eisf
orme
dont
her
eti
na
whi
lefort
hecamera,
iti
sformedonali
ght
-sensi
ti
vef
il
m.

4.I
nbot
hcase
stheinnerpar
tisblac
k;fort
heeye,
therei
sthechor
oidl
aye
rwhi
chi
sbl
acka
ndf
ort
hec
ame
ra,
t
hei
nnerpar
tispai
ntedbl
ack.Thisi
stoabs
orbstr
ayrays.

Di
ff
ere
nce
s

1.Thef
oca
lle
ngt
hoft
hee
yel
ensc
hang
eswhi
let
hatoft
hel
ensc
ame
rai
scons
tant
.

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2.Thedi
sta
ncebetweent
hel
ensandfi
lmi
nalensc
ame
rac
anbeva
rie
dbyz
oomi
ngwhi
let
hedi
sta
nce
bet
weentheeyele
nsandr
eti
naisc
onst
ant
.

3.Acamer
acanta
keonl
yonephot
oatat
imewhe
nthes
hut
teri
sope
nwhi
let
hee
yef
ormsc
ons
tant
ly
cha
ngi
ngpi
ctur
es.

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TOPI
C2:
UNI
FORMCI
RCULARMOTI
ON

2.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Thisismoti
onaroundac ur
ve dpat
hinwhic
hthes
pe edoft
hepart
icl
eisunifor
m. Alt
hought hes
peedisthes
ame,
veloci
tyoft
hebodyke e
psva ryi
ngsi
ncet
herei
saconsta
ntcha
ngeindirec
tion.Theveloc
ityofsuchabodyatany
insta
ntisal
waysdire
ctedalongtheta
nge
ntoft
hecurvesucht
hati
fthebodybr eaksaway,itmovesal
ongthe
tangent.

S
inc
etheve
loc
ityi
scons
tant
lyc
hang
ing
,abodyunde
rgoi
nguni
for
mci
rcul
armot
ioni
sal
waysa
cce
ler
ati
ng.

2.
2:Te
rmsus
edi
nuni
for
mci
rcul
armot
ion

 Ang
ula
rdi
spl
ace
ment
,Ɵ-i
sthea
ngl
eswe
pta
tthec
ent
rebya
nar
c.I
tisme
asur
edi
nra
dia
n,Ɵc.

r
S
θ

Ɵ=(a
rcl
eng
th,
S/r
adi
us,
r)r
adi
ans

Whe
nS=r
,the
nƟ=S
/S=1r
adi
an.

Ar
adi
ani
sthe
ref
oret
hea
ngl
esubt
ende
datt
hec
ent
reofac
irc
lebya
nar
cle
ngt
hequa
ltot
her
adi
usoft
hec
irc
le.

Not
et t2πc=3600
ha

 Ang
ula
rve
loc
ity,
ω-i
tist
her
ateofc
hang
eofa
ngul
ardi
spl
ace
ment
.

ω=∆Ɵ/
∆t
-1
TheS
Iuni
tofa
ngul
arve
loc
ityi
sra
dia
npe
rse
cond(
rads ).

Re
membe
rƟ=S
/r

The
ref
ore
,∆Ɵ=∆S
/r,
sinc
eri
scons
tant
.

Thusω=∆Ɵ/
∆t=∆S
/r∆t

But∆S
/∆t=ve
loc
ity,
v

He
nceω=v/
r

Thusabodyi
nci
rcul
armot
ionha
sbot
hli
nea
randa
ngul
arve
loc
iti
es.

 Pe
riod,
T-i
tist
het
imet
ake
nbyabodyt
oma
keonec
ompl
eter
evol
uti
on.

Pe
riod,
T=c
irc
umf
ere
nce(
2πr
)/l
ine
arve
loc
ity,
v.

The
ref
oreT=2πr
/rωs
inc
ev=r
ω

AndT=2π/ ω
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Re
cal
lfr
eque
ncy,
f=1/
T

The
ref
oref
=1/
(2π/
ω)=ω/
2π

Ors
impl
yω=2πf

 Ang
ula
rac
cel
era
tion,
α-i
tist
her
ateofc
hang
eofa
ngul
arve
loc
ity.

α=ω/
t

 Cent
ripe
talac
cel
era
tion,a
-iti
stheac
celer
ati
onofabodyunde
rgoi
nguni
for
mci
rcul
armot
iona
ndi
s
al
waysdire
ctedt
owa rdst
hecentr
eoftheci
rcl
e.

I
tisg
ive
na =v2/
sa r.

Butv=r
ω
2
The
ref
orea
=(r
ω) /r=rω2.

 Ce
ntr
ipe
tal
for
ce,
Fc-i
tist
hef
orc
ewhi
chke
epst
hebodyoni
tsc
irc
ula
rpa
th.
Iti
sex
pre
sse
dasFc=mv2/
r=
ma

Whe
rem-i
sthema
ssoft
hepa
rti
cl
e

v-i
sit
sli
nea
rve
loc
ity

r
-ist
her
adi
usoft
hepa
th

a
-ist
hec
ent
ripe
tal
acc
ele
rat
ion

Al
so,
a=rω2.
ThusFc=mrω2

He
nce
,the
rea
ret
hre
efa
ctor
saf
fec
tingt
hec
ent
ripe
tal
for
ce.
The
sea
re:

- Ma
ssoft
hebody

- Ra
diusoft
hepa
th

- Ang
ula
rve
loc
ityoft
hebody.

Ex
ampl
e2.
1
-1
1.Apart
icl
emove
sata
nang
ula
rve
loc
ityof10πr
ads al
ongac
irc
ula
rpa
thofr
adi
us20c
m.c
alc
ula
tei
tsl
ine
ar
spe
ed.

v=r
ω=0.
2*10π=6.
8m/
s.

2.Ac
arofma
ss100kgmove
sroundac
irc
ula
rtr
ackofr
adi
us100mwi
thal
ine
ars
pee
dof20m/
s.c
alc
ula
te:

a
) Thea
ngul
arve
loc
ity
-
1
ω=v/
r=20/
100=0.
2ra
ds

b)Thec
ent
ripe
tal
for
ce

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Fc=mv2/
r=( 202)
100* /100=400N

c
) Thec
ent
ripe
tal
acc
ele
rat
ion

=v2/
r=202/ 2
a 100=4m/
s
-1
3.Ca
lcul
atet
hepe
rioda
ndf
reque
ncyofapa
rti
cl
einac
irc
ula
rpa
thmovi
nga
tana
ngul
arve
loc
ityof4πr
ads .

T=2π/
ω=2π/
4π=0.
5s

f
=1/
T=1/
0.5=2Hz

2.
3:Mot
ioni
nahor
izont
alc
irc
le

I
nahori
zont
alc
ir
Tcl
e,t
het
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ngpr
ovi
dest
hec
ent
ripe
tal
for
cea
ndi
sdi
rec
tedt
owa
rdst
hec
ent
reof
t
hec
irc
le.

FC=T=mv2/
r

Foraf
ixe
dra
dius
,thet
ens
ioni
scons
tanta
llr
ound.

Ex
ampl
e2.
2

1.Astoneofmass2kgiswhi
rle
dinahor
izont
alc
irc
leofradi
us0.
5m.
Thet
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ngwa
sfoundt
o
be64N.Dete
rminethevel
oci
tyoft
hest
oneint
hec i
rcl
e.
1/
2 1/
2
V=(
rFC/
m) =(
0.5*
64/
2) =4m/
s

2.Astoneofmas
s0.
6kgat
tac
hedtoast
ringofl
ength0.
5mi swhir
ledinahor
izont
alc
irc
lea
tac
ons
tants
pee
d.
I
fthema xi
mumte
nsi
oninthes
tri
ngi
s5Nbe for
eitbrea
ks ,
cal
cula
te:

a
) Thema
ximums
pee
doft
hes
tone
1/
2 1/
2
V=(
rFC/
m) =(
0.5*
5/0.
6) =5m/
s.

b)Thema
ximumnumbe
rofr
evol
uti
onspe
rse
condi
tca
nma
ke

f
=ω/
2π=v/
2πr

=5/
2π*
0.5=1.
593Hz
.

As
sig
nme
nt2.
1

1.Astoneofmass5kgiswhi
rle
da tt
hee
ndofas
tri
ng5ml
ongi
nahor
izont
alc
irc
le.
Ifi
tiswhi
rl
eda
t
5r
evolut
ionsperse
cond,c
alcul
ate
:

a
)Thea
ngul
arve
loc
ity

b)Thel
ine
arve
loc
ity

c
)Thec
ent
ripe
tal
acc
ele
rat
ion

d)Thet
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ng

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2.Anobj
ectofma
ss4kgmove
sroundac
irc
leofr
adi
us6mwi
thac
ons
tants
pee
dof12m/
s.c
alc
ula
te:

a
)It
sang
ula
rve
loc
ity

b)Thec
ent
ripe
tal
for
ce

2.
4:Mot
ioni
nave
rti
cal
cir
cle
A

Tmin
D B

Tmax
T=Fc

Mg C

Whenabodyi
swhi r
ledinavert
ica
lci
rcl
e,t
woforc
esac
tonit.
Thesear
et heweig
ht,mgofthebodyandt
he
t
ens
ion,
Tonthes t
ring
.Thete
nsionvar
iesdepe
ndi
ngontheposi
ti
onofthebody.I
tisa
lwaysdire
cte
dtowar
dst
he
c
ent
reofthec
irc
le.

Att
hetopoftheci
rcl
e,bot
hthewei
ghtoft
hebodyandthete
nsi
ona
redi
rec
tedt
othec
ent
re.
Henc
ethec
ent
ripe
tal
f
orcee
qualtothesumofthewei
ghtoft
hebodyandthete
nsi
on.

i
.
e.Fc=Tmin+mg

OrTmin=Fc-
mg=mv2/
r-mg

Atthebot t
omoft
hec
irc
le,
thec
ent
ripe
tal
for
cei
sgi
venbyt
hedi
ff
ere
ncebe
twe
ent
hewe
ighta
ndt
het
ens
ion;
Fc=Tmax-
mg

OrTmax=Fc+mg=mv2/
r+mg

AtBa
ndD,
thet
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ngpr
ovi
dest
hec
ent
ripe
tal
for
ce;

T=Fc=mv2/
r

He
ncet
ens
ioni
sma
ximuma
tthebot
toma
ndl
eas
tatt
het
op.

Whenthete
nsi
oni
sminimum,acer
tai
nmini
mums
pee
dmus
tbema
int
aine
dinor
dert
oke
ept
hes
tri
ngt
aut
.
Ta
kingmini
mumtens
iontobeze
ro,weha
ve;

0=mv2/
r–mg(
fromt
hee
qua
tionofmi
nimumt
ens
ion)

mv2/
r=mg

V2=r
mg/
m=r
g
1/2
The
ref
ore
,v=(
rg)

Thi
sist
hee
xpr
ess
ionf
ormi
nimums
pee
dtha
tthebodymus
tma
int
ain.
Iti
sal
soc
all
edt
hec
rit
ica
lspe
ed.

Ex
ampl
e2.
3

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

1.Anobj
ectofmass8kgi
swhir
ledr
oundrapi
dlyinave
r t
ica
lci
rcleofradi
us2mwi t
hac
ons
tants
pee
dof
6m/s.
Calc
ulat
ethemaximumandmini
mumt ensi
oninthest
ring.Ta
keg =10N/
kg.

Tmax=mv2/ 62/
r+mg=8( 2+10)=224N

Tmin=mv2/ 62/
r–mg=8( 2-10)=64N

2.Anobje
ctofmass0.
4kgi
srotat
edbyastri
nga tac
ons
tants
pee
d,vi
nave
rti
cal
cir
cleofr
adi
us1m.
Ift
he
mini
mumt ens
ionint
hest
ringis3N,
cal
culat
e:

a
) Thes
pee
d,v

Tmin=mv2/
r–mg

3=0.
4(v2/
1-10)

V2=(
3+4)
/0.
4=70/
4
1/
2
V=(
70/
4) =4.
183m/
s

b)Ma
ximumt
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ng

v2/
Tmax=m( r+g
)=0.
4(70/
4+10)

=11N

c
) Thet
ens
ionwhe
nthes
tri
ngi
sjus
thor
izont
al

T=mv2/
r=0.
4*70/
4=7N

3.Abobofmass1kgismovi
nginauni
for
mc ir
cul
arpa
thi
nave
rti
cal
pla
neofr
adi
us1m.
Ifi
tiswhi
rl
eda
ta
f
reque
ncyof2cyc
lespers
econd,
cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thet
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ngwhe
nthebobi
satt
het
oppa
rtoft
hec
irc
le

T=mv2/ ω2- 2
r–mg
=mr mg=mr
(2π/
f) -mg

=(
1*1*
4*π2/
22)
-(1*
10)

=147.
95N

b)Tens
ionwheniti
satt
hebot
tom
2
T=mr (
2π/
f)+mg

=(
1*1*
4*π2/
22)+(
1*10)

=167. 95N
c) Atwha tposi
tioni sthestr
ingl
ikel
ytobreak?Why?
Att
hebot t
omoft hec i
rcle.
Thestr
ingexperi
encesmax
imumt e
nsionatt
hispoi
nt.
d)Wha tisthemi nimums peedrequi
redtoma i
nta
int
hest
ringunderte
nsion.
1/2 1/2
V=(rg
) =(1*10) =3.162m/ s
2.
5:Ac onicalpendul um

Ɵ
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ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

VC

Ba
ll

Mg

Whe
ntheangul
arvel
ocit
y,ωofthebal
linc
reas
estheangl
eƟal
soi
ncr
eas
esa
ndt
heba
llr
ise
s.Thehor
izont
al
c
ompone
nt,HCoft
hetensi
onprovi
desthecent
ripe
tal
for
ce;

i
.
e.FC=HC=mv2/
r

ButHc=Ts
inƟ

The
ref
oreTs
inƟ=mv2/
r………………….
.
(i)

Al
soTc
osƟ=mg
……………………………….
(i
i)

Di
vidi
nge
qua
tion(
i)by(
ii
),weg
et;

Ts
inƟ/
Tcos mv2/
Ɵ=( r)/
mg

The
ref
oret
anƟ=v2/
rg

Al
sot
a ω2/
nƟ=r g (
sinc
ev=r
ω)

Ex
ampl
e2.
4

1.As toneofmas
s2kgisat
tac
hedt
oas
tri
ng3ml
ongma
det
ore
vol
vei
nahor
izont
alc
irc
leofr
adi
us1m.
find:
a) Thetens
ioni
nthest
ring

θ
3m

Tc
osƟ

HC
Mg

Ɵ=S in-1(1/3)=19. 470

The refor eT=mg /c os Ɵ=20/ c
os19.470
=21.21N
b)Thel inearve l
oc ity,v
2
TsinƟ=mv/ r
470* 1/2
The refor ev=(21.21s i
n19. 1/
2) =1.
88m/s
c) Thea ngularve locit
y,ω
-
1
ω=v/r=1. 88/ 1=1.88r a ds
2.As ma l
lpendul umbobofma ss250gi ssuspende
dbyani ne
las
tics
tri
ngofl e
ngth0.5m.Thebobismadeto
rotatei nahor izont al
circl
eofr adius0.
4ma ndwhosecentr
eisvert
ica
llybelowthepointofs
uspens
ion.
Ca lc
ul a
te:
a) Thema gni
tudeoft hec ompone ntforce
sacti
ngonthebobduetothetensioninthest
ring
0.
5m
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

0.
3m

Vc

Mg

VC=Tc
osƟ=mg=0.
25*
10=2.
5N

Butc
osƟ=3/
5

S
oT=2.
5*5/
3=4.
17N

HC=TS
inƟ=(
12.
5/3)
*4/
5=3.
8N

b)Thepe
riodofr
ota
tionoft
hebob

TS
i ω2
nƟ=mr
1/2 1/2
ω=(
TSi
nƟ/
mr) =(
3.8/
0.4*
0.25)
-1
=5.
77r
ads

Butpe
riod,
T=2π/
ω=1.
0889s

As
sig
nme
nt2.
2

1.Anobj
ectofmass10kgi
swhir
ledroundahori
zonta
lci
rcl
eofradi
us4mbyar
evol
vings
tri
ngi
ncl
ine
d
tot
hevert
ica
l.I
ftheuni
for
mspeedoftheobj
ecti
s5m/s,cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thet
ens
ioni
nthes
tri
ng

b)Thea
ngl
eofi
ncl
ina
tionoft
hes
tri
ngt
otheve
rti
cal

(
Ans
. Ɵ=70)
T=118N,

2.
6:Ca
see
xampl
esofc
irc
ula
rmot
ion

2.
6.
1:move
mentofc
arsr
oundaf
lat(
leve
l)be
nd

I
nthi
sca
se,
thec
ent
ripe
tal
for
cei
spr
ovi
dedbyt
hef
ri
cti
ona
lfor
cebe
twe
ent
het
yre
sandt
her
oad,
i.
e.FR=FC=mv2/
r

I
ftheroadissl
ippe
ry,
thenthef
ri
cti
ona
lfor
cema
ynotbes
uff
ici
entt
opr
ovi
det
her
equi
redc
ent
ripe
tal
for
ce.
Henceski
ddingmayoccur
.

Toavoidski
dding
, t
hespe
edofthec
ars
houldnote
x c
eedacer
tai
nspee
dlimit(
cri
tic
als
pee
d).
Thec
rit
ica
lspe
ed
dependsontheradi
usoft
hebend;t
hel
arg
ertheradi
usthehi
ghe
rthecri
ti
cals
peed.

Otherf
act
orswhi
cha
ffe
ctf
ri
cti
ona
lsos
igni
fi
canthe
re.
The
sei
ncl
udet
hena
tur
eoft
her
oads
urf
acea
ndt
hena
tur
e
ofthet
yre
s.

Ex
ampl
e2.
5

1.Ac
arofma
ss1200kgismovi
ngwit
havel
oci
ty25m/sroundafl
atbendofr
adi
us150m.
Determi
nethe
mi
nimumf
ric
tiona
lfor
cebet
wee
nthet
yresandther
oadthatwi
llpr
eventt
hecarf
roms
li
dingof
f.

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

FR=mv2/ 252/
r=1200* 150=5000N

2.Ag l
assbl
ockofmass100gisplacedint
urnatva
r i
ousdi
stanc
esfromt hec
e nt
reofatabl
ewhichisrot
ati
ng
ataconst
antangul
arveloc
ity.I
tisf
oundtha
tatadist
ance8cmf r
omt hecentr
e,thebl
ockjus
tsta
rtstosl
ide
offt
hetabl
e.I
fthefr
ict
ionalfor
cebetweent
heblockandthetabl
eis0.4N,
de t
ermine:

a
) Thea
ngul
arve
loc
ityoft
het
abl
e

ω2
FR=mr
1/2 -1
ω=(
0.4/
0.1*
0.08) =7.
07r
ads

b)Thef
orc
ere
qui
redt
ohol
dthebl
ocka
tadi
sta
nceof12c
mfr
omt
hec
ent
reoft
het
abl
e.

ω2=0.
F=mr 1*0.
12*
50=0.
6N

c
) Abloc
kofmass200gisnowplac
ed8cmfromthecentr
eofthet
abl
ea ndt
heta
bler
ota
teda
tthes
ame
ang
ularve
loc
ity.
Sta
tewithar
easonwhe
therornotthebl
ockwil
lsl
ideof
f.

ω2=0.
Fc=mr 2*0.
08*
50=0.
8N

S
inc
ether
equi
redc
ent
ripe
tal
for
cei
sgr
eat
ert
hant
hef
ri
cti
ona
lfor
ce,
thebl
ockwi
lls
li
deof
f.

2.
6.
2:Ba
nke
droa
d

Banki
ngref
erstorai
singtheout
eredgeoft
heroa
dawa
yfromthecentreofthecurve.Theang
let
hroug
hwhi
cht
he
roadi
sra
isedisca
lle
dt heangl
eofbanki
ng.Ba
nki
ngmi
nimiz
escha
nc e
sofs kiddi
ng/overt
urni
ng.
HC=RS
inƟ

Vc

R Ɵ R VC=RCos
Ɵ

Hc Ɵ

Ɵmg

I
nthi
sca
se,
thec
ent
ripe
tal
for
cei
spr
ovi
dedbyt
hehor
izont
alc
ompone
ntoft
henor
mal
rea
cti
on.

The
ref
oreFC=RS
inƟ=mv2/
r…………………………(
i)

Al
soRCos
Ɵ=mg
………………………………………….
.(i
i)

Di
vidi
nge
qua
tion(
i)by(
ii
),weg
et;

t
anƟ=v2/
rg

Not
etha
tfornos
kiddi
ngt
ooc
cur
,ta
nƟmus
tbeg
rea
tert
hanv2/
rg(
tanƟ˃v2/
rg)a
ndt
hec
rit
ica
lspe
ed,
visg
ive
n
by;
1/2
v=(
rgt
anƟ)

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ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

He
ncet
hec
rit
ica
lspe
ed,
vde
pendsont
her
adi
us,
roft
hec
urvea
ndt
hea
ngl
eofba
nki
ng,
Ɵ.

Ex
ampl
e2.
6

1.Themaximums pe
eda twhi
chamot
ori
stc
anne
got
iat
eac
orne
ronal
eve
lgr
oundi
s20m/
s.i
fther
adi
usof
thec
urveis100m,ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Thec
oef
fi
ci
entoff
ri
cti
on,
μ

FR=FC=mv2/
r=μR=μmg

The
ref
orev2/
r=μg

μ=202/
100*
10=0.
4

b)Theang
leatwhi
cht
her
oads
houl
dbeba
nke
dtoe
nabl
ethemot
ori
stne
got
iat
ethec
orne
ratac
rit
ica
lspe
ed
of20m/s.

t
anƟ=v2/
rg=0.
4

Ɵ=t
an-10. 80
4=21.

2.Avehi
clemovesr
oundaba
nkedba
lanc
edr
oada
tas
pee
dof20m/
s.i
fther
adi
usoft
her
oadi
s50m,
ca
lcul
atet
heangl
eofba
nki
ng.

t
anƟ=v2/
rg=202/
50*
10=0.
8

Ɵ=t
an-10. 70
8=38.

2.
6.
3:Ai
rcr
aftba
nki
ng

Anai
rcr
aftt
urni
ngi
nai
ra chi
evesbanki
ngbyl
owe
ringoneofi
tswi
ngsa
ndr
ais
ingt
heot
her
.Thi
sena
ble
sitt
urna
t
ex
tre
me l
yhighs
pee
dwithoutovert
urni
ng.

2.
6.
4:Ac
ycl
is
tmovi
ngr
oundac
irc
ula
rtr
ack.
x

c
.o.
g

Ɵy

Mg

FR

Foraf
latr
oads
urf
ace
,fr
ict
iona
lfor
cebe
twe
ent
het
yre
sandt
her
oadpr
ovi
dest
hec
ent
ripe
tal
for
ce;

FR=FC=mv2/
r

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ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

I
ncaseswhenthefr
icti
onalfor
ceisnotsuf
fi
ci
ent,
thecyc
li
stisl
ike
lytoski
d.Toavoi
dthi
s,t
hecyc
li
stisa
dvis
edt
o
l
eani
nwa r
ds.Thusthefri
cti
onalf
orce,FRa
ndthenormalre
acti
on,Rproduceat
urni
ngeff
ecta
boutthece
ntr
eof
g
ravi
ty.

Thust
aki
ngmome
ntsa
boutt
hec
.o.
g.
,weg
et;

Cl
ockwi
semome
nt=Rx

Anda
nti
cl
ockwi
semome
nt=FRy

Fornos
kiddi
ngt
ooc
cur
,cl
ockwi
sea
nda
nti
cl
ockwi
semome
ntss
houl
dbee
qua
l;

Rx
=FRy

FR/
R=x
/y

Butt
anƟ=x
/ya
ndR=mg

The
ref
oret
anƟ=FR/
mg=μ

Whe
reμi
sthec
oef
fi
ci
entoff
ri
cti
on.

He
nces
kiddi
ngonl
yoc
cur
swhe
nta
nƟi
sgr
eat
ert
hanμ(
tanƟ˃μ)
.

Ex
ampl
e2.
7

1.Acycl
is
twhoi
str
ave
lli
nga
t20m/
sne
got
iat
esabe
ndofr
adi
us45m.
hei
ncl
ine
sata
nang
leƟt
otheve
rti
cal
.
Ca
lcul
ate:

a
) Thec
ent
ripe
tal
acc
ele
rat
ion

=v2/
r=202/ 2
a 45=8.
889m/
s

b)Thea
ngl
eofi
ncl
ina
tionƟ

t
anƟ=v2/
rg

Ɵ=t
an-1(
202/
45*
10)=41.
65

2.
7:Appl
ic
ati
onsofc
irc
ula
rmot
ion

2.
7.
1:Ce
ntr
if
uge
s

Acentri
fugeisadevi
cetha tisusedtosepar
a t
esubstancesofdi
ff
erentde
nsiti
ese.g
.immi sc
ibl
eli
qui dsor
sol
idssuspendedinl
iquids.Themi x
tureisputintubeswhicharethenseti
ntorotat
ion.Atapart
icular
speed,
themor edensepa r
ticl
esorsubstancemovef urt
herawayfromthecentreofrota
tionwhil
et heles
s
denseparti
clesmoveinwa rdstowardsthecentr
eofr ot
ati
on.
R2

R1

R3

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Li
ght
erpa
rti
cl
es He
avi
erpa
rti
cl
es

Si
ncece
ntr
ipe
tal
for
cevar
iesdi
rec
tlyasthemassa
ndi nver
selyasthera
dius,
foral
argerr
adiusthemas
smus tbe
hi
gherf
ort
hesameamountofc
entri
peta
l f
orc
e.Henc
ede nserpa
r t
icl
esaref
arawayfr
omt hecentr
eofr
ota
tion.

Whe
nther
ota
tions
tops
,thet
ube
sre
tur
ntot
heve
rti
cal
pos
iti
onwi
tht
hede
nse
rpa
rti
cl
esa
tthebot
tom.

2.
7.
2:S
ate
lli
tes

Whentwobodi
esofmas
sm1a
ndm2a
res
epa
rat
edbyadi
sta
ncer
,the
ree
xis
tsa
ttr
act
iona
lfor
cebe
twe
ent
hem
2
gi
venby;
F=Gm1m2/r

WhereGistheuni ve
rs a
lgravi
tati
onalconst
ant.
Theaboveequa
t i
onisre
ferr
edtoasNewton’
slawofuni ve
rsal
gr
avit
ati
on.Consideras at
ell
it
eofma ssmor bi
ti
ngtheear
thatadist
anceofrmetr
esaway.Supposethema ssoft
he
ea
rthisM,thenthec entr
ipeta
lforcet
ha tke
epsthesa
tel
li
teontheci
rcul
arpathi
sprovi
dedbyt hegr
a vi
tat
ional
f
orceofat
trac
tion.

eFC=mv2/ 2
He
nc r=GMm/
r
1/
2
Andv=(
GM/
r)

Whe
revi
stheve
loc
ityoft
hes
ate
lli
te.

Whenas at
ell
it
eha st
hesameperi
odi
cti
meastha
tofthee
art
h, i
twil
lappe
arst
ati
ona
rywhenvi
ewedf
romthe
ea
rth’ss
urf
ace.Suchsat
ell
it
esa
resai
dtobei
naparki
ngorbi
t.Theyar
ewidel
yusedi
nweat
herf
ore
cas
tinga
ndin
t
elecommunicat
ion.

2.
7.
3:S
pee
dgove
rnor
Fue
lcont
rol
val
ve

θθ

Ar
m

m m
Col
lar

Pi
vot

Todr
ives
haf
t

Asthes
haftrot
ates,
themassesal
sorota
tewit
hinc
reasi
ngangularvel
ocit
y.Thustheangl
eθenl
arg
es.Thec
olla
ris
the
npull
edupwa rdsbythear
mswhi chint
urnpul
lst
heleverup.Theleveri
sconnecte
dtothef
uel
/st
eamvalve
whichr
egula
testhefl
owoffuelorst
eamwhichint
urncontr
olsthespeedoftheengine
.

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ls,
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

TOPI
C3:
ELECTROMAGNETI
CSPECTRUM

3.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Weha veseenthatwa vesca

nbecategori
zedeit
here
lect
romagnet
icorme cha
nicali
nnature.
Ele
ctr
omagnet
ic
wavesarewa vesres
ul t
ingf
romtheinter
acti
onofos
cil
lat
ingel
ect
ricandma gne
ticf
iel
ds.Theyi
ncl
udevi
si
bleli
ght
,
ra
diowa ve
s,x -
rays
,infrare
d,ul
tra
viole
t,micr
owavesandgammar adi
ati
ons.

Whent
hesewave
sarearra
ngedi
nac
ert
ainpa
tte
rne
.gi
ntheor
derofi
ncr
eas
ingf
reque
ncyorwa
vel
eng
tht
henwe
ge
tanel
ect
romagne
tics
pectr
um.

3.
2:Thee
lec
troma
gne
tics
pec
trum
I
ncr
eas
ingf
reque
ncy

f
( )103108
Hz 1010 10141015 1022

R M I
R V UV X G

λ
(m)105 100 10-3 10-6 10-8 10-10-10-11 10-13

De
cre
asi
ngwa
vel
eng
th

Whe
reR-Ra
diowa
ves

M-Mi
crowa
ves

I
R-I
nfr
are
d

V-Vi
si
blel
ight

UV-Ul
tra
viol
et

X-X-
rays

G-Ga
mmar
adi
ati
on

[
Hint
:Roa
st(
R)ma
ize(
M)i
s(I
R)ave
ry(
V)unus
ual
(UV)x
-ma
ss(
X)g
ift(
G)]
.

3.
3:Pr
ope
rti
esofe
lec
troma
gne
ticwa
ves

Thef
oll
owi
ngpr
ope
rti
esa
rec
ommont
oal
lel
ect
roma
gne
ticwa
ves
:

 Tr
ave
linava
cuumwi
thas
pee
dof3.
0x108m/
s.

 Donotr
equi
rema
ter
ial
medi
umf
ort
hei
rpr
opa
gat
ion.

 Tr
ans
ver
sei
nna
tur
e.

 Poss
esandtra
nsf
erenergy.
Theamountofener
gyposs
ess
edbyanel
ectr
oma gne
ticwaveoffr
equencyfi
s
expr
esseda
sE=hf,wherehisPl
ank’
sconst
antandi
sequalt
o6. 10-9J
63x s.Thewaveequati
onc=fλ
a l
so
appl
yforel
ect
romagne
ticwaves
.

 Ca
rrynoc
har
ge(
notc
har
ged)a
nda
renotde
fle
cte
dbyama
gne
ticore
lec
tri
cfi
eld.

 Unde
rgor
efl
ect
ion,
ref
rac
tion,
dif
fra
cti
on,
int
erf
ere
ncea
ndpol
ari
zat
ione
ffe
cts
.

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ls,
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

 Ca
nbee
mit
ted,
tra
nsmi
tt
eda
nda
bsor
bedbyma
tte
r.

3.
4:Pr
oduc
tion,
det
ect
iona
nda
ppl
ic
ati
onsofe
lec
troma
gne
ticr
adi
ati
ons

Thet
abl
ebe
lows
umma
riz
est
hepr
oduc
tion,
det
ect
iona
nda
ppl
ic
ati
onsoft
heva
riouse
lec
troma
gne
ticr
adi
ati
ons
:
Ra
dia
tion Pr
oduc
tion De
tec
tion Appl
ic
ati
on

Ra
diowa
ves Fromoscil
lat
inge
lec
tri
cal Antenna
e(aer
ial
s),
diode
s, I
ntele
c ommunica
tion-r
adiobr
oadcast
,TVands
ate
lli
tecommuni
cat
ion,
ci
rcui
ts. ear
phones. c
ell
ulartel
ephone,
r a
darandnavi
gat
ionequi
pment
setc.

Mi
crowa
ves Fromspe
cialvac
uumtubes Cr
yst
aldet
ect
ors,
sol
ids
tat
e Cooki
ngi
nmi
crowa
vec
ooke
rs.
ca
lle
dma gne
tronswi
thi
n di
ode
s,ant
ennae
.
micr
owaveovens. I
ncommuni
cat
ion-mobi
lephone
s.

I
nspe
edc
ame
ras
.

I
nfr
are
d Fromt he
rmalvi
bra
tionof Thermopi
le,
bolomete
r, Burgl
aral
arms,i
nmili
tar
ynightvi
sionmis
sil
es,c
ooking
,heat
ingand
atomsinver
yhotbodies
e.g ther
mome t
er,phot
ographi
c dryi
ngofgra
ins
,ingr
eenhousing,
inremotecont
rol
sforTVsand
thesun. fi
lm. VCD/DVDs,i
nphotog
raphy.

He
ati
nge
ffe
ctont
hes
kin.

Vi
si
blel
ight Sun,hotobj
ect
s,l
amps
,la
ser Theeye
,phot
ogr
aphi
cfi
lm, Vi
sion(
sig
ht)
,photog
raphy,
phot
osynt
hesi
sandopti
calf
ibr
e.La
ser
beams. phot
ocel
l. be
amsus e
dinlas
erprint
ers
,weaponai
mingsys
tems,CDpla
yers
.

Ul
tra
viol
et Thesun,s
par
ks,me
rcur
y Photog
raphicfi
lm, Detect
ionoffor
ger
ies,
skint
reat
me nta
ndki l
li
ngofbac
ter
ia,
vapourl
amps. phot
ocells
,fl
uores
cent spect
roscopyandminera
lanal
ysi
s,makingofcl
othe
sandasour
ceof
materi
alse.
gquini
ne vit
aminD.
sul
phate.

X-
rays I
nX-
rayt
ube
s Fl
uores
centscr
eenand Radiography(i
denti
fic
a t
ionofinte
rnalbodyst
ruct
urese.
gbone
s),ca
nce
r
phot
ographi
cfi
lm. ther
a py,
c r
yst
all
ography( s
tudyofcrys
talst
ruct
ure)
,pes
tandgerm
cont
r ola
nda i
rports
e curi
tyckecks.

Gamma Emit
tedbyradi
oac
tive Radia
tionde
tec
tor
se.
gGM S
ter
il
izi
ngme
dic
ale
qui
pme
nta
ndf
ood.
ra
dia
tion subs
tanc
es. tube
.
Ki
ll
ingofc
anc
erc
ell
sandot
herma
lig
nantg
rowt
hs.

Pe
stc
ont
rol
.

De
tec
tionoff
lawsi
nme
tal
s.

3.
5:Da
nge
rsofe
lec
troma
gne
ticwa
ves

1.Someoftheel
ect
roma g
neti
cwavesl
ikeX-rays
,ul
traviole
ta ndg
ammaradi
ati
onposse
sal otofene
r g
y.
Theref
orewhenexposedt
othebodyinlar
gedoses,
t heycandamaget
hebodyce
lls
,causeskinburnsor
aff
ectt
heeyes
.Si
mi l
arl
y,r
adiowave
sc a
nc aus
ecance r,
leukemi
aamongot
herdi
sorders
.

2.Nuc
lea
rre
act
ore
xpl
osi
onsma
yle
adt
olos
sesofl
ive
s.

Ex
ampl
e3.
1

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

1)Ar
adi
otr
ans
mit
terpr
oduc
eswa
vesoff
reque
ncy1.
0x108Hz
.Ca
lcul
atet
hewa
vel
eng
thoft
hes
igna
l.

c
=fλ

3.
0x108m/
s=1.
0x108x
λ

λ
=3.
0m

2)AnX-
rayma
chi
nepr
oduc
esar
adi
ati
onofwa
vel
eng
th1.
0x10-11m.
cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thef
reque
ncyoft
her
adi
ati
on.

c
=fλ

3.
0x108m/
s=f
x1.
0x10-11m

f
=3.
0x1019Hz

b)Thee
ner
gyc
ont
entoft
her
adi
ati
on.
Takeh=6. 10-9J
63x s.

E=hf
=6. 10-9J
63x sx3.
0x1019Hz

=1. 10-14J
989x .

3)Ar
rangethef
oll
owingr
adi
ati
onsi
nor
derofi
ncr
eas
ingwa
vel
eng
th:
inf
rar
ed,
bluel
ight
,UVl
ight
,ra
dio
wavesandX-
rays.

X-
rays
,UVl
ight
,bl
uel
ight
,inf
rar
eda
ndr
adi
owa
ves
.

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

TOPIC4: ELECTROMAGNETI CI
NDUCTI ON
4.1:
Intr
oduc ti
on
Whe nac onductormoveswithi
nama gneti
cfiel
datanangl
eg r
eat
erthanzero,currenti
spr oduc
edinthe
conduct
orwhi chc anbeshownbyconne c
tingagal
vanomete
rinseri
eswiththec onductor
.Thismethodof
genera
tinge l
ect
r i
ci
tyisc
a l
lede
lec
troma g
ne t
ici
nduct
ion.
Itwasfi
rstdi
scove
r e
dbyMi chaelFara
dayaboutt
heye
ar
186.

El
ectr
oma g
neti
cinduc
tionhasbeenwide
lyusedtopr
oduceinla
rges
cal
eel
ectr
ica
lene
rgyi
npowe
rst
ati
ons
.
4.
2:Fact
orsaf
fec
tingt
hes i
zeoft
heinducede
lect
romoti
vefor
ceandFar
ada
y’sl
aw
Li
ghtc
oppe
rwi
re

SN S
N

Whenthecopperwirei
smove dvert
ical
lydownwa rdsbet
we enthepolesoft
hema gne
t,t
hegal
vanome te
ris
obs
ervedtodef
lec
t.However
,thedirec
tionofdefl
ecti
onchangeswhe nthewirei
snowmove dvert
ica
llyupwards
.
Whentheconduct
oriskepts
tati
onarybe t
we ent
hepolesofthema gnet
,nodefl
ect
ionocc
urs
.Simil
arl
ywhe nthe
wir
eispla
cedparal
lelt
othema gne
ticfi
eld,nodef
lect
ioni
sobs e
r ve
d.

Ade
fle
cti
onofthegal
vanomet
erindi
cat
espr
ese
nceofi
nduc
ede
lec
tromot
ivef
orc
ewhi
lea
bse
nceofde
fle
cti
on
i
ndi
cat
esnoinduce
de l
ectr
omoti
vefor
ce.

Thede
flec
tioni
smaxi
mumwhe nthea
ng l
ebetweent
hewi
rea
ndt
hef
iel
dis900,
ast
rong
erma
gne
tisus
eda
nd
whenthewirei
smovedve
rys
wi f
tl
y(atahig
hs pe
ed)
.

Thesefact
orscanbes umme dupinFara
day’sl
awwhi c
hs t
ate
:themag
nit
udeoftheinducedemfi
sdi
rec
tly
proport
ionaltother
a teofc
hangeoft
hema gnet
icfl
uxli
nkage.Mag
net
icf
luxl
inkag
er ef
erstot
henumberof
ma gne
ticfi
eldli
nescutbytheconduc
torperunita
rea.

4.
3:Le
nz’
sla
w

El
ect
romot
ivei
nduc
tiona
lsooc
cur
swhe
nama
gne
tismove
dtoa
ndba
ckwi
thi
nas
ole
noi
dass
hownbe
low:
I
N OUT

S
S

a G b c d G

Whe
nthema
gne
tispus
hedi
ntot
hes
ole
noi
d,t
heg
alva
nome
teri
sobs
erve
dtode
fle
cts
amet
owhe
niti
sbr
oug
ht

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

outbuti
noppos
itedi
rec
tions
.Howe
ver
,whe
nthema
gne
tiske
pts
tat
iona
ryi
nthes
ole
noi
dnode
fle
cti
onoc
cur
s.

S
pe c
ifi
cal
ly,whenthenorthpol
eofthemagneti
sbroughti
ntothesol
enoi
dthegal
vanomete
rdef
lect
stowa
rdst
he
l
eftshowi
ngt hatc
urrentf
lowsfrombtoabutdefl
ect
stowardstheri
ghtwhent
hema gne
tismovedawayf
romthe
s
olenoidshowingtha
tc ur
rentf
lowsfr
omct od.

Theseobservat
ionsares
umma ri
zedinLe
nz’slawwhic
hs t
a t
e:thei
nducedcur
rentf
lowsinsucha
waytooppos
e
thechangecausi
ngit.
Iti
sbasedonthepr
incipl
eofc
onservati
onofenergyi
.et
heme cha
nica
l e
ner
gyoft
hemoving
ma g
netisconverte
dtoelec
tri
cal
energyi
ntheformoftheinducedcur
rent.

Thedirect
ionofthei
nducedc urr
entcanbepr edict
edbyFleming’
sr i
ghthandrule
:ift
hethumb,fi
rstandsecond
fi
ngersoftherig
hthandarehe l
dmut ual
lyatri
g htangle
stoeachotherwitht
heFirstf
ing
erpointi
ngthedirect
ion
oftheFie
ld,thumbpoint
ingthedire
ctionoftheMot ionthe
ntheseCondfingerpoi
ntsi
nthedir
e c
tionoftheCurre
nt.
Iti
sa l
socall
edtheDynamorul e
.
Thumb(
mot
ion)

1STFi
nge
r(f
iel
d)

2NDFi
nge
r(i
nduc
edc
urr
ent
)

4.
4:Mut
ual
induc
tion

Mutual
induct
ionocc
urswhenava
ryingcurr
enti
nonec
oili
nduce
sc ur
renti
nanothe
rclosecoi
l.
Thef i
rstc
oil
in
whichcur
rentfl
owsisc
all
edt
hepri
ma rycoi
lwhi
let
hes
econdcoi
linwhichcur
renti
sinduce
disc a
lle
dt he
se
condarycoi
l.

Thevaryi
ngcur
renti
nthepr
ima
ryc
oil
produc
esama
gne
ticf
iel
dwhi
chl
inkswi
tht
hes
econda
ryc
oil
induc
ing
cur
rentini
t.

G
Pr
ima
ryc
oil S
econda
ryc
oil

Whe nthes witc

hi scl
osed,curr
entinthepr i
ma rycoili
ncre
a sesfromz e
rot omaximum. Asar esult
,thema g
neti
c
f
luxlinkingupwi thturnsofthesecondar
yc oil
a l
soincrea
se sfromz er
ot oma x
imum. Thischang i
ngma gneti
cfl
ux
i
nduc escurrentinthesecondarycoilwhi
c hma kesthegal
va nome t
ertode fl
ect
.Oncethec urr
entha sreached
maximumva lue,ther
ewi l
lbenofur t
herincreaseinthema gneticfluxandt hepoi
ntergoesba cktoz er
o.
Nove l
s,UpdatedKAS NEB,I
CT,I
T,Coll
ege,
HighS choolNotes&Re vi
s i
onKi t
s(is
abokemicah@g ma il
.c
om)28of28
FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Whentheswitchisopen,thecurre
ntfall
sfr
omma xi
mumt ozerowithi
nave ryshortti
me.Thi
simplie
st hatt
he
magneti
cfl
uxoftheprima rycoi
ltakesaverys
hor
ttimetochange.
Thes hor
terthetimethehi
ghertheinduced
cur
rentandthusalarg
e rdefl
ect
ion.Hencemorec
urrenti
sinduce
ddur i
ngswi t
chingofft
handuri
ngswi tc
hingon.

Thema
gne
ticf
luxoft
hepr
ima
ryc
oil
linki
ngupwi
tht
hes
econda
ryc
oil
canbeva
rie
dby:

 S
wit
chi
ngt
hec
urr
entona
ndof
f.

 Va
ryi
ngt
hec
urr
enti
nthepr
ima
ryc
oil
usi
ngar
heos
tat
.

 Appl
yinga
nal
ter
nat
ingc
urr
ent
.

Thedir
e ct
ionoft
hei
nduc
e dcur
rentcanbepredi
cte
da pplyi
ngtheRight
-ha
ndg r
iprul
eandLenz’
sla
w
si
multaneousl
y.Whe
ndoingso,
theprimaryc
oili
strea
t e
da sifi
twereabarmagnetmovi
ngintot
hesec
onda
ryc
oil
duri
ngs wit
chi
ngonandasabarma g
netmovingawayfromt hesec
ondarycoi
lduri
ngswit
chi
ngoff
.
S
out
hpol
eappr
oac
hing S
out
hpol
ere
cedi
ng

N SA B N SA B

G
G

ThusbyLenz’l
a w,duri
ngswit
chingontheendAatt
ainsaSout
hpoleandBaNorthpolewhil
eduri
ngswi
tchi
ngof
f
theendAatt
ainsaNor t
hpoleandBaS outhpol
esuchthati
neachc
a s
ethee
ffe
ctofthepri
maryfi
eldi
sbe
ing
opposedbyt
ha tofthesec
ondarycoi
l.

Thei
nduc
ede
mfa
ndc
urr
enti
nthes
econda
ryc
oil
canbei
ncr
eas
edby:

 Inc
r e
asi
ngt
henumberoft
urnsi
nthes
econda
ryc
oil
sot
hatma
nyt
urnsc
anl
inkupwi
tht
hema
gne
ticf
iel
d
ofthepr
imar
ycoi
l.

 Windingbotht
hepr
imaryandseconda
r ycoil
sonasof
tironri
ngorsof
tir
onr od.
Thiswil
lhel
pto
conc
entrat
ethemagne
ticf
iel
dli
neswithinthesec
ondar
yc oi
l.
Sof
tir
onisals
oe as
iertomagne
tiz
eand
demagneti
ze.
S
ofti
ronr
ing S
ofti
ronr
od

Pr
ima
ryc
oil S
econda
ryc
oil

Pr
ima
ryc
oil S
econda
ryc
oil G

4.
5:Appl
ic
ati
onsofe
lec
troma
gne
tici
nduc
tion

4.
5.
1:Tr
ans
for
mer

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Atrans
formeri
sadevicethattr
ansfer
select
ric
alener
gyf r
omonec ir
cui
ttoanotherbymutual
induct
ion.I
t
compri
seoftwocoi
ls
;thepr imar
ya ndsec
onda r
ycoil
s.Ana l
ter
nat
ingcurr
entisfe
dintothepr
imarycoil
whos e
magneti
cfl
uxli
nksupwi t
ht hesec
ondarycoili
nduci
ngc urr
entini
t.Bot
htheprimaryandthesec
ondarycoil
sare
woundonac ommonsoftironcoretoenhanceit
seff
ecti
veness.

Pr
ima
ryc
oil S
econda
ryc
oil

a
.c

a
)At
rans
for
mer b)Ci
rcui
tsymbol
ofat
rans
for
mer

Foranytr
ansf
ormer,
thera
tiooft
henumbe
roft
urnsoft
hes
econda
ryc
oil
nst
othenumbe
roft
urnsoft
hepr
ima
ry
coi
lnpisc
all
edthet
urn’
srat
io;

i
.
etur
n’sr
ati
o=ns/
np.

Fora nideal t
rans f
or me r(100% eff
ici
ent);
Powe rfedi nt
ot hepr ima rycoil(
powe rinput)=powerg enerat
edatthese
conda
rycoi
l(powe
rout
put
).
i.
eVpIp=VSIS.
Rearrangingt hea bovee qua t
ion,weobt ai
n:
VS/Vp=IP/IS.
Henc ewhe nt hevol tageissteppedupt hecurrentissteppeddown.
The r
e f
ore,fora nide altransf
orme r
:
ns/np=Vs/Vp=I P/IS.
Thee ff
ici
enc yofat r a
ns former={powe routput/powe rinput
}x100.
Thee quationns/ np=Vs/ Vpisref
erredtoa st
het ransf
orme requat
ion.
The r
ea retwot ype soft ransf
orme rsname l
ystep-downa ndst
epupt r
ansf
ormer
.
a)Stepdownt r
a nsforme r

I
nas t
ep-
downtr
ansf
ormer
,the
rea
remor
etur
nsont
hepr
ima
ryc
oil
tha
nthes
econda
ryc
oil
(np˃ns.
thust
het
urn’
s
r
ati
oisle
sst
hanone(1)
.

Astepdownt
rans
for
mers
tepsdownvol
tag
ebuts
tepsupc
urr
ent
.He
ncet
hei
nputvol
tag
eisl
esst
hant
heout
put
vol
tage
.

b)S
tepupt
rans
for
mer

Ast
epupt ra
nsfor
me rst
epsupvol
tag
ebuts t
epsdowncur
rent
.Inast
epupt
ransfor
mer,t
herearemor
eturnson
t
hesecondaryc
oilthant
hepri
ma r
ycoil
.Thusthet
urn’
sra
tioi
smoretha
none.Theout
putvolt
agei
sgrea
tertha
n
t
heinputvol
tage.

Ex
ampl
e4.
1

1.Ca
lcul
atethenumberoft
urnsoft
hesec
onda
rycoi
lofaste
pdowntr
ansf
orme
rwhi
chwoul
dena
blea12Vbul
bto
beusedwitha240Vacsupplyi
fthe
rea
re480tur
nsinthepri
mar
ycoi
l.

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ICSLES
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ns/
np=Vs/
Vp

ns/
480=12V/
240V

ns=(
480x
12)
/240=24t
urns

2.Wha
tc ur
rentwil
lfl
owi nt
hes
econda
rycoi
lwhe
nt hepr
imarycur
renti
s0.5Aift
hevol
tag
eint
hepr
ima
ryc
oil
is
240Vandthati
ntheseconda
ryc
oili
s48V?Ass
umetheenerg
ylos
sisnegl
igi
ble.

VS/
Vp=I
P/I
S

48V/
240V=0.
5A/
IS

I
S=(
0.5x
240)
/48=2.
5A

3.As
tude
ntdesi
gne
dat ra
nsfor
mertosuppl
yacurr
entof10Aatapot
enti
aldif
fer
enc
eof60Vt
oane
lec
tri
cmot
or
fr
omanacsuppl
yof240V.i
ftheef
fi
ci
encyoft
hetr
ansf
ormeris80%,c
alc
ulate
:

a
)Thepowe
rsuppl
iedt
othet
rans
for
mer
.

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
powe
rout
put
/powe
rinput
)x100

80=[
(60x
10)
/powe
rinput
]x100

Powe
rinput
=(60x
10x
100)
/80

=750W

b)Thec
urr
enti
nthepr
ima
ryc
oil

Powe
rinput
=VPx
IP

I
P=750W/
240V=3.
125A

4.Amode
lofat
ransf
ormers
yst
emc
ons
ist
sofapowe
rge
ner
ator
,as
tepupt
rans
for
mer
,tr
ans
mis
sionc
abl
esa
nda
st
epdowntr
ans
former.
1:
80 90:
1

400kW,
500V Out
put

T1 T2

Gi
venthatt
het
ota
lre
sis
tanc
eoft
hec
abl
esi
s200Ω,
tra
nsf
orme
rT1i
s100% e
ffi
ci
enta
ndT2i
s95% e
ffi
ci
ent
,
ca
lcul
ate
:

a
)Thec
urr
entt
hroug
hthepr
ima
ryc
oil
ofT1.

Powe
rinput
=VPI
P

100,
000W=500Vx
IP

I
P=100,
000/
500=800A

b)Thevol
tag
eac
ros
sthes
econda
ryc
oil
ofT1.
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ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

ns/
np=VS/
VP

80/
1=VS/
500V

VS=500x
80=40000V

c
)Thevol
tag
eac
ros
sthepr
ima
ryc
oil
ofT2.

VPI
P=VSI
S

400,
000=40000Vx
IS

I
S=400,
000/
40,
000=10A

Thi
sist
hec
urr
entf
lowi
ngt
hroug
hthes
econda
ryc
oil
ofT1.

He
ncet
hevol
tag
edr
oppe
dac
ros
sthec
abl
es(
los
tthr
oug
hre
sis
tanc
e)=I
R

V=10x
200=2000V

The
ref
oret
hevol
tag
eac
ros
sthepr
ima
ryc
oil
ofT2=40,
000-
2000

=38,
000V.

d)Thema
ximumpowe
rout
putoft
het
rans
for
merT2.

e
ffe
cie
ncy=(
powe
rout
put
/powe
rinput
)x100

95=(
powe
rout
put
/38000x
10)
x100

Powe
rout
put
=[95x
38000x
10]
/100

=361,
000V

 Ene
rgyl
oss
esi
ntr
ans
for
mer
s

The
rea
ref
ourma
inc
aus
esofe
ner
gyl
oss
esi
ntr
ans
for
mer
s:

i
. Fl
uxl
eaka
ge

Whenpar
toft
hema
gne
ticf
luxoft
hepr
ima
ryc
oil
fai
lst
ore
acht
hes
econda
ryc
oil
,i
tisr
efe
rre
dtoa
sma
gne
ticf
lux
l
eaka
ge.

Inordert
omini
mizee
nerg
ylosst
hroughfl
uxlea
kagecanbereduc
e dbywi
ndingt
heprimaryands
e c
ondaryc
oil
s
nexttoea
chonacommoncor
e.Al
terna
tive
ly,
these
condaryc
oilcanbewoundontopofthepr
imarycoi
l.

i
i. Re
sis
tanc
e

Ascurrentf
lowst
hroug
hthecoi
ls,he
ati
sge
ner
ate
dduet
other
esi
sta
nceoft
hec
oil
s.Thee
lec
tri
cal
powe
rlos
sasa
2
re
sultofres
ist
anc
eisgi
venby=I R.

Ene
rgyl
osst
hroug
hre
sis
tanc
eca
nbemi
nimi
zedbyus
ingt
hic
kerc
oope
rwi
res
.

i
ii
. Eddyc
urr
ent
s

Asthecur
renta
lte
rna
test
hemag neti
cfl
uxals
okeepsa
lte
rnati
nginthes
ofti
roncor
eproduc
inge
ddycurr
ent
s.
Nove
ls,
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si
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

The
sec
urr
ent
sar
esuf
fi
ci
ente
noug
htog
ene
rat
ehe
atwi
thi
nthec
ore
.

Theener
gylos
sca
nbemi
nimi
zedbyl
ami
nat
ingt
hec
orei
.
e.us
ingt
hins
hee
tsofs
ofti
ronpl
ate
sins
ula
tedf
rom
eac
hother.

i
v. Hys
ter
esi
slos
s

Theproce
ssofmagne
tiz
ati
onanddemagne
tiz
ationanyt
imec
urr
entr
eve
rse
sdog
ene
rat
ehe
atwi
thi
nthec
ore
.
Ener
gylossi
nthi
swayisref
err
edtoashys
teres
islos
s.

Hys
ter
esi
slos
sca
nbemi
nimi
zedbyus
ings
ofti
ronc
orewhi
chi
sea
sie
rtoma
gne
tiz
eandde
mag
net
ize
.

Not
etha
tdespi
tethea
boveme
asur
es,
someofs
igni
fi
canthe
ati
sst
il
lge
ner
ate
dwi
thi
nthet
rans
for
mer
s.Thi
sis
f
urt
hercool
edusi
ngoil
.

4.
5.
2:Al
ter
nat
ingc
urr
ent(
ac)g
ene
rat
or

I
tisa
lsocal
ledt
hea l
ter
nator
.Agenera
tori
sadevi
cethatc
onver
tsmec
hani
cal
ene
rgyi
ntoe
lec
tri
cal
ene
rgy.
It
c
onsi
stsofacoi
ltha
trotat
esbet
we e
nthepole
sofast
rongmagnet.
bc

N S

a
d

1 X

Ca
rbonbr
ushe
s

S
lipr
ing
s

Y 2

Ca
rbonbr
ush Loa
d

Supposethecoi
lisrot
ate
dinthecloc
kwis
edir
ecti
onasshowna bove,t
henthesec
tionsabandcdcutt
hroughthe
ma g
neticf
iel
dbetwe e
nthepol
esofthemagne
tinduci
ngcurre
ntinthecoil
.Appl
yingFlemi
ng’sri
ghthandrul
eon
thesec
tionab,t
heinducedc
urrentfl
owsi
nthedire
cti
onabcdandthroughthel
oadviathesl
ipri
ng2a ndca
rbon
brushY.

Theinduc edcurre
ntisma x
imumwhe nt
hecoi
lishori
zont
alandreducestoz
e r
owhenthecoi
l i
satt
heve r
tic
al
posi
tion.Attheverti
calpos
iti
on,
thec
oil
ispar
all
eltothemagnet
icfi
eldandthusnoc
urre
ntisinduc
edi nt
he
coi
l.
Be yondtheverti
calposi
ti
on,t
hei
nducedc
urrenti
ncrea
sesfr
omz erotoma xi
mumwhe nthecoi
lisonc
ea ga
in
att
hehor i
zonta
lposit
ion.

ApplyingFlemi
ng’
sri
ghthandr ul
eag
a i
n,thei
nduc e
dcurre
ntflowsinthedir
ect
iondcba
andt hr
ought
hel
oadvi
a
thesli
pr i
ng1andcar
bonbr ushX.Henceinsecondhal
fcycl
e,curr
entdire
cti
onisre
versed.
Theinduc
ede
mfor
curr
e ntbytheacg
enera
tora ppea
rsasshownbyt hegr
aphbelow:

I
nduc
ede
mf/

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ICSLES
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c
urr
ent

0 180360 540720 a
ngl
ema
dewi
tht
hef
iel
d.

4.
5.
3:Di
rec
tcur
rent(
dc)g
ene
rat
or

Thi
sge
ner
atorunl
iket
hea
cge
ner
atorpr
oduc
esdi
rec
tcur
rent
.Itus
esas
pli
tri
ngi
nst
eadofas
li
pri
ng.
b c c
b

N S N S

d a

ad

X 1 2 Y X 21 Y

Ca
rbonbr
ushe
s S
pli
tri
ng

Loa
d

(
a) (
b)

Asthecoi
lrota
tesf
r omthehorizont
alposi
ti
ontotheve r
tic
a l
posit
ion,
theinduc
edcurre
ntreduc
esfrommaxi
mum
tozer
o.Whe nthec
oi l
isrot
atedinthecl
ockwisedi
r e
cti
ona sshowninfig
ure(a)
,thei
nduce
dc ur
rentfl
owsi
nthe
dir
ect
ionabcdandthroughtheloadvi
athehalfspl
itri
ng2a ndcarbonbrushY.

Attheve rti
calposi
tionthec ar
bonbrushestouc hthega psbet
we enthecommut a
tors(halfspli
trings).Whenthe
coi
l goespa s
tthever t
icalposi
ti
on,t
hehalfsplitringsautomati
call
ye x
changet hecarbonbr ushesa sshownin
fi
gure( b)above.ApplyingFleming’
sri
ghtha ndr uleag
a in,
theinducedcurr
e ntfl
owsi nthedi re
ctiondc ba
and
throught heloadvi
at heha l
fspli
tri
ng1andc arbonbrus hY.t
husthedirect
ionofc urrentthrought heloadisi
none
dir
e cti
ononl yhencedirectcurre
ntgener
ator .

Theg
raphofi
nduc
edc
urr
ent
/emfbyadcg
ene
rat
ora
ppe
arsa
sshownbe
low:

I
nduc
ede
mf/Cur
rent

0 180 360540720 a
ngl
ema
dewi
tht
hef
iel
d

Notet
hatt
hemag
nit
udeoftheinduc
edcur
renta
nde
lec
tromot
ivef
orc
epr
oduc
edbybot
hthea
canddcg
ene
rat
ors
ca
nbeincr
eas
edi
nthefol
lowingways:

 Us
ingas
trong
erma
gne
t.

 I
ncr
eas
ingt
henumbe
roft
urnsoft
hes
econda
ryc
oil
.

 I
ncr
eas
ingt
hes
pee
dofr
ota
tionoft
hec
oil
.

 Wi
ndi
ngt
hec
oil
onas
ofti
ronc
ore
.

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ICSLES
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I
nsomeg
ene
rat
orsl
iket
hebi
cyc
ledyna
mo,
thec
oil
iske
pts
tat
iona
rywhi
let
hema
gne
trot
ate
s.

4.
5.
4:I
nduc
tionc
oil

Aninductioncoil
consist
sofapr imarycoi
loffewerturnsandasecondarycoi
lofmanyturns
,bot
hwoundonas oft
i
ronc ore.Whenthes wit
chisc l
osed,t
hesofti
roncorebe c
ome smagneti
zedandatt
rac
tsthesof
tir
onarmature
.
Thisbreaksthecontactandcurrentst
opsfl
owi ng
.Thec or
eisthusdemagneti
zed.
Thearma t
urei
srel
ease
da ndthe
contacti
sr e
ma de.Theproce
s sisrepe
atedaslongastheswitc
hisclose
d.

Thec hangingma g
neti
cfl
uxduri
ngma gnet
iza
tionanddemagnet
izat
ionpr oduc
esaninduc
edemfandc
urre
ntint
he
seconda r
yc oi
l.
Theinduce
dcurr
entintheseconda
rycoi
lproducessparksascurr
entfl
owsthr
oug
htheai
racr
oss
thega psattheendsoft
hesec
ondarycoil
astheshowninthefi
gurebelow:

.
.
S
par
ks

Pr
ima
ryc
oilCont
act

S
econda
ryc
oil

S
ofti
rona
rma
tur
e

Thec
apa
cit
ori
sus
edt
ost
orec
har
gea
ndt
husr
educ
espa
rki
ng.

Thes
par
kspr
oduc
edc
anbeus
edt
oig
nit
eana
ir-
pet
rol
mix
tur
esuc
hasi
nthec
ari
gni
ti
ons
yst
em.

4.
5.
5:Themovi
ngc
oil
mic
rophone

Amovi
ngc
oil
louds
pea
kerc
onve
rtss
ounde
ner
gyi
ntoe
lec
tri
cal
ene
rgy.
Ma
gne
t Di
aphr
agm

Toa
mpl
if
ier S
oundwa
ves

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Whenape rsonspeaksint
othemicrophone,t
hesoundwa vesse
tthedi a
phragmintovibr
ation.
Thisma ke
sthec oi
l
t
omovef orwa r
dandba ckcut
ti
ngthroughthema gne
ticf
iel
dinducingcurre
ntinthecoil
.Theinduce
dc urr
ent
f
lowstothea mpli
fi
erforampli
fi
cat
ionbeforeiti
srel
ayedtotheloudspeakerwherei
tisconvert
edba c
ktos ound
ener
gy.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedKAS
NEB,
ICT,
IT,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
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es&Re
vis
ionKi
ts(
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ah@g
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com)36of36
FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

TOPI
C5:
MAI
NSELECTRI
CITY

5.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Mainsel
ectr
ici
tyr
efer
stothee l
ect
ric
alpowersuppl
iedtohousehol
ds.Thepowerisge
nera
tedatthepowerst
ati
on
andthe
nt r
ansmit
tedtot
hec onsumersei
the
rthroughoverhea
dt ra
nsmissi
onli
nesorunde
rgroundcabl
es.

S
omeoft
hesourc
esofma i
nse
lect
ric
ityi
ncl
udewate
rinhi
ghda
ms,
geot
her
mal
,wi
nd,
sol
are
ner
gy,
coa
landdi
ese
l
e
ngi
nege
ner
a t
ors,nuc
lea
rener
gyandt i
dal
waves
.

Not
ethatt
hechoiceofthes
our c
eofma i
nsel
ect
ric
ityt
ous
eisde
pende
ntoni
tsa
vai
labi
li
tya
nda
bunda
ncea
swe
ll
ast
heimpl
ica
tionsitha
sont heenvi
ronment
.

I
nKenya
,themostut
il
ize
ds ourc
eofma
insel
ectr
ici
tyi
shydr
oel
ect
ric
ity.
Toda
y,t
her
eisa
lsoi
ncr
eas
edus
ageof
s
ola
renerg
y,ge
other
ma lener
gy,wi
ndene
rgyandcoal
.

5.
2:El
ect
ric
alpowe
rtr
ans
mis
sion

Thisisproc
e ssbywhi c
he l
ectr
icalpowerisrel
ayedfromt hegene r
a t
ionplantt
ot heconsume r
satthei
rhome s
,
i
nst i
tut
ions
, s
c hool
s,i
ndustr
ies,f
actor
iesetc.
InKenya ,
electr
ica
l powe risdi
str
ibutedusingthenat
ionalg
rid
system.Thena ti
onalgri
dsystemisane t
wor kofc
a bl
esc onnect
inga tacommonpoi ntal
lthepowergenerat
ion
plantsandthendi s
tri
butedtotheconsume r
s.Thi
swa yite ns
uresa vail
abil
it
yofpowe revenwhe noneofthe
sta
tionsisshutdown.

Beforepowe ri
sfe di
ntothena ti
onalgri
ds ystem,i
tiss t
e ppedupi.
e .
vol t
agei
ss te
ppe dupbutcurre
ntiss t
epped
down. Mostpowe rst
ati
onsg eneratebetwe en11kVa nd25kVwhi chissteppedupt obetween17kVa nd400kV. At
theconsume rend,aste
pdownt ransf
orme risusedtos tepdownt hevol t
agetoabout11kVa tasubstat
ion.
Howe ver,t
hisvaluei
sstil
llar
g etobeus edthewa yitis.Thepowe risthendistri
butedbycable
stoa notherste
p
downt ransf
orme rwhichissi
tuatedjustne a
rthecons ume r.Thi
stransformerfurtherst
epsdownthevol t
a g
etoa
consumablevalueof240Vf ordome sti
cus eor415Vf orfa c
tori
es.

Hi
ghvol
tag
etr
ans
mis
sionha
sthef
oll
owi
ngt
hre
ebe
nef
it
s:

 Powe
rlos
sduet
ore
sis
tanc
eoft
hec
abl
esi
smi
nima
l.

 Thi
nca
ble
scoul
dbeus
ed.

 Re
duc
edc
osti
nac
qui
ri
ngc
abl
esa
ndpol
es.

Howe
ver
,hi
ghvol
tag
etr
ans
mis
sionha
ssomel
imi
tat
ions
.The
sei
ncl
ude
:

 Hi
ghr
isksofe
lec
tri
cshoc
kinc
aset
hepol
esc
oll
aps
eort
hec
abl
esha
ngve
ryl
ow.

 Highri
sksoff
ir
eout
breakonne
arbybui
ldi
ngsa
ndve
get
ati
onwhe
nthec
abl
esha
ngt
ool
oworwhe
nthe
ca
blestouc
heachot
her
.

 Ha
rmf
ule
ffe
ctsofs
trongma
gne
ticf
iel
dsduet
othec
urr
entf
lowi
ngi
nthec
abl
es.

El
ect
ric
alpowe
risg
ene
rat
eda
nddi
str
ibut
eda
sal
ter
nat
ingc
urr
ent
.Thi
sisbe
caus
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eas
ons
:

i
. Tr
ans
for
mer
swor
kona
lte
rna
tingc
urr
ent
/vol
tag
eonl
y.

i
i. I
tise
asi
ert
ost
epupordown.

Nove
ls,
Upda
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NEB,
ICT,
IT,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
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es&Re
vis
ionKi
ts(
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

i
ii
. Al
ter
nat
ingc
urr
enti
sea
sie
rtor
ect
if
y.

Ex
ampl
e5.
1

1.Somelengt
hofapowe
rli
nehasar
esi
sta
nc eof10Ωandist
rans
mit
ti
ng11kVa
ndac
urr
entof1A.
Ift
he
vol
tag
ei ss
teppe
dupt
o160kVbyatr
ansformer,c
alc
ula
te:

a
) Thei
nit
ial
powe
rlos
s
2
Powe
rlos
s=IR=12x
10

=10W

b)Thepowe
rlos
saf
ters
tepup

VPI
P=VSI
S

10kVx
1A=160kVx
IS

I
S=(
10/
160)=0.
06875A

He
nce
,powe
rlos
s 068752x
=0. 10

=0.
048W

2.Apowerst
ati
onproduces50kW at240V.Thepoweri
strans
mit
tedt
hroug
hca
ble
swi
thar
esi
sta
nceof0.
4Ω.
Ca
lcul
atet
heper
centag
epowe rlossduri
ngtrans
miss
ion.

Powe
r=VI

50,
000W=240Vx
I

I
=50,
000/
240=208.
8A

He
nce
,powe
rlos
s=208.
37x
0.4

=17,
360.
556W

%powe
rlos
s=(
17360.
556/
50000)
x100=9.
72%

5.
3:Dome
sti
cwi
ri
ng

Fromthes te
pdownt ra
nsfor
merneartheconsume r,
powe ri
stransmitt
edbytwocabl
es;thel
iveandneutralwi
re
totheconsume r
’smet
erwhichmeasur
e sandregis
terstheamountofpowe rc
onsumed.Theli
vewi r
eisatful
l
potent
ialof240Vwhil
etheneutr
alwir
ei satzer
opot enti
als
inc
ei tha
sbe e
neart
hedatthesub-st
ati
on.Fromthe
me t
er,el
ectri
ci
tyent
ersthef
useboxwhichc ompri
sesofthefol
lowing:

 Ma
ins
wit
ch-c
ont
rol
sal
lthel
ivea
ndne
utr
alwi
ress
imul
tane
ous
ly.
Iti
snor
mal
lyus
eful
dur
ingr
epa
irs
.

 Li
vebus
bar-i
tisabr
a s
sbaronwhic
ha l
ltheli
vewir
esofa
llt
hec
irc
uit
sha
vebe
enc
onne
cte
d.Ea
chl
ive
wir
eisc
onnect
edtotheli
vebus
barthr
oug hafus
e.

 Ne
utr
albus
bar
-iti
sabr
assba
rtowhi
cha
llne
utr
alwi
resofa
llt
hec
irc
uit
sha
vebe
enc
onne
cte
d.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedKAS
NEB,
ICT,
IT,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
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es&Re
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ionKi
ts(
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

 Eart
htermina
l-i
tisusedt
oea
rththec
ircui
t.Thi
sca
nbedonebybur
yingat
hic
kcoppe
rwi
rede
ep
underg
roundorthroug
hametal
li
cwaterpi
ping.

Afuseisathinwirewit
hve r
ylowmelt
ingpointsuchthati
fitisoverheate
di tmelt
sa ndt
hecirc
uitg
ets
dis
connect
e d.Thi
swayitisusedt
osa
feguardelect
ric
alappl
iances.Fusesarerate
di nampere
s.Normall
y,thef
use
rat
ingi
ss l
ightl
yabovethema x
imumcurre
ntr e
quirementofthea ppl
iance.All
fusesmustbeconnec
tedalongt
he
l
ivewire.

I
ndome
sticwi
ri
ng,
the
rea
ret
hre
eimpor
tantt
ype
sofwi
resc
ommonl
yus
edna
mel
yli
vewi
re,
neut
ral
wir
eand
e
art
hwir
e.

 Li
vewi
re-ittr
ansmi
tsa
lte
rna
tingc
urr
entf
romt
hes
our
cet
othea
ppl
ianc
eorpl
ug.
Iti
snor
mal
lyr
edor
br
ownincolour.

 Neut
ralwi
re-iti
sthereturnwir
ei.
e.i
tre
tur
nsthecurr
entba
ckt
othes
our
cec
ompl
eti
ngt
hec
irc
uit
.Iti
s
us
uall
yatzeropotent
ial
.Iti
snormal
lybl
ueorbl
ackincol
our
.

 Ea
rthwi
re-i
tea
rthst
hec
irc
uit
.Iti
snor
mal
lyg
ree
norye
llowi
ncol
our

Howeve
r,atti
me sthef
usemayme
ltof
fandt
husf
ail
tos
ervei
tsr
ight
ful
pur
pos
e.S
omec
aus
est
hatc
anl
eadt
o
mel
ti
ngoffofthefusei
ncl
ude
:

i
. S
hor
tci
rcui
ti
ngwhe
nba
rec
onduc
tor
stouc
hea
chot
her
.

i
i. Ove
rloa
dingt
hec
irc
uitwi
thmor
eappl
ianc
est
hant
hef
usec
ana
ccommoda
te.

i
ii
. Us
ingaf
useofl
owe
rra
tingt
hant
hec
urr
entr
equi
reme
ntoft
hea
ppl
ianc
e.

i
v. Us
ingaf
aul
tyf
usewhos
ewi
rec
oul
dha
vebe
enox
idi
zed.

Ex
ampl
e5.
2

1.Ane
lec
tri
ccookerha
sanove
nrated3kW,agril
lrat
ed2kW a
ndtworing
seachrat
ed500W.Thecooke
rope
rat
es
fr
om240Vma i
ns.Woulda5Af
usebesui
tabl
eforthecooke
ras
sumingt
hatal
lthepa
rtsa
reswit
che
don?

I n=
ove 500/
240=12.
5A

I
gr
il
l=2000/
240=8.
8A

2I
ri
ng=(
s 2x
500)
/240=4.
17A

Tot
alc
ooke
rcur
rent=12.
5+8.
8+4.
17

=25.
0A

Wi
thaf
user
ate
d5A,
iti
ssui
tabl
e.

Notethatac
ircui
tbreakercanal
sobeusedtoser
vethesa mepurposeasthef
use.I
tshoul
dbenotedthataci
rcui
t
bre
a keri
sbett
ertha
naf usesinc
eforafus
eonceithasblownoffitmustbere
plac
edwhi l
eforaci
rcui
tbrea
ker,i
t
doesnotneedtoberepla
c e
d.Ins
tead,
thest
ripj
ustneedstimetocoolof
fandthe
nt heci
rcui
twil
lbecomplet
eonce
agai
n.

Thedia
grambelows
howsat ypi
calhousewiri
ngsys
tem:
Novel
s,
Upda
tedKASNEB,
ICT,I
T,Col
leg
e ,
Hig
hS c
hoolNot
es&Re
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ionKi
ts(
isa
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ah@g
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l.
com)39of39
FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Ma
ins
uppl
yca
ble

Me
terbox

Fus
ebox

S
ocke
t
30 30A 15A 5 5

Cooke
rHe
ate
r Li
ght
s

Ri
ngma
inc
irc
uit

5.
3.
1:Thel
ight
ingc
irc
uit

Thisisthecir
c ui
tthatcontr
olsallthel
ampswi thi
nt hehouse.Lampsareal
wa ysconnect
edinpar
all
els
othatt
hey
areope r
atedfromt hesamema i
nsvolt
age .
Thisalsoensurest
ha tt
heothe
rlampsc onti
nuetoworkwhenonei
s
fa
ulty.Thelig
ht i
ngc i
rcui
tusesverylowc urre
ntandt here
forethinwir
esareusable.
Thisisal
sot
hereas
onwhythe
l
ightingcir
cuitneedsnottoha vetheeart
hwi re.I
talsohasalowr at
edfuse,
mos t
ly5Afuse.

At
wo-
ways
wit
chc
irc
uit

I
nthisc
irc
uit,
alampisopera
tedbytwoswit
chesi.
e.oneca
nputt
hel
ampona
ndt
heof
fandvi
ceve
rsa
.Suc
ha
c
irc
uiti
sveryconve
nientf
orli
ght
ingast
air
caseorcorri
dors
.

Not
etha
tal
lswi
tche
sar
econne
cte
dal
ongt
hel
ivewi
re.

5.
3.
2:Thec
ooke
rci
rcui
t

Theel
ect
ricc
ooke
randwate
rhe a
terbothuseal
otmorecur
rentandthe
reforer
equir
eahig
hrat
edfuse
.Inmost
cas
es,
theyar
enormal
lys
uppli
edwiththei
rowncir
cui
ts.
Suchcir
cuit
sareusual
lyea
rthe
danduset
hic
kerwir
es.

5.
3.
3:Ther
ingma
inc
irc
uit

Thi
scirc
uits
uppl
iespowe
rtot
hes
ocke
tsa
roundt
hehous
e.I
tal
sous
esmor
ecur
rentc
ompa
redt
othel
ight
ing
ci
rcui
t.

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ls,
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e,Hi
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chool
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Socket
sareusedwit
hplug
s.Therea
retwotypesofpl
ugsnamel
yatwo-pi
nplugandathr
ee-pi
nplug
.Atwo-pi
n
plughasonl
ytheli
vepi
nandtheneutr
alpi
nwhi l
eathree
-pi
nplugha
sinaddit
iont
otheabovetwoane
a r
thpin
whichisnor
ma l
lyl
onge
rthantheot
hertwopins.
Thispi
nhastworol
es:

i
.Iti
sus
edt
oope
nthebl
inds(
soc
ket
)fort
heot
hert
wopi
ns.

i
i.
Iti
sus
edt
ole
akoutt
hec
har
geswhi
chc
oul
dha
vede
vel
ope
dint
hes
ocke
t.
E

L Fus
e

S
omepl
ugsha
veaf
usei
nse
rte
dint
hema
longt
hel
ivewi
ret
osa
feg
uar
dappl
ianc
esi
nca
seofe
xce
ssi
vec
urr
ent
.

5.
4:Thec
ostofe
lec
tri
cal
ene
rgy

Thec
ostofelect
ricale
nergycons
umeddependsonthepowerrati
ngoft
heappl
ianc
esuse
dandthedurat
ionofus
e.
Thee
lect
ric
a l
ener g
yus e
disme a
sur
edbytheme t
erinki
lowat
t-hour
s(kWh).
Iti
sgive
nbytheproduc
tofthe
powe
rinkilowattsandtheti
meinhour
s;

El
ect
ric
ale
ner
gyc
ons
ume
d=powe
r(kW)xt
ime(
h).

Oneki
lowa
tt-
houri
sal
sor
efe
rre
dtoa
soneuni
t;

1kWh=1uni
t

Thetot
alcostofe
lec
tri
cal
energ
ycons
ume
dbyahous
ehol
disg
ive
nbyt
hepr
oduc
toft
henumbe
rofuni
ts
cons
ume dandthechar
gespe
runit
;

Tot
alc
ost
=numbe
rofuni
tsus
edxc
ostpe
runi
t.

Ex
ampl
e5.
3

1.Asi
xbulbarr
ange
me nti
nahouserunsf
or8hour
severyni
ghtf
or5days
.Ifea
chbul
bisrat
ed100W a
ndthec
ost
ofel
ect
ric
ale
nergyi
ssh.2.
60peruni
t,howmuchwill
theowneroft
hehousepaya
ttheendoft
hefi
vedays
?

El
ect
ric
ale
ner
gyc
ons
ume
d=(
6x0.
1x8)x
5=24kWh

Tot
alc
ost
=24kWhxs
h2.
60=ks
h.62.
40

2.Ane
lec
tri
ccookerha
sa novenrat
ed3kW,agri
llr
ated2kW andt
wor i
ngsea
chrated500W.Thecookeroper
ate
s
fr
oma240Vma ins
.Wha ti
sthecos
tofope
rat
ingal
lthepart
sfor5minut
esi
fel
ect
ric
itycost
sSh1.
50pe runi
t?

Tot
aluni
tsc
ons
ume
d=[
3+2+(
2x0.
5)]
x5/
60

=3kWh

Tot
alc
ost
=3kWhxs
h1.
50

Nove
ls,
Upda
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chool
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

=Ks
h4.
50

Nove
ls,
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leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
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es&Re
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ionKi
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

TOPI
C6:
CATHODERAYSANDCATHODERAYTUBE

6.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Whename t
alsur
facei
sheat
ed,theelec
tronsgainener
gyandbecomee
xci
ted.
Atver
yhi
ghtemper
atur
es,the
el
ect
ronsmaybreakof
ffr
omt heforc
eofa t
trac
tionoft
henucl
ei.
Whenheati
suse
dtoex
tra
ctel
ect
ronsfr
omt he
s
urfa
ceofametal
,iti
sref
err
edt oasther
mi oni
ce mi
ssi
on.

Ca
thoder
aysa
res
tre
amsoff
astmovi
nge
lec
tronse
mit
tedf
romt
hes
urf
aceofahe
ate
dca
thodei
nsi
deava
cuum.

6.
2:Pr
oduc
tionofCa
thodeRa
ys.
Ca
thode Anode Ca
thoder
ays

He
ate
r

E.
H.T.

Va
cuum Fl
uor
esc
ents
cre
en

Fi
g.
1Ca
thodeRa
yTube

Cathoder aysa r
epr oducedinac at
hodera yt
ube.Thecathodeisheat
edbyt hehe at
eremitti
ngele
ctronsthrough
thermionice missi
on. Notethatt
hec a
thoderaysarestr
eamsofne ga
tive
lycha rgedpart
icl
es(el
ectr
ons).Thusonce
emittedatt hecathode ,
thee l
ect
ronswillbeat
tract
edbyt heanodewhichisa taposi
ti
vepotenti
al.Hencetherol
e
oftheanodei st
oa cceler
atetheelec
tronstowardsthescree
n.Theanodeisc onnect
edtoa next
rahightension
(EHT)s ourc e
.

Thetubeise
vacuat
ed.Thi
sist
opreventt
hee l
ect
ronsf
romint
erac
tingwi
thanypar
tic
lesbefor
ereac
hingt
he
scr
een.Thescr
eenisc
oatedus
ingafl
uoresc
entma t
eri
alt
hatg
lowswhenstr
uckbytheelec
trons.

6.
3:Pr
ope
rti
esofCa
thodeRa
ys

1.Theytr
avel
inst
raig
htli
nes.
Whe
nanopa
queobj
ecti
spl
ace
dal
ongt
hepa
thoft
her
ays
,as
har
psha
dowoft
he
obje
ctisf
ormedonthesc
reen.

2.
The
yar
echa
rge
d.He
ncet
heya
rede
fle
cte
dbybot
hma
gne
tica
nde
lec
tri
cfi
elds
.

3.
The
ypos
seski
net
ice
ner
gy.

4.
The
yca
nca
usec
ert
ains
ubs
tanc
ese
.gz
incs
ulphi
des
cre
ent
ogl
oworf
luor
esc
e.

5.
The
yca
npr
oduc
eX-
rayswhe
nthe
yar
esudde
nlys
toppe
dbyame
tal
tar
get
.

6.
4:TheCa
thodeRa
yOs
cil
los
cope(
CRO)

Thi
sisane l
ect
rica
l i
nstrumentdevel
opedf
romthecat
hodera
ytubeandwhichc
anbeusedt
odispl
aya
ndana
lyze
wavefor
ms .
Itcandispla
ybotha l
ter
nati
ngcur
renta
nddire
ctcur
rentwave
for
ms.Fur
the
rmore,
itca
nbeus
edto
measurevol
tagesthatvaryovert
ime.

Ac
athoder
ayos
cil
los
copeha
sthr
eema
inc
ompone
nts
:

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 Thee
lec
trong
un.

 Thede
fle
cti
ngs
yst
em.

 Thedi
spl
ays
yst
em.
Anode Y-
pla
tes

Ca
thode Gr
id X-
pla
tes

He
ate
r

El
ect
rong
un De
fle
cti
ngs
yst
em

Di
spl
ays
yst
em

a
)Thee
lec
trong
un

I
tcons ist
soft hreepartsnamelyt hec at
hode,gri
danda node.Thec at
hodee mitsel
e c
tronsthroughthermioni
c
emis
s ion.Theg ridconcentr
atesthee l
ectr
onsintoatig
htbe am.Itisconnectedtothenegati
vet e
rmi na
loftheEHT
andthusi tisatane gat
ivepotentia l
.Whe nthenegat
ivevolta
g eofthegridisrai
sed,fewerele
c t
ronswi l
lmove
t
owa rdst hesc r
eena ndthusthes potwi l
lbelessbr
ight.Howe ver,
whe ntheg ri
dvoltagei
slowe red,moreele
ctr
ons
wil
lmovet owa rdsthescreena ndt husthespotwil
lbebr i
ghter.I
ng eneral
,thegri
dc ontr
olsthera t
eoffl
owof
el
ect
r onst othes cr
eeni.e.
intensity.

Theanodeont
heothersi
deisataposi
ti
vepote
ntia
landisus
edt
oac
cel
era
tet
hee
mit
tede
lec
tronst
owa
rdst
he
scr
een.I
tal
sof
ocus
e st
heele
c t
ronst
oapointonthescr
een.

b)Thede
fle
cti
ngs
yst
em

Thi
ssyst
emplac
est
hee
lec
tronbe
amont
hes
cre
en.
i
tcompr
iseoft
wopa
irsofpa
ral
lel
pla
tesna
mel
ytheY-
pla
tes
andX-
plat
es.

TheY-pl
atesar
eresponsi
blefort
heve r
ticaldef
lec
tion.
Whe ntheuppe
rplat
eisataposi
ti
vepotent
ialf
orins
tanc
e,
thebe
a misdef
lec
tedupwa rdswhil
eifthelowerplatei
snowa taposi
ti
vepote
ntia
l,t
hebeamisdefl
ected
downwa r
ds.However,
whe nbothplat
esa r
ea tazeropote
ntia
l t
hebea
mwi l
lpassundef
lec
ted.

El
ect
ronbe
am

TheX-
pla
tesa
rer
espons
ibl
efort
hehor
izont
alde
fle
cti
onoft
hee
lec
tronbe
am.

El
ect
ronbe
am

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Ther
eisnodef
lec
tionwhenthepot
ent
ialdi
ff
ere
nceacros
sthepl
ate
sisze
robutdef
lec
tst
owa
rdst
hepl
atea
ta
pos
iti
vepot
ent
ialwhenconnect
edt
oas our
ceofvol
tag
ea ss
hownonthefi
gur
eabove.

Ifa
na l
ternat
ingvolt
ageisa
pplie
dsimul
taneousl
ytoboththeYa ndX-pl
ate
s ,
thenthespotonthescre
enwould
osci
ll
ateupanddowna ndatt
hesameti
memovea c
rossthescr
e enf
romlefttori
ghttrac
ingawa veonthes
cre
en.
Whe nthespotrea
chestheext
remeenditfl
iesba
cktothestar
tingpoi
ntandpr oce
ssisrepea
ted.

Thes
pee
dwi
thwhi
cht
hes
potmove
sont
hes
cre
enc
anbea
djus
tedbyt
het
imeba
seknob.

6.
5:Us
esoft
heCRO

i
. Us
eda
savol
tme
ter
.

Thetimebas
eisswitc
he dof
fwhil
ethevolt
agetobeme as
uredisf
edthroughtheY-gai
noftheCRO.Theappl
ied
volt
agedi
spl
acesthespotve
rti
cal
lyonthescre
en.TheY-gai
ncont
rolknobcanbeus edtoa
mplif
ythedis
playon
thescr
eenbyset
ti
ngittoacert
ainval
ue.Thisi
srefe
rre
dt oast
hesensi
tivi
tyoftheCRO.

He
ncet
hec
orr
espondi
ngvol
tag
etot
hes
igna
lont
hes
cre
eni
sex
pre
sse
das
;

Vol
tag
e(V)
=ve
rti
cal
def
lec
tion(
cm)xY-
gai
nse
tti
ngors
ens
iti
vit
y(vol
ts/
cm)

Cons
ide
rthewa
vef
orms
howni
nthef
igur
ebe
low:

Themax
imumve
rti
cal
def
lec
tionoft
hes
igna
lis3c
mor3di
vis
ionsone
ithe
rsi
de.
Suppos
etheY-
gai
nse
tti
ngi
s
50V/
cm;

The
nthepe
akvol
tag
ere
pre
sent
edbyt
hes
igna
l=ve
rti
cal
dis
pla
ceme
nt(
cm)xY-
gai
nse
tti
ng(
V/c
m).

=3c
mx50V/
cm=150V

Whe
nus
eda
savol
tme
ter
,aCROha
sthef
oll
owi
nga
dva
nta
gesove
rtheor
dina
ryvol
tme
ter
s:

 Ca
nme
asur
ebot
hdi
rec
tanda
lte
rna
tingvol
tag
es.

 Ca
nme
asur
eve
ryl
arg
evol
tag
eswi
thoutbe
ingda
mag
ed.

 Doe
snott
akea
nyc
urr
enti
nthec
irc
uits
inc
eitha
sinf
ini
ter
esi
sta
nce
.

 I
tre
spondsi
nst
ant
ly.
Thepoi
nte
rofor
dina
ryvol
tme
ter
sal
wayss
wing
saboutt
hec
orr
ectva
lue
.

i
i. Us
edt
ome
asur
efr
eque
ncy

Thesi
gnal
whos efre
quencyi
stobemeasuredi
sfe
dintotheY-g
ainandthet
imebasei
ss wi
tche
donand
adj
ust
edsothatthewavef
ormappea
rsstat
iona
ryonthescre
en.Suppos
etheti
mebasesett
ingi
s10ms/cm,i
t
i
mplie
sthatt
hewa vetake
s10mstocove
r1c mhori
zont
all
y.Thi
scanbeusedtode
terminethet
imeofone
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ICSLES
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wa
vei
.
epe
riodT.

Re
cal
l:f
reque
ncy=1/pe
riodT.

I
nthee
xampl
eabove
,suppos
ethet
imeba
sei
sse
tat40ms
/cm;

The
n,pe
riodT=numbe
rofdi
vis
ionsf
it
ti
ngonewa
vext
imeba
ses
ett
ing

=4c
mx(
40/
1000)s
/cm

=0.
16s

He
ncef
reque
ncyoft
hes
igna
l=1/
0.16=6.
25Hz

Ot
herus
esoft
heCROi
ncl
ude
:

 Me
asur
eme
ntofs
mal
lti
mei
nte
rva
ls.

 Me
asur
eme
ntofa
mpl
it
ude
sofdi
rec
tanda
lte
rna
tingvol
tag
es.

 Di
spl
ayofe
lec
tri
cal
sig
nal
swhos
eva
ria
tionsc
anbeputi
nthef
ormofvol
tag
e.

6.
6:Thet
ele
vis
iont
ube

Atel
evi
si
ontubec ompr i
sesofthreeelec
tronguns,twosetsofcoil
sforde f
lec
tionandaf l
uore
sc e
ntscr
een.There
ar
etwotypesTVt ubesna melythebla
cka ndwhitetubeandac oloure
dt ube.Thesignali
sfe
di ntot
hetel
evisi
on
t
hroughthecont
rolg r
id.Thisvaryi
ngincomingsignalr
egulat
esthenumbe rofelec
tronsbei
nge mit
tedbythe
el
ect
ronguna ta
nyi nst
ant.Thisintur
nr egul
ate
sthebr i
ghtnessofthespotont hescree
n.

Thescr
eeni
scoat
edusi
nggreen,
bluea
ndr
edphosphor
s.Whenaredcol
ourisr
equir
edfori
nst
ance,
thered
el
ect
rongunemit
sare
de l
ect
ronbeamwhi
chs
tri
kestheredphos
phoronthesc
reen.
Thesamehappensf
orgre
en
andbl
uecol
ours
.

Forwhi
tecol
our,
all
thethreeel
ect
rongunssi
multa
neous
lyf
ireel
ect
ronst
othesc
reen.However,
forbl
ackcolour
,
nobeamisfi
redt
othesc
r e
en.Theres
tofthecol
oursa
rej
ustobt
aine
dfromacombinat
ionofanytwoofthethree
col
our
s.

Thedefl
ecti
onofthebe amsisdonebythetwocoi
ls
;oner e
s pons
ibl
efort
heve r
tic
a l
defl
ect
ionandtheothe
rfor
thehori
zontal
de f
lec
tion.
Ac ur
renti
sfedint
othes
ec oi
lsproduci
ngama gne
ticfi
eld.Ast
hee l
ect
ronspas
sbe t
ween
thecoi
ls
,theresul
tantforc
eonthemc a
usesthemtodeviat
e.

Amagnet
icfi
eldispr
efe
rredt
oane
lec
tri
cfi
eldi
naTVt
ubebe
caus
eitg
ive
sawi
derde
fle
cti
onont
hes
cre
ena
nd
t
husashort
ertubecanbeuse
d.

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TOPI
C7:
X-RAYS

7.
1:Pr
oduc
tionofx
-ra
ys

X-
raysareproduc
edwhenf
astmovingel
e c
tronsar
esuddenl
ys t
oppedbyame t
alt
arget
.Att
hetimeofthei
r
di
scoverybyaGerma
nPhysi
cis
tRon6tgen,t
he i
rnat
urewasunknowna ndhe
ncethei
rnamex -
rays.
Genera
lly,
x-
ra
ysa r
euncharge
del
ect
romagnet
icradi
ati
onsofshortwa
velengtha
ndhighpenet
rat
ingabi
li
ty(power)
.

X-
raysa
repr
oduc
edi
nanx
-ra
ytube
:
E.
H.T Gl
asst
ube

Ta
rge
t

Ca
thode

El
ect
ronbe
am Oi
lout

Lowvol
tag
e Cool
ingf
ins

Oi
lin

Fi
lame
nt X-
rays Coppe
ranode

Curre
nti nt
hefil
amentemit
se l
ectronsatthecathodebyt hermionicemiss
ion.Theseele
ctronsarethenatt
rac
ted
towardstheanodebythehi
ghpot enti
aldif
fere
nc ethatexis
tsbetwe ent
hec at
hodea ndanode.Ons t
riki
ngthe
tar
get,t
hee l
ect
ronstr
ansf
ertheirkinet
icenergytot heme t
altarget.
About99.5% ofthi
sene r
gyisconvert
edto
heatattheta
rgetandonl
y0.5% ofthee ne
r g
yisr es
ponsiblefortheproducti
onofx -
rayradiat
ions.

Assuch,t
hemat
eri
aloft
heta
rge
tmustbeonethathasahig
hme l
ti
ngpoi
ntl
ikemolybdenumortung
sten.
The
anodeshoul
dal
sobeagoodt
herma
lconduc
torli
kecoppersoa
stoensur
eef
fic
ientdi
ssi
pati
onofheat
.

Furtherc
ool
ingatt
heanodei
senhancedbyaci
rcula
tionofoi
lar
oundtheanodea ndthepres
enceofc
ooli
ngf
ins
.
Insometubes,
thet
arg
etismadei
ns uc
ha wayt
or ot
atesoastocha
ngethepointofimpacta
ndthusreduc
ewear
andt e
ar.

Thetar
ge ti
sincl
inedatanang
letodi
rectt
hex-raysoutofthetube.Theglas
stubeisalsoevacuate
dtopr eve
nt
i
nter
ferencewiththeele
ctr
onbeambeforere
achingthetarget
.Thec at
hodeisconcaveinshapetofocusthe
emit
tedelect
ronstothetar
get
.Thehi
ghpotenti
aldif
ferenc
eisus e
dt oacce
lera
tethee mit
tede l
ect
ronstowards
thea
node .

Thex
-ra
ytubei
swe
lls
hie
lde
dus
ingl
eadwhi
cha
bsor
bsa
nys
tra
yra
yst
her
ebypr
ote
cti
ngt
heus
er.

7.
2:Pr
ope
rti
esofX-
rays

-Trave
lins
trai
ghtl
ineswit
hthes
peedofl
ightinai
r;3. 108m/
0x s.
Whe na
nopa
queobj
ectl
ikeabonei
spl
ace
don
thepat
hofx-
raysasha
r ps
hadowoft
heobj
ectisfor
me donthes
creen.

-The
yca
rrynoc
har
ge.
Henc
ex-
raysa
renotde
fle
cte
dbye
ithe
rma
gne
ticf
iel
dsore
lec
tri
cfi
elds
.

-I
oni
zea
irmol
ecul
esont
hei
rpa
thsbyknoc
kingof
fel
ect
ronsi
nthe
m.

-The
yca
usec
ert
ains
ubs
tanc
esa
nds
alt
stof
luor
esc
e.

-The
yca
usephot
ogr
aphi
nge
mul
si
on,
apr
ope
rtyus
edi
nx-
rayphot
ogr
aphy.
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ICSLES
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-The
yca
usephot
oel
ect
rice
ffe
ctwhe
ninc
ide
ntont
hes
urf
aceofs
omeme
tal
s.

-Theycanreadi
lypene
tra
tema
tte
r.Thede
gre
eofpe
net
rat
ionde
pendsont
hede
nsi
tyoft
hema
ter
iala
ndt
he
qual
it
yofthex
-rays
.

-The
yobe
ythewa
vee
qua
tionv=f
λ.

-The
yunde
rgoi
nte
rfe
renc
e,r
efl
ect
ion,
ref
rac
tiona
nddi
ff
rac
tione
ffe
cts
.

7.
3:Ene
rgya
ndQua
lit
yofx
-ra
ys

Whenane
lect
ronofcha
rgeeisacc
ele
ratedbyavol
tag
eVa ppl
ieda
cros
st hetube
,theel
ectr
ong a
insa
namount
ofe
ner
gyequi
val
entt
oe V(
ele
ctr
onvolts
).Thi
sener
gyisc
onver
tedi
ntokineti
cenerg
yoftheele
ctr
on;

i
.
eeV=K.
E

V=½mѵ2,
e whe
rem-ma
ssoft
hee
lec
tron(
m=9. 10-6kg
11x )andѵ-t
heve
loc
ityoft
hee
lec
tron.

Al
so,
acc
ordi
ngt
oPl
ank’
sthe
ory,
thee
ner
gyofa
nye
lec
troma
gne
ticr
adi
ati
onx
-ra
ysi
ncl
ude
disg
ive
nby;

Ene
rgy,
E=hf
,whe
reh-i
sPl
ank’
scons
tanta
ndf
-ist
hef
reque
ncyoft
her
adi
ati
on.

He
ncef
orx
-ra
ys;
eV=½mѵ2=hf
=hѵ/
λ.

Genera
lly,
mostene
rget
icx-
raysa
r ethos
ewithhi
gherfr
equenc
yors
hor
terwa
vel
eng
thwhi
let
hel
eas
tene
rge
tic
x-
raysarethos
ewit
hlowerfr
equencyorlong
erwave
length.

Thee ner
gyofx-
raysde pe
ndsont heac
cel
erat
ingpotent
ialbet
we enthecathodeandtheanode.Thehigherthe
accel
erat
ingpot
enti
al,thehighe
rt heener
gyoft hee l
ect
rons.
Si
nc eitisthee ner
gyoft heelec
tronsthatis
convert
edint
ox-r
ays,thehig
hertheene
rgyoft
heelect
ronsthehighertheenergyoft
hex-
rays.

X-
rayspr
oducedbyhighe
nerge
tice
lec
tronsorhi
ghacc
ele
rati
ngvolt
agearer
efe
rre
dtoa
sha
rdx
-ra
ys.
The
yar
e
hi
ghqual
ityx
-rays
,ha
veveryhi
ghfr
equencyandhi
ghpenet
rat
ingpower.

X-
raysproduce
dfromlowener
gye l
ectr
onsorlowacce
ler
a t
ingvol
tag
ear
ecal
leds
oftx
-ra
ys.
The
yar
elowqua
lit
y
x-
rays,
havelowenerg
ycont
ent,l
owf r
equenc
ya ndl
owpe netr
ati
ngpowe
r.

7.
4:I
nte
nsi
tyofX-
rays

Int
e nsi
tyofx
-raysref
erst
ot henumbe rofx-r
a ysproducedperse
cond.Itde pe
ndsonthenumberofe
lect
rons
str
ikingthet
argetpersecond.Thisiscont
rol
le dbythefila
mentcurrent.Thehighe
rthef
il
amentcur
rentthe
highernumberofel
ectr
onsemitte
da ndhencethegreatert
heint
ensi
tyofthex-rays
.

7.
5:De
tec
tionofX-
rays

X-
raysc
anbede
tec
tedby:

-Us
ingaf
luor
esc
ents
cre
en.
Thes
cre
eng
lowswhe
nst
ruc
kbyt
hex
-ra
ys.

-Us
ingaphot
ogr
aphi
cpl
ate
.Thepl
atei
sbl
acke
nedwhe
nex
pos
edt
ox-
rays
.

7.
6:Us
esofX-
rays

I
nme
dic
ine

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-De
tec
tionoff
rac
tur
es,
dis
pla
cedbone
sorot
hers
tra
ngeobj
ect
swi
thi
nthebody.

-De
str
uct
ionofc
anc
erousg
rowt
hsa
ndot
herma
lig
nantg
rowt
hs.

-Te
sti
ngde
nsi
ti
esofbone
s.

-De
tec
tionofl
ung
swi
tht
ube
rcul
osi
s.

I
nindus
tri
es

-De
tec
tionoff
lawsi
nme
tal
sandwe
lde
djoi
nts
.

-Che
cki
ngpe
rce
nta
gesofc
ert
aine
leme
ntsi
nanor
e.

-Fors
ecur
ityc
hec
ksi
nai
rpor
ts.

-Toc
hec
kthepur
ityorg
enui
nene
ssofc
ert
ainpr
eci
ouss
tone
sli
keg
old,
sil
vere
tc.

-Tos
ter
il
izes
urg
ica
lequi
pme
ntbe
for
epa
cka
ging
.

-De
tec
tionofl
eaka
gesi
nwa
terpi
pes
.

I
ncr
yst
all
ogr
aphy

-Tos
tudyt
hec
rys
tal
str
uct
ureofs
ubs
tanc
es.

7.
7:Da
nge
rsofX-
rays

Exces
sivee
xposur
eofli
vingbodyt
iss
uestox-
raysma
yle
adt
oda
mag
eorki
ll
ingoft
hec
ell
s.X-
raysc
anc
aus
ede
ep
root
edburns,
mutati
onandseri
ousdi
seas
es.

The
sec
anbemi
nimi
zedby:

1.
Limi
ti
ngt
hee
xpos
uret
imeofl
ivi
ngt
iss
uest
ox-
rays
.

2.
X-r
ays
our
cess
houl
dbewe
lls
cre
ene
dors
hie
lde
d.

Ex
ampl
e7.
1(t
akeh=6. 10-9J
63x s,e
=1.
6x10-19C,
me=9. 10-6kga
11x ndѵ=3.
0x108m/
s)

1.
Cal
cul
atet
hee
ner
gyofx
-ra
yswhos
efr
eque
ncyi 1016Hz
s3x .

E=hf=6. 10-9J
63x sx 1016Hz
3x

=1. 10-17J
989x

2.I
nanx
-ra
ytube
,ane
lec
troni
sac
cel
era
tedbyapot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enc
eof1kV.

a
)De
ter
minet
heve
loc
ityoft
hee
lec
trona
siti
sre
achi
ngt
het
arg
et.

V=½mѵ2
e

1.
6x10-19Cx
1000V=½ x
9. 10-6kgx
11x ѵ2
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ICSLES
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ѵ2=3. 1014
5126x

ѵ=

b)Howmuc
hki
net
ice
ner
gywi
llt
hee
lec
tronha
vea
cqui
redwhe
nithi
tst
het
arg
et?

e
V=K.
E=1.
6x10-19Cx
1000V

=1.
6x10-16J

3.
Expl
ainhowyouc
ani
ncr
eas
e:

a
)Qua
lit
yofx
-ra
ys.

Byi
ncr
eas
ingt
hea
cce
ler
ati
ngpot
ent
ial
bet
wee
nthec
athodea
ndt
hea
node
.

b)I
nte
nsi
tyoft
hex
-ra
ys.

Byi
ncr
eas
ingt
hef
il
ame
ntc
urr
ents
otha
tmor
eel
ect
ronsa
ree
mit
tedpe
runi
tti
me.

4.Anx -
rayt
ubeope
rat
esa
t10kVa
ndac
urr
entof15mA.
Cal
cul
atet
henumbe
rofe
lec
tronshi
tt
ingt
het
arg
etpe
r
se
c ond.

I
=ne

10-3A=nx
15x 1. 10-19C
6x

n=9. 1016e
375x lec
trons
.

5.
Anx
-ra
ytubeope
rat
esa
t20kV.
Wha
tist
hes
hor
tes
twa
vel
eng
thi
nit
sx-
raybe
am?

e
V=hѵ/
λ

1.
6x10-19x
20000V=(
6. 10-9J
63x sx3.
0x108)
/λ

λ
=6. 10-11m
2156x

6.
Sta
tea
nydi
ff
ere
nce
sbe
twe
enx
-ra
ysa
ndc
athoder
ays
.

-X-
raysa
reunc
har
gedwhi
lec
athoder
aysa
rec
har
ged.

-X-
raysa
repr
oduc
edi
nanx
-ra
ytubewhi
lec
athoder
aysa
repr
oduc
edi
nac
athoder
ayt
ube
.

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ICSLES
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TOPI
C8:
PHOTOELECTRI
CEFFECT

8.
1:Phot
oel
ect
rice
mis
sion

Weha vea lr
eadyseenthatwhename tal
s urf
aceishea t
edtoac ert
ainextent,el
ectr
onsa redi
slodged.Thi
siscal
led
thermionicemissi
on.Si
milar
lywhename ta
lsurfac
ei sir
radi
a t
edus i
nga nelectr
oma g
ne t
icradiat
ionofacert
ain
amountofe nergy,el
ect
ronsareemitt
ed.Thisprocessiscal
ledphotoelec
tricemissi
onore ff
ect.Theenerg
yofthe
radi
a t
ionistransf
err
edtotheelect
ronsi
nt heatomsoft heme ta
l.Theelectronsgai
ne noughene r
gyandg et
disl
odg e
df r
omt heme t
alsur
face
.Theseelectr
onsa r
ec all
edphotoelect
rons.

Phot
oel
ect
rice
mis
sionc
anbes
hownbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngs
et-
ups
:

8.
1.
1:Us
ingag
alva
nome
ter
UVRa
dia
tion

B
A

WhentheUVra
dia
tionisi
nci
dentonthemet
alplat
eA,el
ectr
onsar
eemit
tedwhi
charethenat
tra
cte
dtowa
rds
pl
ateBduet
oit
sposit
ivepot
enti
al.
Thisc
omplet
esthec
ircui
tandt
hega
lvanome
terdef
lec
ts.

However,
whenagla
ssbarr
ieri
spl
ace
dal
ongt
hepat
hoftheUVra
diat
ionnode f
lec
tionwi
llbeobs
erve
dast
he
gl
asscut
sofft
her
adiat
ionf
romrea
chi
ngt
hemeta
lpl
atehenc
enophot
oelec
tronsareemit
ted.

8.
1.
2:Us
ingac
lea
nzi
ncpl
atea
ndunc
har
gede
lec
tros
cope
.
UVr
adi
ati
on

Cl
eanz
incpl
ate

Whe nUVr adi

a t
ionisi
ncide
ntonthec l
eanzincplat
e,el
ectronsaredis
lodgedfromt hezi
ncplat
e.Thezi
ncpla
te
thuslosesel
ectr
ons.Somee l
ect
ronsarethe
na ttr
actedfr
omt heplateandleafoftheele
ctr
oscopetowa
rdsthezi
nc
plat
el e
avingtheele
ctros
copeposit
ive
lycharged.Hencetheleafoft
hee l
ect
roscopediverge
s.

8.
1.
3:Us
ingac
lea
nzi
ncpl
atea
ndac
har
gede
lec
tros
cope
UVr
adi
ati
on Cl
eanz
incpl
ate

TheUVr
adi
ati
ondi
sl
odg
ese
lec
tronsf
romt
hes
urf
aceoft
hez
incpl
atel
eavi
ngi
twi
thade
fic
itofe
lec
trons
.Itt
hen
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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

at
tra
ctssomeele
ctronsfr
omthel
eafoft
hee
lec
tros
cope
.Thi
sine
ffe
ctdi
scha
rge
sthee
lec
tros
copea
ndt
hel
eaf
di
vergencer
educeswithti
me.

However,whenaposi
ti
vel
ycha
r g
edelec
tros
copei
suse
d,t
heUVradi
ati
ondis
lodg
esele
ctr
onswhi
char
e
immedia
telya
ttr
act
edbackbythepos
iti
vechar
gesont
heel
ect
ros
cope.
Thusthel
eafdi
ver
genc
erema
ins
uncha
nged.
UVr
adi
ati
on Cl
eanz
incpl
ate

8.
2:Thequa
ntumt
heor
yandEi
nst
ein’
sequa
tion

Thi
stheorywasadva
nc e
dbyMaxPlank.
Hesayst
hatele
ctr
omagneti
cradi
ati
onsl
ikel
ightar
epropag
a t
edinsmal
l
pac
ketsofene
rgycal
ledqua
nta[
sing
ular
-qua
ntum].Theamountofene
rgyofaquant
umi sre
fer
redtoasaphot
on.

Ac
cor
dingt
oPl
ank,
thee
ner
gyofaphot
oni
sdi
rec
tlypr
opor
tiona
ltot
hef
reque
ncyoft
her
adi
ati
on;

Eαf

Thus
,E=hf
:whe
rehi
sPl
ank’
scons
tant[
i.
eh=6. 10-9J
63x s].

S
inc
eal
lel
ect
roma
gne
ticr
adi
ati
onsobe
ythee
qua
tionc
=fλ
;

E=hc
/λ,
whe
reci
stheve
loc
ityoft
her
adi
ati
oni
nava
cuuma
ndλi
sthewa
vel
eng
th.

He
ncet
hel
arg
ert
hef
reque
ncy[
thes
hor
tert
hewa
vel
eng
th]t
heg
rea
tert
hee
ner
gyofar
adi
ati
on.

Not
ethatal
lthee ner
gyofonephotonisabsor
be dbyonee l
ect
ron.
Thisimpli
estha
ttheener
gyoft
hera
dia
tion
mustbesuf
fi
cienttodis
lodgeanel
ectr
onf r
omt hesurf
aceofthemeta
l ot
herwis
enoe l
ect
ronwoul
dbeemit
ted.
El
ectr
onsofvariousmetal
srequi
redif
fer
entamount sofenerg
ytobeemitte
d.

Theminimumenergyrequir
eme ntofa
nyme ta
l t
oemitanele
c t
ronisre
ferre
dtoasthewor
kfunc
tion,
w0oft
hat
metal
.Thisi
mpli
esthatt
her adi
ati
onbeingusedmustmeetac e
rtai
nminimumfrequenc
ybelowwhichno
phot
oemissi
onoccurs
.Thisminimumfrequencyisc
all
edthethres
holdfre
quenc
y,f0.

He
ncewor
kfunc
tion,
w0=hf
0.

Foranyr adi
a t
ionoffrequencyfwhi chi
slessthanthethresholdfre
que nc
yf0oftheme t
alsurf
a ce,t
hee ne
rgy,hfof
theradia
tionwi ll
belessthanthewor kfunct
ion,w0oftheme tal.
He nc
enophot oemiss
iontakesplac e
.However,
whent hefrequency,foftheradiat
ionisgreate
rthanthethr e
sholdfrequenc
yf0o ft
heme t
a l
,thenthea mountof
ener
gye quil
a venttotheworkfunctionoftheme t
alwil
l beusedtoe mitanelec
tronandther e
s toftheenerg
ywi l
l
beconvertedi nt
okineticene
rg yoftheelect
ron.

i
.
eene
rgyoft
her
adi
ati
on=wor
kfunc
tion+ki
net
ice
ner
gyoft
hee
lec
tron.

E=w0+k.
e

hf
=hf
0+½mѵ2,
whe
rem-ma
ssofa
nel
ect
ron(
9. 10-6kg
11x )andѵ-t
heve
loc
ityoft
hee
lec
tron.
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Thi
sequa
tioni
sknowna
sEi
nst
ein’
sequa
tionofphot
oel
ect
rice
mis
sion.

Alt
ernati
vel
y,t
her a
diati
onbeingusedmustnotexcee
dac er
tai
nma
ximumwa
vel
eng
thf
orphot
oemi
ssi
ont
ooc
cur
[r
ecall
w0=hf0=hc
/λ0].
thi
sisc
alledt
hreshol
dwa ve
length.

Theki
neti
cene
rgyofa
nelec
tronissometi
mesex
press
edinter
msofele
ctr
on-vol
t(e
V).
Iti
stheki
net
ice
ner
gy
gai
nedbyanel
ect
ronwhe
ni tpas
sesthr
oughapote
nti
aldi
ff
erenc
eofonevol
t;

i
.
e1e
V=[1Vx
(1. 10-19C)
602x ]=1. 10-19J
602x .

Ex
ampl
e8.
1

1.Ca
lcul
atet
hee
ner
gyofaphot
onofl
ightoff
reque
ncy5.
0x1014Hzi
n(a
)joul
es(
b)e
lec
tron-
vol
t.

a
)E=hf
=6. 10-9x
63x 5. 1014=3.
0x 10-19J
65x

b){
(3. 10-19J
65x x1e
V)/
(1. 10-19J
602x )}=2.
0693e
V

2.Li
ghtoffr
equenc
y4.3x1014Hzisi
rra
diate
donasurf
aceofme
tal
whos
ewor
kfunc
tioni
s2.
6eV.
Expl
ain
whethe
rphotoel
ect
ricemissi
onwilloc
curornot
.

Ene
rgyoft
her
adi
ati
on=hf
=[6. 10-9x
63x 4. 1014]
3x /[1. 10-19J
602x ]=1.
7796e
V

S
inc
ethee
ner
gyoft
her
adi
ati
oni
sle
sst
hant
hewor
kfunc
tion,
nophot
oel
ect
rice
mis
sionwi
lloc
cur
.

Al
ter
nat
ive
ly;

Wor
kfunc
tion=hf
0=2.
6x1. 10-19
602x

f
0=[
2.6x
1. 10-19]
602x /[6. 10-9]
63x =6. 1014Hz
74x

Si
ncethefre
quenc
yofther
adi
ati
oni
sle
sst
hant
het
hre
shol
dfr
eque
ncyoft
heme
tal
,the
rei
sno
phot
oelec
tri
cemis
sion.

8.
3:Fa
ctor
saf
fec
tingphot
oel
ect
rice
mis
sion

The
rea
ret
hre
ema
inf
act
orsa
ffe
cti
ngphot
oel
ect
rice
mis
sionna
mel
y:

- Ene
rgyoft
her
adi
ati
on

- I
nte
nsi
tyoft
her
adi
ati
on

- Typeorna
tur
eoft
heme
tal

8.
3.
1:Ene
rgyoft
her
adi
ati
on

Thea mountofe
nergyoftheemitt
e dele
ctronsisdi
rec
tlyproport
iona
ltothefrequenc
yoftheradi
ati
on.
Thisc
anbe
shownbyus i
ngradia
tionsofdi
ff
erentfrequenci
esandinve
s t
igat
ingt
hes t
oppingpotent
ial
foreac
hradi
ati
on.
Stoppi
ngpotent
iali
sthepotent
ialdif
fer
enc eatwhi
chnoneoft heemit
tedele
ctronsreac
htheanode.
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ICSLES
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Col
ourf
il
ter

Variousfi
lt
ersareusedintur
nt ogiveli
ghtofdi
ff
erentf
requenci
es.
Forea c
hfil
ter,thevar
iabl
er e
sis
torisusedt
o
varytheresis
tanceunti
lnocurrentisre
g i
ste
redbythemicro-
amme te
r.Notethatthesourceofd.
cvolt
ag eis
connectedinsuchawaythatitopposesthefl
owoftheej
ectedele
ctr
onsi.eitworksa ga
ins
tthekinet
icene r
gyof
thee j
ect
ede l
ectr
ons.

Thea
bse
nceofar
eadi
ngont
hemi
cro-
amme
teri
ndi
cat
esnof
lowofe
lec
trons
.

He
nce
,whe
nnoe
lec
tronf
lows
;eVs=k.
e

Vs=½mѵ2.
e

S
ubs
tit
ute
dint
heEi
nst
ein’
sequa
tion,
weobt
ain:

hf
=hf
0+eVs.

Bel
owisatypic
alresul
tobt
aine
dbyus
ingdi
ff
ere
ntc
olourf
il
ter
sofdi
ff
ere
ntf
reque
nci
esa
ndt
hei
rcor
res
pondi
ng
st
oppi
ngpotenti
als
:
Fr
eque
ncy,
f(1014)
x Hz 1.
65 1.
9 1.
17 1.
00

S
toppi
ngpot
ent
ial
,Vs(
V) 0.
20 0.
40 0.
60 0.
98

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Whe
nag
raphoft
hes
toppi
ngpot
ent
ial
Vsa
gai
nstf
reque
ncyi
spl
ott
ed,
theg
raphwoul
dappe
ara
sshownbe
low:

S
toppi
ngpot
ent
ial S
lope
=ΔVs/
Δf=h/
e

[
Vs]

f
0 Fr
eque
ncy,
f[1014Hz
x ]

-
w0/
e

8.
3.
2:I
nte
nsi
tyoft
her
adi
ati
on

I
tisde
fine
dast
her
ateofe
ner
gyf
lowpe
runi
tar
eawhe
nther
adi
ati
oni
snor
mal
tot
hes
urf
ace(
are
a);

I
nte
nsi
ty=E/
At

ButE/
t=powe
r,P.

He
nce
,Int
ens
ity=P/
t.

S
uppos
ethesourceoftheradi
ati
onisadis
tanc
erfromtheme
tal
pla
te,
the
nthei
nte
nsi
tyoft
her
adi
ati
oni
s
i
nve
rse
lypropor
tional
t ot
hesquareoft
hedist
anc
er ;
2
I
α1/
r .

Thusast
hedi
sta
ncerde
cre
ase
sthei
nte
nsi
tyoft
her
adi
ati
oni
ncr
eas
esa
ndhe
ncet
heva
lueoft
hec
urr
enti
s
i
ncrea
sed.

8.
3.
3:Thet
ype(
nat
ure
)oft
heme
tal

Ea
chme ta
lhasi
tsownwor
kfunc
tionandhencet
hre
shol
dfre
quenc
y.I
ftheener
gyoft
her
adi
ati
ons
tri
kingt
he
meta
lisbel
owit
sworkf
unct
iont
he nnoel
ectr
onwil
lbeej
ect
eddes
pit
eitsi
nte
nsit
y.

Ex
ampl
e8.
2

1.Thethres
hol
dwa ve
leng
thofaphotoemi
ssi
vesur
fac
eis0.
45µm.c
alcula
te:
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a
. Thet
hre
shol
dfr
eque
ncyoft
hes
urf
ace
.

f
0=c
/λ0=[
3. 108m/
0x s]/
[0. 10-6m]
45x

=6. 1014Hz
67x .

b.Thewor
kfunc
tionoft
hes
urf
acei
neV.

W0=hf
0=[
6. 10-9x
63x 6. 1014]
67x /[1. 10-19]
602x =2.
76e
V

c
. Themi
nimums
pee
dwi
thwhi
chaphot
oel
ect
roni
semi
tt
edi
fthef
reque
ncyoft
her
adi
ati
oni
s7.
5x1014Hz
.

6. 10-9x
63x 7. 1014=[6.
5x 10-9x
63x 6. 1014]
67x +[½x
9. 10-6xѵ2]
11x

1010]
½
Ѵ=[
12.
081x =3. 105m/
4754x s.

9.
4:Appl
ic
ati
onsofphot
oel
ect
rice
ffe
ct

8.
4.
1:Phot
oemi
ssi
vec
ell

I
tcons
ist
sofac a
thodea ndananode .
Whe nli
ghtfal
lsonaphotosensi
ti
vecathode,e
lect
ronsa
redis
lodg
edwhic
h
a
rethenatt
ract
edbyt heanode.Thiscomple
tesanex t
e r
nalc
irc
uitandcurre
ntflows.Whenabodypass
esbe
tween
t
hecat
hodea ndthesourceofl
ight,
thelig
htiscutof
fa ndnophotoemiss
iontakespl
ace.

S
uchc
ell
sca
nbeus
edi
n:

 Aut
oma
ticope
ningofdoor
s

 Bur
gla
ral
armsf
ors
ecur
ity

 Aut
oma
tedc
ount
ingma
chi
ne

 Re
produc
tionofs
oundf
romaf
il
m.

Be
lowi
sthes
ymbol
ofaphot
oemi
ssi
vec
ell
.

8.
4.
2:Phot
ovol
tai
cce
lls
Gol
dfi
lm

Coppe
rox
ide
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Coppe
r

Lightstr
ikesthecel
lonthegoldfil
ms idewhichemitsele
ctronsfr
omt hecopperoxi
desurf
ace.
Thec opperox
ide
thusacquiresanegat
ivepotenti
alandc opperapos
iti
vepote nt
ial
.Apotent
ialdi
ff
erenc
eisthe
refor
ec rea
tedanda
currentfl
owst hr
oughawi r
ec onnect
ingt hegol
dfi
lma ndthecopperexter
nall
y.

Be
lowi
sthes
ymbol
ofaphot
ovol
tai
cce
ll:

8.
4.
3:Phot
o-c
onduc
tivec
ell

I
tisa
lsocal
ledthel
ightdepe
nde ntr
esis
tor.There
sis
tanceoft
hecel
lvari
eswit
hint
ensi
tyoft
heli
ghtfal
li
ngoni
t.
I
ndarkness
,theres
ist
anceofthecel
lisgre
atesta
ndleastonabri
ghtl
ight
.Bel
owisthes
ymbolofthephoto-
c
onducti
vecell
:

Li
ghtdepende
ntr
esi
storc
anbeus
edi
nope
rat
ings
tre
etl
ight
s,f
ir
eal
arms
,de
tec
tiona
ndme
asur
eme
ntofi
nfr
are
d
ra
diat
ion.

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TOPI
C9:
RADI
OACTI
VITY

9.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion
A
AnatomXofmassnumbe
rAa
nda
tomi
cnumbe
rZc
anber
epr
ese
nte
das
Z
X.
Ift
henumbe
rofne
utr
onsi
nthe
nuc
leusi
sN,t
hen:

A=Z+N.

Somea t
omsha vethesamenumberofpr ot
onsint
henucleusyetdif
fere
ntma s
snumbe
rs.Suchat
omsareref
err
ed
toasis
otope
s.Exa mpl
esofi
sotopesi
ncludecar
bon-12andc ar
bon-14. Thee
nerg
yhol
dingtheprot
onsand
neutr
onstoget
he rint
henucl
eusiscal
ledthebi
ndingornucle
are ner
gy.

Whe ntherati
ooft
henumbe rofprotonstot
henumberofneut
ronsinanucle
usisabout1:1,
thenucl
ideiss
aidto
bestabl
e,other
wisei
tisanunsta
bl e
.Forunst
abl
enucl
eus,i
thastounderg
odisi
ntegrat
ionaproce
sscall
ed
radi
oacti
vit
y.Radi
oact
ivi
tyi
sthes ponta
neousdi
si
nte
grat
ionofthenucl
eusofunst
ableatomtorel
easeradi
ati
ons.

I
nthepr
oce
ssofradi
oac
tivi
ty,
therear
et hr
eera
diati
onswhi
chmaybeemi
tte
dna mel
yal
pha(α),be
ta(β)and
g
amma(γ)radi
ati
ons
.Theirbeha
viorcanbeobser
vedwhenthe
yarepa
sse
dthroughamagne
ticorele
ctr
icfi
eld.

P
+
Q

Ra
dioa
cti
ves
our
ce

P-Be
tar
adi
ati
on -
Q-Ga
mmar
adi
ati
on

R-Al
phar
adi
ati
on

Al
phar
adi
ati
ons
:

 Ar
epos
iti
vel
ycha
rge
d.

 Arema s
siveorhe
a vyandt
hushaves
hor
terr
ang
eina
ir.
The
yar
esl
ight
lyde
fle
cte
dbys
trongma
gne
ticor
el
ect
ricfi
eldduetothe
irhi
ghermass
.

 Causet
hehighe
sti
oni
zati
onef
fec
tonthepa
rti
cl
esont
hei
rpa
thsc
ompa
redt
obe
taa
ndg
ammar
adi
ati
ons
,
ther
ebylos
ingmos
tofthe
ire
nergy.

 Havet
hel
eastpene
trat
inga
bil
it
yorpowe
rcompa
redt
otheot
hert
wor
adi
ati
ons
.The
yca
nbes
toope
dbya
t
hicks
hee
tofpaper.

Be
tar
adi
ati
ons
:

 Ar
ene
gat
ive
lyc
har
ged.

 Arel
ight
erc
ompa
redt
oal
phar
adi
ati
ons
.He
ncet
heya
reg
rea
tlyde
fle
cte
dbys
trongma
gne
ticore
lec
tri
c
f
iel
d.

 Ha
vel
ong
err
ang
eina
ir.
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 Causel
essi
oniza
tionc
ompare
dt oalpharadi
ati
ons.He
ncet
heyha
veahi
ghe
rpe ne
trat
inga
bil
it
yorpowe
r.
Theycanpene
trateat
hic
ksheetofpaperbutcanbest
oppe
dbyathi
nal
umini
umf oi
l.

Ga
mmar
adi
ati
ons
:

 Ar
ema
ssl
essa
nddonotha
vec
har
ge.
Henc
ethe
yar
enotde
fle
cte
dbybot
hma
gne
tica
nde
lec
tri
cfi
elds
.

 Ar
eel
ect
roma
gne
ticwa
ves
.

 Causeve
ryli
tt
leioniz
ation.Hencemostoft
heirene
rgyisi
nta
ct.
Theyhavethehig
hes
tpene
tra
tinga
bili
ty
orpowerofal
lthethreeradia
tions
.Theycanpenet
rat
ethi
ckpaperandal
uminiumbuti
sst
oppedbythic
k
le
ad.

9.
2:Ra
dioa
cti
vede
caya
ndt
hede
caye
qua
tions

Theorigi
nalatombe f
orethedecayproce
ssi
sref
err
edtoast
hepa r
ent
/mothernucl
ideandt
heproducti
sre
fer
red
toasthedaughternucl
ide
. Ara
dioact
ivedec
ayproc
essc
onsi
stsofapa
rentnucl
ide
,adaught
ernucl
ideandt
he
emitt
edradia
tion(s)
.
A m
X Y+
Z n
Emi
tt
edr
adi
ati
on(
s)

Whe
reX-t
hepa
rentnuc
li
de

Y-t
heda
ught
ernuc
li
de

Not
etha
tapa
rti
cul
arr
adi
oac
tivede
caypr
oce
ssmus
tnotne
ces
sar
il
yemi
tal
lthet
hre
era
dia
tions
.

S
uppos
ear
adi
oac
tivede
caypr
oce
sst
ake
sthef
orms
hownbyt
hee
qua
tionbe
low:
A m a
X Y+bQ,
Z n
whe
reXi
sthepa
rentnuc
li
de,
Yist
heda
ught
ernuc
li
dea
ndQi
sthee
mit
tedr
adi
ati
on;

The
n,A=m+aa
ndZ=n+b.

Radi
oacti
vede
cayi
snotde
pende
ntonphys
ica
lfa
ctor
sli
kepr
ess
ure
,te
mpe
rat
ureorc
hemi
cal
compos
iti
onoft
he
nucl
ide
.

The
rea
ret
hre
etype
sofr
adi
oac
tivede
cay:

9.
2.
1:Al
phade
cay
4
Thi
sde c
aypr oc
essemit
salphar
adi
ati
on(s
).Al
phar
adiat
ioni
sthenuc
leusofaheli
umatomr epr
ese
ntdby2He
e .
Ifa
nucl
idedec
aysbyr el
eas
inganal
phapart
icl
e,t
hemassnumberoft
heparentnuc
li
deisr
e duc
edby4whilea
tomic
numberisreducedby2;
A A-
4 4
X
Z
α Y+2He
Z-
2

Ex
ampl
e9.
1
226 222 4
88
Ra α 86
Rn+2He
238 234 4
92
U α 90
Rn+2He

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9.
2.
2:Be
tade
cay

Whe nanatomunderg
oesbetade
cay,
itemi
tsabet
apa
rtic
le.
Abetapart
icl
eisaf
astmovingel
ect
ronr
epres
ent
ed
0
by-1e.Themassnumberofs
uchanucl
idere
mainst
hesamewhil
eitsa
tomicnumberinc
rease
sbyone(1)
.
A A 0
XβZ+1Y+-1e
Z
.

Ex
ampl
e9.
2
228 228 0
88
β89Ac+-1e
Ra
212 212 0
82
Pbβ83Bi
+-1e

9.
2.
3:Ga
mmade
cay

Gammadecaydoe
snothaveanyeff
ectonthemas
snumbe
roratomicnumbe roft
henuc
li
de.
Ins
tea
dthenuc
li
de
at
tai
nss
tabi
li
tybysi
mplyrel
easi
ngenergyint
hefor
mofgammaradia
tion.
A A
Xγ
Z
X+g
Z
ammar
adi
ati
on.

Ex
ampl
e9.
3
60 60
27
Co γ Co+γ
27

Ex
ampl
e9.
4
23 208
1.Urani
um92U,
unde
r g
oesade
cayemitt
ingalphaa
ndbe
tapa
rti
cl
est
obe
comel
ead82Pb.
Cal
cul
atet
he
numberofal
phaandbet
apart
icl
ese
mi t
ted.
23 208 4 0
U Pb+
92 82
x(
2
)+y(
He -1
e)

23=208+4x
+0

x
=20/
4=5a
lphapa
rti
cl
es

Al
so92=82+2x
-y

y=82+10-
92=0Typee
qua
tionhe
re.

The
rewa
snobe
tapa
rti
cl
eemi
tt
ed.
29 218
2.Uranium,92
Ude
caystopol
oni
um,84Pobyemit
ti
nga l
phapart
icl
es.
Wri
tedownthenucl
idee
qua
tiont
o
re
pr e
s e
ntthedecayproce
ss.
Henc
ede te
rminethenumberofal
phapa
rti
cl
esemit
ted.
29 218 4
92
U α 84
Po+x
(2
)
He

29=218+4x

x
=16/
4=4a
lphapa
rti
cl
es.

Al
ter
nat
ive
ly,
92=84+2x

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x
=8/
2=4a
lphapa
rti
cl
es.

9.
3:Ra
dia
tionde
tec
tor
s

Be
lowa
res
omeoft
her
adi
ati
onde
tec
tor
s:

9.
3.
1:Aphot
ogr
aphi
cfi
lm

Whe
nra
dioa
cti
ver
adi
ati
onss
tri
keaphot
ogr
aphi
cfi
lm,
the
yca
usephot
ogr
aphi
cemul
si
oni
.
ethef
il
misbl
acke
ned.

9.
3.
2:Thel
eafe
lec
tros
cope

Wehavea
lreadyseentha
ta l
phaandbetapart
icl
escanioni
zepartic
lesontheirpat
hs.Thisproducesions
.Ifa
s
ourc
eofthe
ser adi
ati
onsisbroug
htnearthecapofachargedele
c t
rosc
ope ,
theele
c t
rosc
oper epelsi
onsofsi
mil
ar
c
har
gebutatt
r a
ctst
hoseoftheoppos
itecharg
e.Thisneutr
ali
zestheelec
troscopeandthelea
ffa l
ls
.

Thisme
thodismos ts
uitabl
efora
lphapar
tic
lessi
ncet
he yc
aus
ethehi
ghe
sti
oni
zat
ionbuti
snots
uit
abl
efor
gammaradi
ationsbecaus
etheycauset
heleas
tioni
zat
ion.

9.
3.
3:TheGe
ige
rMul
ler(
GM)t
ube
Tor
ate
met
er Al
umi
niumt
ube(
Cat
hode
)

Thi
nmi
cawi
ndow

Pr
ote
cti
veg
auz
e

400V

I
nsul
ate
dba
se Anode Ar
gong
asa
tlowpr
ess
ure(
wit
hli
tt
lebr
omi
ne)

Thera di
ationenter
sthetubethroughthethinmicawindow.Ther adi
ati
onioniz
esargongas.
Opposi
tei
onsar
e
att
ractedtoe i
thert
hec a
thodeort heanodema ki
ngapulseofcurre
nttoflow.Asthes
eionsmovetowar
dsei
ther
el
ectrode,theyconti
nueioni
zingtheargong a
sproduc
ingmor eions.Thecurr
entispass
edthroug
hanampli
fi
er
andthe ntoar at
emeterwhereitisreg
ister
ed.

Notethatonlyonepul s
eshouldber e
gis
teredforeachioni
zingparti
cl
eent
e ri
ngthetube.Howe ver,duetot
hehigh
energycontentoftheposit
iveions
,moreelect
ronsma ybeliberat
edfromthesurf
a c
eofthec at
hodewhe nstruc
k
bytheposit
iveions.Suchelect
ronsarecal
ledsecondar
ye l
ectrons.
Thesec
a ncausefur
therioniza
tionrender
ing
thepuls
er eg
istere
di ncor
rect.

Tocount
erthi
s,bromi
nei
sus
edwhi
cha
ctsa
saque
nchi
nga
gent
,abs
orbi
ngt
hee
ner
gyoft
hepos
iti
vei
onsbe
for
e
the
yreacht
heca t
hode
.

Thi
sme
thodi
snots
uit
abl
eforde
tec
tionofg
ammar
adi
ati
onsduet
oit
slowi
oni
zat
ione
ffe
ct.

9.
3.
4:Thedi
ff
usi
onc
loudc
hambe
r
Bl
ackme
tal
bas
e Pe
rspe
xli
d Ra
dioa
cti
ves
our
ce

Fe
ltr
ings
oake
dina
lcohol

Nove
ls,
Upda
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ICSLES
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Li
ghts
our
ce

Dr
yic
e[s
oli
dca
rbon(
iv)ox
ide
]

S
pong
e

We
dge

Re
mova
bleba
se

Thisdet
ect
orusest
heconc
e pttha
twhenanioni
zingr
adiat
ionpas
sest
hroughai
rwit
hsat
ura
tedva
pour,t
henthe
vapouri
sobser
vedtoc
ondens eonthei
onsf
ormed.Thise
xplai
nswhyaeropl
ane
ssomet
imel
eavet
rai
lsofcl
oud
behindt
hemastheymovethroughsupe
rsat
urat
eda i
r.

Inthedi f
fusi
oncloudchamber,alc
oholvapori
zesanddiff
us estowardsbla
ckme ta
l base.
Whe nachargedpar
tic
le
fromt heradioa
ctives
ource;ei
theral
phaorbe t
apa r
tic
le,knocksthea i
rpart
icl
esionsareproduced.
Thevaporiz
ed
alcoholcondensesonthefor
me dions.Si
nceposi
ti
veionsa rehe a
vy,theyremai
nbe hindformi
ngtrackswhic
hc an
bec l
ea r
lyseenthroug
hthePe rspexl
id.Toenhancevisi
bili
ty,asourceofl
ighti
sus edtoil
lumina
tethechamber.

Thedr
yic
eisuse
dtoke
ept
hebl
ackme
tal
bas
ecool
whi
let
hes
pong
eisus
edt
oke
ept
hedr
yic
einc
ont
actwi
tht
he
bl
ackmet
alba
se.

Ea
chr
adi
ati
onwi
llpr
oduc
eas
pec
ifi
ctr
acka
sshownbe
low:

Tr
acksduet
oal
phar
adi
ati
on

The
yar
e:

- S
hor
t,i
ndi
cat
ingt
hei
rshor
terr
ang
eina
ir.

- S
tra
ight
;duet
othe
irma
ssi
tisnote
asyt
odi
spl
acet
hemf
romt
hei
rpa
thbya
irpa
rti
cl
es.

- Thi
ck,
tos
howt
heya
rehe
avypa
rti
cl
es.

Tr
acksduet
obe
tar
adi
ati
on

The
yar
e:

- Long
,indi
cat
ingt
hei
rlong
err
ang
eina
ir.

- Thi
n,i
ndi
cat
ionoft
hei
rlowe
rma
ss.

- I
rre
gul
ari
ndi
rec
tion(
nots
tra
ight
),me
ani
ngt
hatt
heyc
anbedi
spl
ace
dbya
irpa
rti
cl
es.

Tr
acksduet
oga
mmar
adi
ati
on

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Tracksduetogammar adi
ati
onareg
ener
all
yscant
yanddi
sjoi
nte
d.Thes
etr
acksdonotcomedir
ect
lyfr
omt he
sourcebutf
rome l
ect
ronsrel
eas
edbythegasa
tomswhentheyarest
ruc
kbygammar adi
ati
on.
Theele
ctronst
hen
producethe
irowntracks.

9.
4:Ba
ckg
roundr
adi
ati
on

Sometimeseve
ni ntheabsenceofaradioa
c t
ives
ourcenearby,aGMtubemaysti
llreg
istersomeradiat
ions.Thisi
s
cal
ledbackg
roundr adi
ati
ona nditi
spresentwit
hintheat
mos pher
e.Someoft
heca usesofbackgr
oundr adi
a t
ion
i
ncluderadi
oact
ivesubstancesi
na i
r,gr
ounda ndbri
cksofbuil
ding
s,cos
micra
ys,sun’sradi
a t
ions
,somer oc
ks ,
nat
ur a
landart
ifi
cia
l ra
diois
otopeset
c.

9.
5:Thede
cayl
aw

Aradi
oact
ivedeca
yoc c
ur sbycha
ncei
.ei
tisnon-pre
dic
table
.Thedecays
tat
es:t
herat
eofdi
si
nte
gra
tiona
tany
gi
venti
mei sdi
rec
tlyproport
iona
ltot
henumbe rofnuc
lide
sr e
maini
ngundeca
yed;

δN/
δtα-
N

δN/
δt=-
λN,
whe
reN-
ist
henumbe
rofnuc
li
desunde
caye
d(r
ema
ini
ng)a
ndλ
-ist
hede
cayc
ons
tant
.

Not
etha
tthene
gat
ives
igni
ndi
cat
est
hatt
henumbe
rNi
sde
cre
asi
ngwi
tht
ime
.

δN/
δti
sre
fer
redt
oast
hea
cti
vit
yoft
hema
ter
ial
.

Thea
bovee
qua
tionc
anber
ear
rang
eda
s;

δN/
N=-
λδt

SupposeN0nuc
li
desr
educ
etoNnuc
li
desbe
twe
enat
imet
=0a
ndt
=Ti
nade
caypr
oce
ss,
the
nbyi
nte
gra
tionwe
have;
N T
δN/
∫
N0
N=0∫
-λδt
N T
[
InN]
N0
=-
λ[t
]0

I
nN-
InN0=-
λ[0-
T]

I
n(N/
N0)
=-λ
[0-
T]=λ
T
λT
N/
N0=e
λt
N=N0e

9.
6:Ha
lfl
if
e,t
½

Thi
sist
het
imet
ake
nforha
lft
henumbe
rofnuc
li
desi
nit
ial
lypr
ese
nti
nag
ive
nra
dioa
cti
ves
ampl
etode
cay.
λt
Fr
omt
hee
qua
tion,
N=N0e ;

Whe
nt=t
½,N=½N0.
λt½
The
n,½N0=N0e

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

ThusI
n½=λ
t½

0.
693=λ
t½

Andt
½=0.
693/
λ,whe
reλi
sthede
cayc
ons
tant
.
T/
t½
I
tca
nal
sobes
hownt
hat
,N=N0(
½)

Ag
raphoft
henumbe
rofnuc
li
desr
ema
ini
ngNa
gai
nstt
imeTa
ppe
arsa
sshownbe
low:
N0

Count
rat
e½N0

0t
½ Ti
meT

Inordertopl
otthecorrec
tgraph,i
tisadvi
sabl
etofi
rsts
ubtr
a c
tthebackgroundradi
ati
onifdoe
sexi
stfr
ome ac
h
countr
atebef
oreplott
ingthevalue
s.Thiswi
lle
nsuretha
tonlycountr
ateduetotheradioa
cti
vemat
eria
lisus
edto
plott
hegraph.Thi
sisbecausetheval
ueofthebackg
roundradiat
ionusua
llyfl
uct
ua t
es.

Ex
ampl
e9.
5

1.Aradi
oact
ivesubst
ancei
sfoundtoha
vea
nac
tivi
tyof360c
ount
spe
rse
cond.
5mi
nut
esl
ate
r,i
twa
s45c
ount
s
pe
rs e
cond.De
t e
rmineit
shalfl
if
e.

360 t
½ 180 t
½ 90 t
½ 45

He
nce3t
½=5mi
nut
es

t
½=5/
3=10mi
nut
es.

Al
ter
nat
ive
ly
T/
t½
N=N0(
½)
5/
t½
45=360(
½)

2-3=2-5/t½
½
-
3=-
5/t

t
½=-
5/-
3=10mi
nut
es

2.Aradioa
cti
ves
ubs
tanc
eha
saha
lfl
if
eof10hour
s.Ca
lcul
atet
hepe
rce
nta
geoft
hes
ampl
etha
tre
mai
nsa
fte
r
25hours
.
25/
10
N=N0(
½)

Butpe
rce
nta
geoft
hes
ampl
ere
mai
ninga
fte
r25hr
sisg
ive
nby;
[N/
N0]
*100
25/
10
He
nce[
{N0(
½) }/
N0]
*100=17.
68%

3.AGMtubeisusedt
omeasur
ethedecayofacer
tai
nradi
oac
tives
ubs
tanc
eandt
her
esul
tsa
rea
sshowni
nthe
t
abl
ebelow.Theba
ckg
roundradi
ati
onis25c
ountspe
rhour.

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ICSLES
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Ti
me(
hrs
) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Count
rat
e(c
ount
s/h) 425 255 175 105 73 51

Pl
otag
raphofc
ount
rat
eag
ains
tti
mea
ndus
eitt
ode
ter
minet
heha
lfl
if
eoft
hema
ter
ial
.

9.
7:Nuc
lea
rfus
iona
ndf
iss
ion

Nucl
earf
usi
oni
swhereli
ghtnucl
eicombinet
oformahe a
vie
rnucl
eus.Thepr
ocessi
sacc
ompa
nie
dbyt
her
ele
ase
ofl
argea
mount
sofe
ne r
gy.Exampleist
hefus
ionofl
it
hiumandhydrog
e ntog
ivehel
ium.
7 1 4 4
+1H2He+2He+Ene
Li
3
rgy

Nuc
learf
issi
onocc
urswhenanucleuss
pli
tsint
osmal
lermorest
abl
enucl
ei.
Thishappe
nsbythenucl
eusabs
orbi
ng
aneut
ron.Duri
ngnucl
earf
iss
ion,
thebi
ndingener
gyi
sr e
lea
sed.
Exampl
eisthefi
ssi
onofur
anium-210;
210 1 236 138 95 1
92
U+0n92U56Ba+36Kr+3(
0
n)+Ene
rgy

Nucl
earfi
ssi
oni
sthepr
inc
ipl
eonwhi
chhydr
oge
nbombswor
k.Thi
spr
oce
ssi
fnotc
ont
rol
ledma
yle
adt
o
expl
osi
ons.

9.
8:Appl
ic
ati
onsofr
adi
oac
tivi
ty

I
nme
dic
ine
:

 Ga
mmar
aysc
anbeus
edt
ocont
rol
canc
erousg
rowt
hsi
nthehuma
nbody.

 Ga
mmar
aysc
anbeus
edt
ost
eri
li
zes
urg
ica
lequi
pme
nt.

 Ca
nbeus
edt
omoni
torbl
oodc
irc
ula
tiondi
sor
der
sandt
hef
unc
tioni
ngoft
hyr
oidg
land.

I
nca
rbonda
ting
-itus
est
her
ati
oofc
arbon-
12t
oca
rbon-
14t
oes
tima
tet
hea
gesoff
oss
il
s.

Pi
pelea
kages
-thecont
e ntbe
ingtr
ansport
edthroug
ht hepipei
smixe
dwiths
omer
adi
oac
tives
ubs
tanc
ewhi
chc
an
bede
tecte
dbyaradiat
iondetec
toronthegroundaroundthear
eaofl
eaka
ge.

I
nAg r
icul
tur
e-ar
adi
ati
ondetec
torcanbeus
edt
omonit
ortheupt
akeofmine
ralsi
ntr
oduc
e dt
oplant
sbymi
xingi
t
wit
hsomewe akr
adi
oact
ives
ubstanc
e.Gammar
aysc
anals
obeusedtokil
lpest
sormakethemst
eril
e.

Determinati
onoft hickness
e softhinme ta
lsheets
, paperorplast
ics
-aGMt ubeisus
edtome a
s ur
et hethickne
ssof
theme t
alplate
s ,paperorpla s
tic.
Thes ourceofradiati
onisplacedonones idewhil
etheGMtubei splacedonthe
opposit
es i
de.Theme talpl
ateispa ss
edbe tweenthes our
cea ndthedetect
or .
Thecountr
ater
e gi
steredisa
me as
ureofthet hicknessoftheme talplat
e.Tobemor eeff
ici
ent,athi
cknessgaugecanbeadaptedwhi c
h
automatic
all
yc ontrolsthethicknessoftheme t
alfoil
s,paperorplasti
cs.

9.
9:Ha
zar
dsofr
adi
oac
tivi
tya
ndt
hei
rre
medy

Thee
ffe
ctsofr
adi
ati
ononahuma
nbodyde
pendson:

 Thena
tur
eoft
her
adi
ati
on,

 Dos
agea
nd

 Pa
rtoft
hebodyi
rra
dia
ted.

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Exc
ess
iveexposur
eofbodyc
ell
stora
diat
ionsc
anl
eadtoburneff
ectsorg
eneti
cdamage.
Extr
emehe
avydos
esc
an
bef
ata
l.The
r ec
ouldal
sobedel
ayedef
fec
tssuc
hasca
ncer,
leuke
mi aandher
edit
aryde
fect
s.

Gammaraysa
ndbe
tar
adi
ati
ona
remor
eda
nge
rousc
ompa
redt
oal
phar
adi
ati
onduet
othe
irhi
ghde
gre
eof
pe
netr
ati
on.

Pr
eca
uti
onss
houl
dthe
ref
orebet
ake
nwhe
nha
ndl
ingr
adi
oac
tivema
ter
ial
s.The
sei
ncl
ude
:

 Al
waysus
efor
cepst
oha
ndl
era
dioa
cti
vema
ter
ial
s.Ne
verus
eba
reha
ndst
ohol
dsuc
hma
ter
ial
s.

 Ke
epr
adi
oac
tivema
ter
ial
sint
hic
kle
adbox
es.

 Us
era
dia
tiona
bsor
ber
sinhos
pit
alsa
ndr
ese
arc
hla
bor
ator
ies
.

 Re
duc
eti
mes
pentne
arr
adi
ati
ons
our
ces
.

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TOPI
C10:
ELECTRONI
CS

10.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Thi
stopi
cisaboutel
ect
ronicc
irc
uitsa
ndthei
rapplic
ati
ons.
Prec
ise
lyi
tlooksa
tthee
lec
tri
cal
conduc
tivi
tyof
mater
ial
s.Undert
hist
it
le,mat
eri
alscanbec
lass
ifi
edint
othreeg
roups
:

 Conduc
tor
s

 S
emi
conduc
tor
s

 I
nsul
ator
s

Conduct
orsa
ret
hos
ema
ter
ial
swhi
cha
llowc
urr
entt
ofl
owt
hroug
hthe
mea
sil
y.The
yar
ema
inl
yme
tal
sli
ke
copper
.

Mate
rial
swhic
hdonotall
owcurr
enttof
lowt
hroug
hthe
mcompl
ete
lya
rer
efe
rre
dtoa
sins
ula
tor
s.The
yinc
lude
pl
ast
ic,
paper
,drywood,
rubbe
retc.

S
emiconduct
orsar
et hos
ema te
ria
lswhosee
lect
ric
alc
onduc
tivi
tyl
iesbe
twe
ent
hatofg
oodc
onduc
tor
sand
i
nsul
ator
s.Theyi
ncludesil
ic
on,ger
maniumetc
.

Accordi
ngt otheene r
gybandtheory,
whentwoat
omsar
ebroug
htclose
rtooneanot
her,
theene
rgyleve
lsa
round
thenucleusspli
tintosmall
ersub-
level
sca
lle
dba
nds.
Theout
erene
rg yl
evel
spl
it
smor ee
asil
ygi
vingmanybands
compa r
edt otheinnerle
vels.

3 2 3
1
2

The
rea
retwoimport
antbandsi
nanymate
ria
lwhic
hdete
rmineit
sel
ect
ric
al,
opt
ica
landma
gne
ticpr
ope
rti
es.
The
sear
etheval
enc
ea ndc
onducti
onba
ndswhic
ha r
ese
pa r
ate
dbyaforbi
ddeng
ap.

10.
2:S
emi
conduc
tor
s

S
emiconduct
orsarethosemateria
lswhos eel
ect
ric
alc
onduct
ivi
tyl
iesbe
tweent
hatofg
oodconduct
orsand
i
nsul
ator
s.Theyhaveas mal
lerforbi
ddeng a
p.Theval
enceba
ndisalmostc
ompl
etel
yfi
ll
edwit
he l
ect
ronswhi
le
t
heconducti
onbandha sal
mos tnoelec
trons.

Whenthetempera
t ureofthesemiconduct
orisr a
isedtheele
ctronsgai
nmor eenergya
nda r
eablet
omovef rom
t
hevalenc
ebandac rossthefor
biddengaptot heconducti
onband.Thisinc
reasest
heelec
tri
cal
conduc
tivi
tyofthe
s
emiconduct
or.
He ncec onduct
ivi
tyofsemiconductorsi
ncrease
swi t
htempe r
ature
.

Whenane l
ectr
onjumpsfromtheva l
encebandintotheconduct
ionband,ahol
eisle
fti
nitsplac
e.Thisist
reat
edas
apos
iti
vecharge.
Anotherel
ectr
onint heva
lencebandma yjumpintothehol
eformedcre
a t
inganotherhol
ewhic
h
maybefil
ledbyyetanot
herele
ctronandtheprocessconti
nues.

Themove
mentoft
hee
lec
tronsg
ene
rat
ese
lec
tronc
urr
entwhi
let
hatofhol
esc
ons
tit
utehol
ecur
rent
.Thust
hene
t

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ICSLES
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f
lowofc
urr
enti
nse
mic
onduc
tor
sisduet
othef
lowofe
lec
tronsa
ndhol
es.
Va
lenc
eba
nd e- e- e- e- e- e- e- H
e-ee-
ol

For
bidde
nga
p

Conduc
tionba
nd e- e-
e-
The r
ea retwot ype sofs emi conduc t
or sasdiscusse dbe low:
10.2.
1:Int ri
nsicsemi conduc tor s
The s
ea repur ese miconduc t
or swhos ee l
ectri
calc onduc tivi
tyc anbee nha nce dbyi ncreasi
ngt het e
mpe r
atureof
thesemic onduc t
or .The yincludes il
icon,germa niume tc.The yha vefoure l
e ctronsintheirout ermos tenergyle vel
.
The i
relectricalconduc ti
vi t
yisde pende ntont hee lectron-holepa irmove me nt .Theelectronsa ndthehol esar e
ref
e r
redt oa scha rgeca rrie
rs. Atr oomt empe ratur e,intri
nsics emiconduc torsa reinsul
ator s.
10.2.
2:Ex tri
ns i
cs emiconduc tors
The s
ea res emiconduc torsobt a i
ne dwhe nas ma l
l amountofi mpur i
tyisadde dt oa nintri
ns i
cs emiconductor. The
processofa ddinga ni mpur ityt oapur esemi c
onduc tortoi mpr oveitse l
ectricalconductivityisreferredtoa s
doping.Ge nerall
ya ne xtrinsics emi conduc t
orisa ni mpur es emi c
onduc tor.
Theimpur it
yc ane i
the rbeag roupt hreee l
eme nte .gbor on,g al
li
uma ndindi umorag r
oupf i
vee l
eme nte.g
phosphor ous ,
ant i
monye tc
.
 Dopi ngus i
ngag roupt hreee leme nt
Whe ns i
li
c onisdope dus ingag roupt hreee l
eme ntl ikebor on,a l
lthethreee lec t
ronsont heout ermos tene r
gyl evel
ofborona t
ompa rtici
pa teinbondi ngwi ththene ig hbor i
nga tomswhi lesi
liconwi l
lhavea ne xtraelectr
on. A
vacancywi llthereforee xistduet othemi s s
inge l
e ctron.Thi sistreatedasahol e.Thisholei srespons i
bleforthe
elect
ricalconduc ti
vityoft hedope ds emiconduc t
or .He ncehol esa r
ethema j
oritychargec arrier
swhi l
eelectrons
arethemi nor it
yc hargec a r
riers. Sucha nimpur it
yi scalleda nacc e
ptorimpur itybecauset heyc re
ateahol ewhi c
h
cana cc
epta ne lectron.

Ane
xtr
ins
ics
emi
conduc
tori
nwhi
cht
hema
jor
ityc
har
gec
arr
ier
sar
ehol
esi
sca
lle
dap-
types
emi
conduc
tor
.

Bor
on
S B S

Hol
e

 Dopi
ngus
ingag
roupf
ivee
leme
nt

Whe napuresemiconduct
orisdopedusi
ngag r
oupf iveel
ementli
kephosphorousha vi
ngfiveelec
tronsinthe
ir
oute
rmos te
nergylevel
s,f
ouroftheel
ect
ronsparti
cipatei
nbondingwit
ht heneighbori
nga tomswhi l
ethe
remaini
ngelec
tronisusedfore
lect
ric
alconduc
tivi
tyinthese
mi c
onductor
. Henceelect
ronswi l
lbethema j
ori
ty

c
hargeca
rri
erswhi
lehol
eswill
bet heminorit
ychargeca
rri
ers
.Thei
mpur
ityi
sre
fer
redt
oasadonori
mpur
ity
s
inc
eitdonat
esanel
ectr
onforele
ctri
cal
c onduct
ivi
ty.

S P S
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e

S
FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Ther
esul
tants
emi
conduc
tori
sknowna
sann-
types
emi
conduc
tor
.

Notet
hatbot
hp-typeandn-t
ypese
mi c
onduc
tor
sar
eel
ect
ric
all
yne
utr
als
inc
ethei
mpur
iti
esa
dde
dha
vet
hes
ame
numberofel
ect
ronsasthe
rearepr
otons.

10.
3:AP-
NJunc
tiondi
ode

Ap-nj
unct
iondiodecanbeobtai
nedwhe nanintr
insi
csemiconductorisdopedsi
multaneousl
yus i
ngat r
ival
ent
andpe
nta
va l
entimpuri
ti
essuchthatonehal
ffor
msap- typesemiconductorwhil
etherema i
ninghalff
ormsa nn-
t
ypesemi
conductorre
spect
ive
ly.Theboundarybetweenthep-si
dea ndthen-si
deisre
ferredtoasap- njunc
tion.
p-
njunc
tion

p-t
ype e- e-e-

n-
type e-
e- e-

I
mme dia
tel
ythejunct
ionisformed,aregi
onc al
leddepl
e ti
onlayeri
sformedwhichpreventst
hefre
emove mentof
e
lec
tronsandholesa
crossthejuncti
on.Thusthedeplet
ionlayerdevel
opsapotent
ialbarr
ieratt
hejunct
ion.
Itac
ts
a
saninsulat
or.
Forholestocrosstothen-si
deande l
ectronstothep-s
ide,
thepotent
ialbar
rie
rmus tbeover
come.

Thes
ymbol
ofap-
njunc
tiondi
odea
ppe
arsa
sshownbe
low:

Whe nap-njunc
tiondiodei
sconne c
tedt
oapowe rsuppl
yiti
ssaidtohavebeenbiased.Ap-njunc
tiondi
odeal
lows
curr
enttofl
owonl yinonedi
rect
ionwhe nt
hep-si
deisconnec
tedtotheposi
ti
vet e
rmi naloft
hepowe rs
our
ceand
n-s
idetothenegati
vetermi
nalofthepowersour
ce.Whenconnecte
dthisway,thediodeissai
dtobeforwar
d
bia
sed.

e- e-e-

e-e- e
-

Thecell
pr ovi
dest
hee nerg
yforthee l
ect
ronstooverc
omet hepotent
ialbar
rie
ra ndthehol
esareal
soablet
ocross
overtothen-si
dethe
re bycompl
e t
ingtheci
r c
uit
.Theelec
tronsandholesareat
tract
edtotheoppos
itee
nds.The
thi
cknessofthede
pletionl
ayeri
sr educe
da ndthechar
gesflowwithalotofease
.

Howe
ve r
,whent
heter
minal
soft
hec e
lla
rereve
rse
dsuc
hthatt
hen-si
dei
sconnec
tedtothepos
iti
vet
ermi
nal
and
t
hep-
sidetot
heneg
ati
vete
rminaloft
hecel
l,
thent
hedi
odei
ssaidt
obereve
rsebi
ased.

e- e-e-
Whent
hediodeisc
onnect
edinthisma nner,
theholesi
nthep-
typear
eat
tra
ctedawayf
romthej
uncti
onbythe
e-e- e
Nove
ls,
Update
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il.
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-
FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

exter
nalneg a
tivepot
enti
al.Al
so,el
ectr
onsa r
ea t
trac
tedawayfromt hejuncti
onbytheext
ernalposi
ti
vepote
ntia
l.
Thisinc
reasesthethi
cknessofthedeplet
ionlaye
r.Thusthepot
e nt
ialbarri
erandhencet
her e
sist
anceoft
he
funct
ionisincreas
ed.Averysma l
lcurr
ent(le
akagecurre
nt)mayf l
owi nthecirc
uitduet
otheflowofminori
ty
chargecarr
iers.

10.
4:Di
odeCha
rac
ter
ist
ics

Thi
sist
herel
ati
onshipbet
we enc
urre
ntandvol
tag
eacros
sadiodewhe
nconne
cte
dtoapowe
rsour
ce.
Thes
etup
bel
owshowsacirc
uitinwhic
hadiodeha
sbeenforwa
rdbias
ed:

V
Whentheswit
chi
sclosed,
cur
rentfl
owst hr
oughthediodesinc
eitisforwardbi
asedandi
tisr ec
ordedbythe
mil
li
amme t
er.
Thevolt
ageacr
ossthediodeismeasur
edbyt hevolt
me te
r.Thevari
abl
eres
istorisuse
dt ovarythe
cur
rentt
hroug
hthecir
cuit
.Whenag ra
phofc ur
rentagai
nstvolt
ageisplot
ted,t
hegra
phwill beacurveasshown
bel
ow:

Cur
rent(
mA)

VC Vol
tag
e(V)

Ini
ti
allya
sthefor
wardvolt
ageisincre
asedfr
omz ero,
noc urr
entisreg
ist
eredbecausethevolta
geisinsuff
ici
entt
o
overcomethepot
ent
ialbar
rie
r .
Whe nthepot
e nt
ial
barri
eriscomplet
elyoverc
omec urrentst
arttoincr
ease.The
vol
tageatwhicht
hepotent
ialbarr
ieri
sovercomeisref
erredtoasthecut
-involt
age(Vc).Cha
rgesthereaf
terfl
ow
easi
lyacr
ossthej
unct
ion.

S
inc
etheg
raphi
snon-
li
nea
r,i
timpl
iest
hatadi
odei
snon-
ohmi
ci
.ei
tdoe
snotobe
yOhm’
sla
w.

However,
whe nthediodeisr e
versebiasedas mallcur
rentcal
ledlea
kagec
urrentfl
ows.Astherevers
evolta
geis
i
ncrea
sedthes i
zeofthecurrentremainsthes ameuntilacer
tainval
uewhenana ppre
ciabl
ea mountofc
urrent
st
art
stofl
ow. Thisvol
tageiscall
edthezene r
/ bre
akdownvol t
age(VB).
Att
hisvolt
agethediodeisdamagedand
t
heref
oreconductselec
tri
cc urre
ntirr
e s
pe c
tiveofthetypeofbias
ing.

VB

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Thedi
odec
har
act
eri
sti
csc
anbes
umma
riz
edbyt
hec
ombi
nedg
raphs
hownbe
low:
+I

Re
ver
sebi
asvol
tag
e VB VCFor
war
dbi
asvol
tag
e

-
I

Ex
ampl
e10.
1

1.Cal
cul
atet
hecurr
entf
lowingthr
oughthe2Ω,
8Ωa nd3Ωr
esi
stor
sint
hef
igur
ebe
low.
Ass
umet
hedi
ode
sar
e
idea
l.He
ncefi
ndthevol
tag
edr opac
ros
se a
chres
ist
or.
8Ω D2

D1

10V 2Ω

D1i
sre
ver
sebi
ase
dwhi
leD2f
orwa
rdbi
ase
d.

He
nce
;I3Ω=0A

I
2Ω=I
8Ω=10/(
2+8)=1A

Al
so,
V3Ω=0V

V2Ω=1x
2=2V

V8Ω=1x
8=8V

10.
5:Appl
ic
ati
onsofdi
ode
s

Diodesa
reus
edi
nrec
tif
ica
tion.
Recti
fic
ationr
efe
rstotheproc
essofc
onver
sionofal
ternat
ingc
urr
entt
odi
rec
t
curre
nt.
Ther
ear
etwotypesofrec
tif
ica
tionnamelyha
lf-
waveandful
l-
waverect
if
ica
tion.

10.
5.
1:Ha
lf-
waver
ect
if
ica
tion

He
reas
ing
ledi
odei
sus
ed.

1 A
R
2 B CRO

Duri
ngthefi
rsthalfc
ycle,t
hediodeisf
orwardbi
ased.Curr
e ntt
husflowsthr
oughtheres
istorRfr
omt heendAt
o
B.Duri
ngthesecondha l
fcycl
e,t
hediodeisr
ever
sebiased.Nocurr
entf l
owsthr
oughthediodeandhenceno
Novel
s,
UpdatedKAS NEB,I
CT,I
T,Col
leg
e,Hi
ghSchool
Not e
s&Re vi
sionKits(
isa
bokemicah@g mai
l.
com)71of71
FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

c
urr
enti
nthec
irc
uit
.He
ncei
nonec
ompl
etec
ycl
e,oneha
lfi
swa
ste
d.Theout
putwi
lla
ppe
ara
sshownbe
low:
Cur
rent
,I

Cur
rent
,I

Ti
me Ti
me

Fi
g.(
a)I
nputs
igna
l Fi
g.(
b)Out
puts
igna
l

Theout
puts
ignalc
a nbedi
spla
yedonaCROs
cree
n.Inhal
f-waverect
if
ica
tion,
hal
foft
hei
npute
ner
gyi
neve
ry
cyc
lei
swast
ed.Thisli
mit
ati
onisel
imi
nat
edi
nful
l-
wa ver
ecti
fi
cat
ion.

10.
5.
2:Ful
l-
waver
ect
if
ica
tion

The
rea
ret
wowa
ysofa
chi
evi
ngf
ull
-wa
ver
ect
if
ica
tion:

 Us
ingt
wodi
ode
s
D1

a
.cB 2 A
R

D2

Duri
ngthefi
rsthalfc
ycl
e,di
odeD1isforwardbia
sedwhi l
eD2i srever
sebia
sed.Curr
entthusf
lowst
hroug
ht he
re
sis
torRfromt heendAtowardsB.Duringthes
econdha l
fcycle
,diodeD2willnowbeforwar
dbias
edwhileD1
re
versebi
ased.Thuscur
rentfl
owsthroughtheresi
storf
romt heendAt owardsB.

Not
et ha
tinbot
hhalfc
ycl
es,
thedir
ect
ionoff
lowofc
urr
entt
hroug
hther
esi
stori
sthes
ame
.Ther
esul
tantout
put
wil
lther
efor
etaket
hefor
ms hownbel
ow:
Cur
rent Cur
rent

Ti
me Ti
me

Fi
g.(
a)I
nput Fi
g.(
b)Out
put

 Us
ingf
ourdi
ode
s(br
idg
ere
cti
fi
er)
Abr
idger
e c
tif
ierus
esfourdi
ode
ssuc
htha
tine
achha
lfc
ycl
etwodi
ode
sar
efor
war
dbi
ase
dandt
her
ema
ini
ng
t
woarerevers
ebiased.
1 d4d1

a
.c B R A

2 d3 d2

Duringthefir
sthal
fcyc
le,t
hedi
odesd1andd3aref
or wa
r dbi
asedwhil
ed2a ndd4arere
versebi
ased.
Cur
rentt
hus
fl
owst hroughdi
oded1andd3vi
atheresi
storR.
Duringthesec
ondhalfcyc
le,di
odesd1andd3arenowre
verse
bias
e dwhiled2andd4aref
orwa
rdbiase
d.Curre
ntthusflowst
hroug
hd2a ndd4viatheres
ist
orR.

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FORM4PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES 0714497530 2030

Not
ethatinbot
hhalfcyc
lescur
rentf
lowsthr
ought
her
esi
storRi
nonedi
rec
tiononl
yi.
efr
ome
ndAt
oB.
Thi
ski
nd
ofr
ect
if
iercanbeus
e dwithver
yhighvol
tages
.

I
fas
moot
hre
cti
fi
edwa
vei
sne
ede
d,t
henac
apa
cit
ori
sconne
cte
dac
ros
sther
esi
stor
;

Out
putc
urr
ent R

C Ti
me

As
moot
hene
dwa
ve

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Cont
act0714497530f
or;
Ot
herwel
ldesi
gnedhi
ghschool
mat
eri
als
Updat
edCPA,
CIFA,
CICT,
CPSmat
eri
als
Sev
eral
nov
elcol
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ect
ions
Mot
ivat
ional
books
I
nspi
rat
ional
books
Set
booksandgui
des
Teachi
ngschemes
KCSEandMockpastpaper
s
Rev
isi
onmat
eri
als
KRAser
vices
HELBser
vices
Websi
teDesi
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elopment
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CONTACT
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isabokemi
cah@gmai
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.com)

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Regar
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