LIGHT DETECTION:

PHOTODIODES
BIOMEDICAL OPTICS
BY: SUCCESS Kamuhanda
Introduction

The main forms of light detectors used with optical systems are
photoconductors (photoresistors), photovoltaic devices (photocells),
phototransistors, and photodiodes.

Photoconductive devices are sometimes known by the alternative

name of photoresistors. They convert changes in incident light into
changes in resistance, with the resistance reducing according to the
intensity of light to which they are exposed. They are made from
various materials such as cadmium sulfide, lead sulfide, and indium
antimonide.
Photovoltaic devices are often called photocells. They are also
commonly known as solar cells when a number of them are used in an
array as a means of generating energy from sunlight. They are made
from various types of semiconductor material. Their basic mode of
operation is to generate an output voltage whose magnitude is a
function of the magnitude of the incident light that they are exposed
to.
Photodiodes are devices where the output current is a function of the
amount of incident light. Again, they are made from various types of
semiconductor material.

A phototransistor is effectively a standard bipolar transistor with a

transparent case that allows light to reach its base-collector junction.
It has an output in the form of an electrical current and could be
regarded as a photodiode with an internal gain. This gain makes it
more sensitive to light than a photodiode, particularly in the infrared
region, but it has a slower response time. It is an ideal partner for
infrared LED and laser diode light sources.
PHOTODIODES

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to

produce an electric current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-
detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor.

These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias

conditions, it means that the P-side of the photodiode is associated
with the negative terminal of the battery, and the n-side is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery.
This diode is very sensitive to light so when light falls on the diode it
easily changes light into an electric current. The solar cell is also
branded as a large-area photodiode because it converts solar energy
into electric energy. Though, solar cell works only in bright light.
What is a Photodiode

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light

into current or voltage based on the mode of operation of the device.
It comprises optical filters, built-in lenses, and also surface areas.
These diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the
photodiode increases.

Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor diodes, but that they

may be either visible to let light reach the delicate part of the device.
Several diodes intended for use exactly as a photodiode will also use a
PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN junction.
Some photodiodes will look like a light-emitting diode. They have two
terminals coming from the end. The smaller end of the diode is the
cathode terminal, while the longer end of the diode is the anode
terminal.

See the following schematic diagram for the anode and cathode sides.
Under the forward bias condition, the conventional current will flow
from the anode to the cathode, following the arrow in the diode
symbol. Photocurrent flows in the reverse direction.
Types of Photodiodes

Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the market

and they all work on the same basic principles, though some are improved
by other effects. The working of different types of photodiodes works in a
slightly different way, but the basic operation of these diodes remains the
same. The types of photodiodes can be classified based on their
construction and functions as follows.

● PN Photodiode
● Schottky Photodiode
● PIN Photodiode
● Avalanche Photodiode
PN Photodiode

The first developed type of photodiode is the PN type. As compared

with other types, its performance is not advanced, but at present, it is
used in several applications. The photodetection mainly happens in
the depletion region of the diode. This diode is quite small but its
sensitivity is not great as compared with others. Please refer to this
link to know more about the PN diode.
PIN Photodiode

At present, the most commonly used photodiode is a PIN type. This

diode gathers the light photons more powerfully as compared with
standard PN photodiode because the wide intrinsic area between the
P and N regions allows for more light to be collected, and in addition to
this, it also offers a lower capacitance.
Avalanche Photodiode

This kind of diode is used in low light areas due to its high gain levels. It
generates high levels of noise. So this technology is not appropriate
for all applications.
Schottky Photodiode

The Schottky photodiode uses the Schottky diode, and it includes a

small diode junction that means, there is small junction capacitance
so, it operates at high speeds. Thus, this kind of photodiode is
frequently utilized in high bandwidth (BW) optical communication
systems like fiber-optic links.
Each type of photodiode has its own benefits and drawbacks. The

selection of this diode can be done based on the application.

The different parameters to be considered while selecting photodiode

include noise, wavelength, reverse bias constraints, gain, etc. The

performance parameters of photodiode include responsivity, quantum

efficiency, transit time or response time.

Features of a Photodiode

These diodes are widely used in applications where the detection of the presence of

light, color, position, the intensity is required. The main features of these diodes

include the following.

● The linearity of the diode is good with respect to incident light

● Noise is low.
● The response is wide spectral
● Rugged mechanically
● Lightweight and compact
● Long life
Construction of a Photodiode

The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type.
In this design, the formation of P-type material can be done from the
diffusion of the P-type substrate which is lightly doped. So, the P+ ions
layer can be formed because of the diffusion method. On the substrate of
N-type, the N-type epitaxial layer can be grown.
The development of a P+ diffusion layer can be done over the heavily

doped N-type epitaxial layer. The contacts are designed with metals

to make two terminals like anode and cathode. The front region of the

diode can be separated into two types like active & non-active

surfaces
The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon

dioxide (SiO2). On an active surface, the light rays can strike over it

whereas, on a non-active surface, the light rays cannot strike. & the

active surface can be covered through the material of anti-reflection

so that the energy of light cannot lose and the highest of it can be

changed into the current.

Working of a Photodiode

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy

strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is
also called the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the
depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by
the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons
move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The
entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and
the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize
the sensitivity of the device.
Modes of Operation

The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely

Photovoltaic mode, Photoconductive mode, an avalanche diode mode

Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero-bias mode, in

which a voltage is produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a

very small dynamic range & non-linear necessity of the voltage

formed.
Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this

photoconductive mode is more usually reverse biased. The reverse

voltage application will increase the depletion layer width, which in

turn decreases the response time & the junction capacitance. This

mode is too fast and displays electronic noise

Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse

bias condition, which permits the multiplication of an avalanche

breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. This outcome

is an internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases the device

response.
Why is a Photodiode operated in Reverse Bias

The photodiode operates in the mode of photoconductive. When the

diode is connected in reverse bias, then the depletion layer width can
be increased. So this will diminish the capacitance of the junction &
the response time. In fact, this biasing will cause quicker response
times for the diode. So the relation between photocurrent &
illuminance is linearly proportional.
Photodiode vs Phototransistor

Both the photodiode and phototransistor are used for converting the
energy of light to electrical. However, the phototransistor is more
responsive as contrasted to the photodiode due to the utilization of
the transistor.
The transistor changes the base current which causes due to light
absorption & therefore the huge output current can be gained
throughout the collector terminal of the transistor. The photodiodes
time response is very fast as compared with the phototransistor. So it
is applicable where fluctuation in the circuit occurs. For better
understating, here we have listed out some points of photodiode vs
photoresistor.
 Photodiode Phototransistor

The semiconductor device that converts The phototransistor is used to change the
the energy from light to electrical current energy of light into an electrical current
is known as a photodiode. using the transistor.

It generates both the current and voltage It generates current

The response time is fast The response time is slow

It is less responsive as compared with a It is responsive and generates a huge o/p

phototransistor current.

Works in both the biasing conditions This diode works in forward biasing only

It is used in a light meter, solar power It is used to detect the light

plant, etc
Photodiode Circuit

The circuit diagram of the photodiode is shown below. This circuit can

be built with a 10k resistor and photodiode. Once the photodiode

notices the light, then it allows some flow of current throughout it. The

sum of current that supplies through this diode can be directly

proportional to the sum of light noticed through the diode.

Connecting a Photodiode in a circuit

In any application, the photodiode works in reverse bias mode. The anode terminal of

the circuit can be connected to the ground whereas the cathode terminal is

connected to the power source. Once illuminated through light, then current flows

from the cathode terminal to the anode terminal.

Once photodiodes are utilized with exterior circuits, then they are allied to a power

source within the circuit. So, the amount of current generated through a photodiode

will be extremely small, so this value is not sufficient to make an electronic device.
Once they are connected to an exterior power source, then it delivers

more current toward the circuit. In this circuit, the battery is used as a

power source to help in increasing the value of current so that external

devices give a better performance.

PIN vs PN Photodiodes

Both the photodiodes like PN & PIN can be obtained from a lot of suppliers. A

photodiode selection is very important while designing a circuit based on

the required performance as well as characteristics.

A PN photodiode doesn’t work in a reverse bias & consequently, it is more

appropriate for the applications of low light to enhance the performance of

noise.

The PIN photodiode that works in reverse bias can introduce a noise current

to decrease S/N ratio

For the applications of high dynamic range, the reverse biasing will

give good performance

For high BW applications, reverse biasing will provide good

performance like the capacitance among the regions of P & N and the

storage of charge capacity is small.

Advantages of a Photodiode

● Less resistance
● Quick and high operation speed
● Long life span.
● Fastest photodetector.
● Spectral response is good.
● Doesn’t use high voltage.
● Frequency response is good.
● Solid and low-weight.
● It is extremely responsive to the light.
● Dark current is less.
● High quantum efficiency.
● Less noise.
Disadvantages of a Photodiode

● Temperature stability is poor.

● Change within current is extremely little, therefore may not be enough
to drive the circuit.
● The active area is small.
● Usual PN junction photodiode includes a high response time.
● It has less sensitivity.
● It mainly works by depending on the temperature.
● It uses offset voltage.
Applications of Photodiodes

● These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like

smoke detectors, compact disc players, and televisions and
remote controls in VCRs.
● Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the
intensity of light in science & industry. Generally, they have an
enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
● Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications
like instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed
tomography, and also used in blood gas monitors.
● These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN
junction diodes and hence are frequently used for lighting regulation
and in optical communications.
I-V Characteristics of a Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The

characteristics of the photodiode are shown clearly in the following
figure, that the photocurrent is nearly independent of reverse bias
voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is
almost zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano
amperes. As optical power rises the photocurrent also rises linearly.
The max photocurrent is incomplete by the power dissipation of the
photodiode.
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