SS 562 : 2010

(ICS 93.020)

SINGAPORE STANDARD

Code of practice for safety in trenches,

pits and other excavated areas

Published by
SS 562 : 2010
(ICS 93.020)

SINGAPORE STANDARD
Code of practice for safety in trenches, pits and
other excavated areas

All rights reserved. Unless otherwise specified, no part of this Singapore Standard may be
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and microfilming, without permission in writing from SPRING Singapore at the
address below:

Standards
SPRING Singapore
1 Fusionopolis Walk,
#01-02 South Tower, Solaris
Singapore 138628
Email : [email protected]

ISBN 978-981-4278-71-3
SS 562 : 2010

This Singapore Standard was approved by the General Engineering and Safety Standards Committee
on behalf of the Standards Council of Singapore on 7 October 2010.

First published, 2010

The General Engineering and Safety Standards Committee appointed by the Standards Council
consists of the following members:

Name Capacity

Chairman : Mr Chan Yew Kwong Member, Standards Council

Secretary : Mr Kenneth Lim SPRING Singapore
Members : Mr Joseph Ang Association of Small and Medium Enterprises
Mr Chang Heng Choy Building and Construction Authority
Dr Kenneth Choy Ministry of Manpower
Assoc Prof Foo Swee Cheng National University of Singapore
Assoc Prof Hoon Kay Hiang Nanyang Technological University
Mr Lim Meng Ann Workplace Safety and Health Council
Mr Lim Poo Yam Land Transport Authority
Mr Ng Chun Tat Housing & Development Board
Mr P K Raveendran Association of Singapore Marine Industries
Mr Seet Choh San Singapore Institution of Safety Officers
Mr Jacob Soh Society of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries
Mr Tan Kai Hong Institution of Engineers, Singapore
Mr Wong Choon Kin Singapore Manufacturers’ Federation
Mr Eugene Yong Kon Yoon Singapore Contractors Association Limited
Dr Zhou Wei Singapore Welding Society

The Technical Committee on Workplace Safety and Health appointed by the General Engineering and
Safety Standards Committee and responsible for the preparation of this standard consists of
representatives from the following organisations:

Name Capacity

Chairman : Mr Seet Choh San Member, General Engineering and Safety

Standards Committee
Secretary : Ms Barbara Bok SPRING Singapore
Members : Mr Ang Boon Tian Occupational and Environmental Health Society
Mr Mohd Aliffi Ismail Association of Singapore Marine Industries
Mr Ong Yong Seng Singapore Institution of Safety Officers
Mr Sze Thiam Siong SETSCO Services Pte Ltd
Mr Tan Liong Kiat Institution of Engineers, Singapore
Mr Raymond Tan TÜV SÜD PSB Pte Ltd
Mr Tay Cheng Pheng Singapore Manufacturers’ Federation (OSH Group)
Dr Teh Cee Ing Nanyang Technological University
Dr Teo Ai Lin National University of Singapore
Mr Yeo Kim Hock Singapore Contractors Association Limited
Er. Yeong Chark Sung Ministry of Manpower

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The Working Group appointed by the Technical Committee to assist in the preparation of this
standard comprises the following experts who contributed in their individual capacity:

Name

Convenor : Mr Winston Yew

Members : Mr Aw Kai Ren
Mr Chia Kok Cheong
Mr S Damodaran
Mr Loh Yeow Leng
Mr Andrew Tan
Assoc Prof Tan Siew Ann
Mr Wa Yeng Loong
Assoc Prof Wong Kai Sin
Er. Peter Yap Kwong Ling

The organisations in which the experts of the Working Group are involved are:

Institution of Engineers, Singapore

Land Transport Authority
Ministry of Manpower
Nanyang Technological University
National University of Singapore
Public Utilities Board
Singapore Contractors Association Limited
Singapore Institution of Safety Officers
Surbana International Consultants Pte Ltd

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Contents
Page

Foreword 6

CLAUSES

1 Scope 8
2 Normative references 8
3 Definitions 8
4 Hazards in excavation works 9
5 Planning 12
6 Control measures 18

ANNEXES

A Sample of permit-to-work application form 37

B Engineering classification of soils 39
C Requirements for protective system 45
D Examples of shoring systems for excavations and trenches 50

TABLES

1 Gases or vapours commonly found in excavations and trenches 12

2 Toxic, flammable and asphyxiating gases 12

FIGURES

1 Benching and battering of excavation walls 19

2 Placement of spoil/surcharge away from zone of influence 35
C.1 Maximum allowable angle of repose 47
D.1 Sheet piling 50
D.2 Cofferdam with timber strutting 50
D.3 Cofferdam with steel strutting 51
D.4 Timber shoring 52
D.5 Trench box 53
D.6 Trench shield 53
D.7 Plate lining system 54

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Foreword

This Singapore Standard code of practice was prepared by a Working Group appointed by the
Technical Committee on Workplace Safety and Health under the direction of the General Engineering
and Safety Standards Committee.

In the preparation of this Code, references were made to relevant legal documents including the
Workplace Safety and Health Act where specific requirements are already in place for the protection
of persons working at or near excavations. This is to ensure that the Code is in line with the legal
requirements that provide the minimum standard of safety for such work. The Code is also intended
to expand on these requirements and to provide the necessary details to help compliance.

This Code aims to assist personnel working at workplaces where excavation is carried out to design
an excavation, perform and protect the excavation, and its subsequent back fill. This Code provides
good practices for these activities, with the primary objective of protecting those persons working at or
near the excavation, and minimising the risk to structures or activities that could be affected by such
excavation.

As the size, nature and method of excavation may vary significantly from place to place, this Code
could not cover every conceivable situation. This Code covers the general situation and inferences
could then be drawn for specific cases.

In preparing this Code, references were made to the following publications:

(1) ANSI A10.12 : 1998 (2005) Safety requirements for excavation

(2) BS 6100-1 : 2004 Building and civil engineering – Vocabulary – Part 1: General
terms

(3) BS 8000-1 : 1989 Workmanship on building sites – Part 1: Code of practice for
excavation and filling

(4) SS CP 18 : 1992 Earthworks

(5) TR 26 : 2010 Technical Reference for deep excavation

(6) Code of practice for excavation – New South Wales Workcover Authority Publication (2000)

(7) OSHA Excavation Standard, 29 CFR 1926.650

(8) Geology of the Republic of Singapore (1976), Public Works Department, Singapore

(9) TAN, S. B. LOY, W. C. and LEE, K. W. (1980), Engineering geology of the Old Alluvium in
Singapore, Proc. 6th South Asian Conference on Soil Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 673-684

(10) TAN, S. B. and LEE, K. W. (1977), Engineering geology of the Marine Member of the Kallang
Formation of Singapore, Inter. Symposium on Soft Clay, Bangkok, pp. 75-88

(11) Trenching practice (Report 97) – CIRIA Publication (2001)

(12) Building Control Act

(13) Building Control Regulations 2003

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(14) Workplace Safety and Health Act

(15) Workplace Safety and Health (Construction) Regulations 2007

(16) Workplace Safety and Health (Confined Spaces) Regulations 2009

Acknowledgement is made for the use of information from the above publications.

Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this Singapore Standard may be the
subject of patent rights. SPRING Singapore shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all of
such patent rights.

NOTE

1. Singapore Standards are subject to periodic review to keep abreast of technological changes and new
technical developments. The changes in Singapore Standards are documented through the issue of either
amendments or revisions.

2. Compliance with a Singapore Standard does not exempt users from legal obligations.

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Code of practice for safety in trenches, pits and other excavated

areas

1 Scope
This Code is for the protection of persons working in trenches, pits and other excavated areas, and
includes persons at or near these places. This Code covers the typical hazards associated with
excavations, such as collapse of excavation face, falling into the excavation, soil movement resulting
from excavation and hazards posed by machines used.

The Annexes in this Code are aimed to provide the users with specific methods to use for protection
of excavation based on the different circumstances that they are likely to encounter on site.

This Code covers any areas where excavation is conducted, such as in building and engineering
construction worksites, road works and works associated with the utilities.

2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this standard. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.

Building Control Act

Workplace Safety and Health Act

Workplace Safety and Health (Construction) Regulations

3 Definitions
For the purpose of this Code, the definitions below apply.

3.1 Civil engineer

A civil engineer is a person who possesses relevant qualification in civil engineering.

3.2 Competent person

A person who has acquired through appropriate training, qualifications or relevant experience, or a
combination of these, the knowledge and skills to enable that person to perform the tasks as
mentioned in this Code.

3.3 Confined space

Any trenches, pits, other excavated areas and any other similar space in which:

(a) dangerous gases, vapours or fumes are liable to be present to such an extent as to involve a
risk of fire or explosion, or persons being overcome thereby;

(b) the supply of air is inadequate, or is likely to be reduced to be inadequate, for sustaining life;
or

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(c) there is a risk of engulfment by material.

3.4 Geotechnical engineer

A specialist professional engineer in the specialised branch of geotechnical engineering.

3.5 Professional engineer

An engineer who is registered under the Professional Engineers Act (Cap 253).

3.6 Shall

Indicates an essential requirement.

3.7 Should

Indicates a recommendation.

4 Hazards in excavation works

4.1 Collapse of trenches and excavations

4.1.1 Injuries resulting from collapse of trenches and excavations can occur as a result of inability
of the soil to stand by itself for the duration of the works and as a result of decisions taken by persons
with insufficient expertise in the area of soil stability. Assessment of the ground conditions and the
ability to recognise the stability with regard to the type of soil are important for excavation works.

4.1.2 Common causes of collapse to the sides of an excavation include:

(a) breakdown of the strength of the soil by moisture (usually caused by inclement weather);

(b) shoring components not secure or failing;

(c) premature removal of shoring;

(d) failure caused by vibration from the movement of nearby plant and machinery;

(e) failure due to over-excavating on or near the site of a previous excavation;

(f) failure due to the sides of the excavation being struck by heavy loads when they are being
lowered into the excavation;

(g) failure due to excessive excavated and other materials being placed within the zone of
influence of the excavation;

(h) failure due to the variations in the nature of the soil, such as pockets of sand;

(i) failure due to the weight of loads placed near the edges of the excavation;

(j) mechanical failure of the soil because it cannot support its own weight;

(k) failure of battered back excavations, resulting in landslides; and

(l) seepage of water from its side walls or base.

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4.2 Excavation adjacent to existing pit

Excavations such as parallel and nearby excavations that are within the zone of influence of each
other have weakening effects on each other’s walls. The relatively thin wall of undisturbed material
that may separate two excavations may be under increased side pressure and therefore more likely to
collapse.

4.3 Instability of excavation and adjoining structures

Where the stability of adjoining buildings, walls, or other structures are endangered by excavation
operations, effective protection and support shall be provided to ensure the stability of such structures
for the protection of persons.

4.4 Excavation below footing or foundation

Excavation below the base or footing of any foundation or retaining wall could pose a hazard to
persons.

4.5 Proximity to water table – Ground dewatering

The presence of groundwater is more difficult to deal with than surface water. It may affect the sides
of the excavation that even if supported, wash out of material will occur between the sheeting or
supports. In certain soil conditions, the bottom of the excavation can become unstable and “boil” with
the inevitable total collapse of the trench. The relationship of the groundwater to the soil condition
needs careful analysis before a decision is made as to the support method to be used.

The pumping out of water may lower the groundwater table to a level below that to which the
excavation is to be taken. At the same time, it is also important that no fine material will be drawn out
from adjacent property with consequent risk of settlement.

4.6 Accumulation of water

Persons shall not work within excavations with accumulated water, or in excavations in which water is
accumulating unless precautions have been taken to protect them from the hazards posed by water
accumulation. The precautions vary with each situation, but could include special support or shield
systems to protect from cave-ins, water removal to control the level of accumulating water, or the use
of safety harness and lifeline.

4.7 Contact with utilities

Utility installations including live power lines and gas pipelines pose major hazards in excavation work
and can cause fatalities. Specific control measures shall be implemented when work is being carried
out in the vicinity of such underground utility lines. A power line or electrical conductor should always
be assumed to be energised or “live”.

4.8 Contact with ordnance

During excavation, buried explosives may be encountered. The consequences that may result from
the disturbance of explosives could be sudden and have immediate serious effects. In such
circumstances, the site shall be evacuated and the police called in. The police and other relevant
authorities shall be informed and their advice followed.

4.9 Placement of excavated materials

Excavated materials and superimposed loads shall not be placed or stacked near the edge of open
excavations and trenches. The loads shall also not be placed or moved near the edges to avoid
causing the bank to slip or cause heave of the excavation bed.

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4.10 Falling into excavated areas

Persons may fall into excavations from the open edges of excavations, ground openings for boreholes
or other similar deep pits and from unsecured means of access or egress routes. A safe system of
work and appropriate control measures shall be provided whenever persons are exposed to the risk of
falling into excavations. Open sides of excavations where a person may fall more than 2 m shall be
guarded by adequate barriers and suitable warning signs shall be posted up at conspicuous positions.

4.11 Movement and position of heavy equipment/plant

Due care shall be exercised when mobile equipment is operating adjacent to an excavation, or when
such equipment is required to approach or to position the edge of an excavation.

4.12 Ground vibration

Ground vibration may be caused or increased by movement of heavy equipment, piling, etc. Ground
vibration may cause loss of soil stability.

4.13 Vehicular traffic

There are times where it is necessary to carry out excavation work near moving plants at construction
sites, as well as at or near public roads and pedestrian walkways. Carrying out excavation work at
such places is a high-risk activity and additional control measures will be necessary to ensure safety.

4.14 Inclement weather

Inclement weather, such as rain, may weaken the face of the excavation (especially for unprotected
faces) or may cause the excavation to be flooded.

4.15 Contaminated ground

4.15.1 Persons working at or excavating in contaminated soil would be exposed to hazardous

materials.

4.15.2 It shall be noted that contamination can be caused by a range of different hazardous
materials and by a mixture of concentrations and distributions. Contaminants can also migrate to
adjacent areas via ground water.

4.16 Quality of atmosphere

4.16.1 Trenches, pits, open drains, culverts and other excavation sites are not normally considered
as confined spaces. However, lack of oxygen and presence of toxic gases or flammable gases may
occur during excavation. Hazardous substances in the form of liquid or gas from underground
sources can seep or diffuse through the ground into the excavation sites. Gases like methane and
radon can be naturally occurring. Others such as liquefied petroleum gas, acetylene and hydrogen
sulfide may leak from compressed gas lines, underground storage, nearby pipelines or sewers.
Employees at sites can also be at risk to toxic airborne contaminants such as the exhaust fumes
emitted from nearby plants and equipment.

4.16.2 Hazardous gases or vapours commonly found in excavations are listed in Table 1. These
gases and vapours can be toxic, flammable or asphyxiant as indicated in Table 2.

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Table 1 – Gases or vapours commonly found in excavations and trenches

Gases or fumes Type of ground

Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide Filled and made-up ground
Carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide Reclaimed land and tipped fills
Methane, hydrogen sulphide Ground containing decaying organic matter e.g.
peaty ground and marine clay soil
Natural or town gas (methane, hydrogen, City streets
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide)
Petroleum vapours, LPG (mainly butane), Ground contaminated by underground leakages
kerosene from petroleum installations and service stations

Table 2 – Toxic, flammable and asphyxiating gases

Type of gas Toxic Flammable Asphyxiant

Carbon dioxide  X 
Carbon monoxide   X
Hydrogen sulphide   X
Kerosene   X
Methane X  
Natural or town gas   
Petroleum vapours, LPG   X
Sulphur dioxide  X X
 - Yes
X – No

4.17 Underground obstructions

During the process of excavation, some unused or existing obstructions may be encountered. It is the
duty of the contractor to seek the necessary approval from the relevant authorities before removing
the obstructions or proceeding on with the excavation works.

5 Planning

5.1 Risk assessment

5.1.1 Possible hazards during excavation and trenching operations and works therein should be
identified, and mitigating measures should be planned for either to eliminate or reduce the severity of
the hazards. Such hazards are given in Clause 4.

5.1.2 Before commencement of excavations, it is important to plan for the prevention of the
following causes of accidents:

(a) Damage to underground installations;

(b) Fall of materials into the excavation;

(c) Fall of persons into the excavation;

(d) Fire and explosion;

(e) Lifting operations;

(f) Unfenced machinery;

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(g) Trespass by the public (especially children) into construction sites;

(h) Other accidents due to lifting and carrying equipment and materials;

(i) Poor means of access for workers and vehicles into excavations;

(j) Collisions with obstructions such as projecting reinforcement;

(k) Misplaced or inadequate barriers, randomly stacked materials; and

(l) Reversing accidents or other collisions involving earthmoving equipment and transport.

5.1.3 Risk assessment should be conducted by a team well versed in the identification of such
hazards. It should comprise multi-disciplined members. Risk assessment should include the
following:

(a) What are the hazards that will be present?

(b) What is the likelihood of an accident happening?

(c) How severe would the consequence be (to life and property)?

(d) What are the appropriate precautions to be taken to eliminate or minimise the risk?

5.1.4 It is recommended that a mathematical model (risk matrix) or logical techniques be used to
assess the level of risk from excavation and trenching operations and works therein.

5.2 Appointment of key personnel

5.2.1 The person in charge of the site operation shall appoint trained and/or qualified persons to
ensure that the excavation and trenching operations and works therein are carried out in a planned
and systematic manner.

5.2.2 Such persons may include the following:

(a) Geotechnical engineer;

(b) Civil engineer;

(c) Supervisor of work – The supervisor of work shall oversee that the excavation and trenching
operations and works therein are done in accordance with the design and safe work
procedures;

(d) Workers – All workers involved shall be adequately trained and briefed on the hazards
expected during the course of the work. They shall be thoroughly briefed on the safe work
procedures and permit-to-work system.

5.2.3 Competent person

5.2.3.1 The person in charge of the site operation shall designate a competent person to accurately
determine the soil type and the necessary safety precautions to be taken.

5.2.3.2 A competent person should be able to identify existing and potential hazards that relate to
excavation. This means that the competent person should be able to:

(a) know the difference between types of soils and accurately classify them;

(b) recognise gradients of slopes, such as 4:1;

(c) observe moisture levels and their importance to the excavation’s stability; and
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(d) recognise previously disturbed soils, since this material is commonly less stable than
undisturbed soils.

5.2.3.3 The competent person shall review the excavations and its vicinity in their charge daily, or
more often if needed, to ensure the excavation work can be carried out safely. His review should
include the effects of rain, surcharge loads, shock and vibration from other construction activities, and
nearby traffic.

5.2.3.4 When the competent person recognises that the excavation is unsafe, he shall inform the
Project Manager immediately.

5.2.3.5 The Project Manager, upon being informed, shall take immediate actions including stopping
the work and evacuating workers from the hazardous area. Prior to allowing re-entry into the
hazardous area, all appropriate and suitable safety controls should be taken.

5.3 Written permission from relevant authorities

5.3.1 Where applicable, necessary permits shall be obtained from relevant authorities prior to
excavation.

5.4. Permit-to-work system

5.4.1 Main contractor shall establish and implement permit-to-work system to ensure that:

(a) any high risk construction work at the worksite must be carried out with due regard to the
safety and health of persons carrying out the work;

(b) such persons are informed of the hazards associated with the high-risk construction work and
the precautions they have to take; and

(c) the necessary safety precautions are taken and enforced when the high-risk construction
work is being carried out at the worksite.

5.4.2 Such permit-to-work system shall be implemented for excavation and trenching work in a
tunnel or hole in the ground exceeding 1.5 m in depth. The permit-to-work system shall conform to
any prevailing regulations, including the Workplace Safety and Health (Construction) Regulations.

5.4.3 Where there are reasonable grounds to believe that any utility line is present, the permit-to-
work system should be applied even though the depth of excavation is less than 1.5 m.

5.4.4 The following types of safety precautions should be considered when implementing the
permit-to-work system:

(a) Safe means of access and egress, such as proper ladders, should be provided.

(b) The sides of the excavation should be sloping or be battered back to a safe angle of repose,
or be supported by suitable shoring or other suitable means to prevent a collapse. The type
of support should depend on the type of excavation, the nature of the ground and the ground
water conditions. The shoring should be erected only by competent workers operating under
supervision.

(c) Suitable barriers should be erected along the edges of the excavation to prevent persons
from falling into the excavation.

(d) Suitable warning notices and signs should be displayed prominently at suitable locations of
the excavation to give appropriate warnings to persons nearby.

(e) If the depth of the excavation is more than 4 m, the excavation stability means or supporting
system shall be designed by a professional engineer.

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(f) The quality of atmosphere inside the excavation should be check to ensure it is safe for entry.
Air monitoring by conducting gas testing before allowing persons to work inside the
excavation should be conducted by a confined space safety assessor. The gases to be
tested should include oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and explosive gas/vapor.
When necessary, adequate ventilation should be provided. Such air monitoring should also
be continued at suitable interval determined by the competent person during the whole
working period.

(g) Suitable personal protective equipment should be worn and used by persons who have to
work inside the excavation. Suitable safety helmets, safety gloves and shoes should be worn
at all times, whereas eye protectors, ear protectors, respirators or vests should also be worn
whenever necessary.

(h) Adequate lighting should be provided around the area of excavation, particularly at access
points and openings.

(i) Excavated materials, heavy machinery and other superimposed load should be placed at
least 1 m away from the edge of the excavation, and should be so piled or retained so that no
part thereof can fall into the excavation pits or cause the banks to slip.

(j) Always assume that power lines, water services, gas pipes and sewers are present even if
they may not be marked on the plans of the layout.

(k) The position of the services, such as cables and pipes, should be marked. All exposed
cables and pipes should be supported properly when an excavation is open.

(l) Power tools should be avoided within half a metre of known utility lines. Mechanical
excavators should be avoided within a metre of utility lines.

5.4.5 Annex A shows a sample application form for the permit-to-work.

5.5 Safe work procedures

5.5.1 The ground conditions of the worksite should be checked by a competent person, and all
temporary access to be compacted to ensure safe accessibility for heavy vehicles.

5.5.2 Site layout, proper drainage for rainwater, and proper storage of materials should be
determined, planned and arranged.

5.5.3 The existence of underground services should be determined and ascertained by the
following means:

(a) Seeking information from relevant authorities and/or owners of the land, which should include
the exact location and dimension of the services as well as necessary precautions; and

(b) Physical detection on-site making use of suitable detectors or locators to be conducted by
competent persons.

5.5.4 The effect of excavation on neighbouring properties, public traffic and/or other construction
activities nearby should be determined with the purpose to:

(a) eliminate any adverse effect on neighbouring properties by suitable means, such as suitable
shoring for supporting adjacent structures;

(b) establish suitable road diversion and/or traffic control plan prior to the commencement of
excavation; and

(c) eliminate any incompatible construction activities being carried out nearby.

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5.6 General safety

5.6.1 When working in an excavation, never work ahead of the side supports, even when erecting
shoring. Trench box should be used whenever necessary to protect workers who are working in the
unshored part of the excavation.

5.6.2 Excavations should be inspected by a competent person at least once a day when work is in
progress. Additional inspections should be conducted after every rainstorm as well as any hazard-
increasing occurrence.

5.6.3 Any work activities inside the excavation should be properly supervised. Specific safe work
procedures should be established and implemented for different tasks in the excavation, such as
laying of cables or pipes, drainage and manhole construction, basement construction.

5.6.4 Additional permit-to-work system should be implemented for hot works, lifting works, and
works involving hazardous materials within the excavation.

5.6.5 The use of lifting machines should be properly supervised by appointed qualified lifting
supervisor and to be done by appointed and qualified signalman, riggers and operators. Proper safe
lifting procedures should be established and implemented. All temporary access should be
compacted to ensure safe accessibility of lifting machines.

5.6.6 All persons involved in the excavation should be well informed of the rescue procedures
should a fellow worker be trapped in the excavation. For example, if a cable is damaged, even
slightly, keep well clear. If gas is smelt, ensure no sources of ignition nearby and keep away; and
keep other people away and summon the gas authority.

5.6.7 After completing works inside the excavation, the shoring, if any, should be removed properly.
It should be dismantled only by competent workers operating under supervision. The persons should
always be on top of the excavation whenever practicable.

5.7 Emergency response plan

5.7.1 An emergency response plan shall be established to dictate the course of action in the event
of an emergency situation such as failure of protection systems, flooding, discovery of ordnance, gas
leak, fire and explosion.

5.7.2 The input and support of all employees should be obtained to ensure an effective program.
The emergency response plan should be developed locally and should be comprehensive enough to
deal with all types of emergencies specific to that site. The plan shall include the following elements:

(a) Formation of emergency team with their duties, responsibilities and chain of command;

(b) Appointment of person-in-charge to implement the emergency response plan;

(c) Rescue and medical duties for those employees who are to perform them;

(d) System for raising alarm;

(e) Initial response, shutdown and evacuation procedures;

(f) Procedures to be followed by employees who remain to perform (or shut down) critical plant
and machinery operations before the workplace is evacuated;

(g) Procedures to account for all employees after emergency evacuation has been completed;

(h) Identification of nearest medical facilities and hospitals; and

(i) Notification to relevant authorities.

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5.7.3 The emergency team shall comprise at least the following persons:

(a) Site co-ordinator;

(b) First-aider;

(c) Site safety personnel;

(d) Emergency response team;

(e) Communications co-ordinator; and

(f) Logistics personnel.

5.7.4 Training is important to the effectiveness of an emergency plan. Before implementing an

emergency response plan, a sufficient number of persons should be trained to assist in the safe and
orderly evacuation of persons. Training for each type of disaster response is necessary so that
employees know what actions are required.

5.8 Personal protective equipment

5.8.1 The use of personal protective clothing and equipment for the job is a major aid to safety. All
persons shall follow the necessary legislative requirements on the use of such equipment.

5.8.2 The following personal protective equipment and apparel shall be provided to workers
working in excavated areas:

(a) Safety helmets;

(b) Safety shoes; and

(c) Safety gloves.

5.8.3 When necessary, the following personal protective equipment shall also be provided:

(a) High-visibility vests;

(b) Eye protectors;

(c) Ear protectors; and

(d) Suitable respirators and breathing apparatus.

5.8.4 Workers shall be trained on the proper use, care and maintenance of personal protective
equipment.

5.9 Soil investigation

5.9.1 Before any excavation works are carried out, an assessment of the ground condition shall be
made. The assessment shall determine the cohesiveness of the soil and the presence of any water
table. If necessary, a soil investigation shall be conducted.

5.9.2 The competent person shall classify the type of soil as specified in Annex B. The type of
protection systems should be based on the findings of the soil assessment or investigations.

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6 Control measures

6.1 Prevention of collapse of trenches and excavations

6.1.1 Shoring

6.1.1.1 Every excavation, including trenches, shall be protected against collapse by shoring or other
means of protective system. See Annex C for reference on the technical requirements of shoring.

6.1.1.2 Risk assessment shall be conducted to identify unstable conditions and the risks involved,
both during and after the installation of the protective systems. Appropriate control measures shall be
taken to ensure the safety of persons working in and around the excavation.

6.1.1.3 Shoring the face of an excavation should proceed as the work of excavation progresses.
Where a mechanical digger is used, risk assessment should be conducted to determine whether any
part of the excavation is left unsupported. Shoring may include any suitable system of temporary
supports and sheeting material used to maintain the stability of the sides of an excavation. The
installation and removal of shoring should take place from outside an excavation.

6.1.1.4 The more common shoring support systems are:

(a) soldier sets – timber, steel proprietary (including H-piles);

(b) full timber system;

(c) sheet piling; and

(d) diaphragm walls.

See Annex D for examples of shoring systems.

6.1.1.5 Other types of shoring systems that are used include:

(a) sacrificial sets/permanent shoring – left in the ground indefinitely, may be timber, concrete
etc;

(b) precast panels;

(c) contiguous bore; and

(d) pneumatic, hydraulic and other proprietary shoring systems.

6.1.1.6 These and/or other types of appropriate ground support equipment should be on site before
the excavation work commences.

6.1.1.7 Removal of shoring supports

When removing shoring, the support system should be extracted/dismantled in the reverse order of its
installation as far as practicable. However, this is subjected to the assessment of the competent
person. Persons performing the work in the excavation should not work outside the protection of the
ground support system.

In case of excavation done in a place with high water table and granular soil, partial removal of
shoring should not be done as it may result in instability of the soil areas and cause sudden collapse
of the excavation.

Shoring shall not be removed during and after bad weather until an assessment has been carried out
by the competent person to ensure the safety of workers and other persons on site.

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6.1.2 Benching and battering of excavation walls

6.1.2.1 Both benching and battering of excavation walls are methods of work that minimise the risk of
the soil or rock slipping into the excavation.

6.1.2.2 Benching is the creation of stepped sides to an excavation. This is done by forming a series
of vertical and horizontal planes forming a number of steps in the wall of an excavation (see Figure 1).
Benching is used to reduce the height of the vertical wall of an excavation by cutting a series of steps.
A risk assessment should be conducted to determine the height and width of the steps necessary to
ensure stability.

Battering Benching

In some cases, it may be appropriate to use a combination of the two methods for an
excavation.

Combination of benching and battering

Figure 1 – Benching and battering of excavation walls

6.1.2.3 A batter is where the wall of an excavation is sloped back to a predetermined angle.
Battering should commence from the top of the excavation. When battering, the angle of repose shall
be dependent on the type and stability of the soil conditions (see Annex B and C for reference on
angle of repose table for different soil types).

6.1.2.4 The measures to be taken shall include but not limited to:

(a) stripping of loose rocks or other materials from the banks which may slide, roll or fall upon
persons below;

(b) stabilising the face of excavation to contain falling materials;

(c) ensuring persons, who are engaged on bottoming-up in an excavation, do not work near an
excavator;

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(d) ensuring persons work only within the supported section of an excavation and should not be
allowed to enter unsupported parts;

(e) using of suitable shoring methods or systems;

(f) providing adequate piling and bracing against the bank or side to eliminate the hazard of
falling or sliding materials;

(g) keeping the edges of excavation clear to prevent undue pressure on excavation sides.
Soil/rock from the excavation shall be placed away from the excavation edges to avoid
loading the sides of the excavation and prevent loose materials from falling in by placing away
the excavated materials from the excavation edges. Keep building materials away from the
edges. Provide barriers to prevent vehicles and loads from endangering the excavation
edges; and

(h) ensuring persons are not working on faces of sloped or benched excavations at levels above
other persons unless persons at lower levels are adequately protected from the hazard of
falling, rolling or sliding materials or equipment.

6.1.3 Inspection of support systems

6.1.3.1 Excavation shall be examined prior to entry and at regular intervals to ensure that the
excavation and its supporting systems are stable and intact to ensure the safety of work proceedings.
Risk assessment should determine the intervals of inspection. Inspections should be conducted and
documented by a competent person. The risk assessment should be reviewed after:

(a) collapses or falls of materials;

(b) adverse weather conditions;

(c) use of explosives; and

(d) tremors caused by heavy plant and machinery.

6.1.3.2 Where hazards that create a risk to health and safety of those carrying out the work are
identified, they shall be controlled prior to any further work being carried out. This may require further
advice from the competent person to review the adequacy of the control measures in place.

6.1.3.3 The following conditions, in addition to those stated in Clause 4, should be considered and
monitored:

(a) Workers in excavations venturing outside the confines of shoring, benching or battering;

(b) Cracks appearing near the edge of an excavation;

(c) Surface soil falling into the excavation;

(d) Inclined bedding planes 'dipping' into the excavation; and

(e) Subsidence alongside the excavations.

6.1.3.4 Parallel and nearby excavations that are within the zone of influence of each other have
weakening effects on each other's walls. The relatively thin wall of undisturbed material that may
separate two excavations may be under increased side pressure and therefore more likely to
collapse.

6.1.3.5 Similar hazards exist when excavating near old excavations that have not been backfilled,
particularly if the old excavation is waterlogged or its fill has not consolidated.

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6.1.3.6 Risk assessment should be used to identify any particular risks arising from working near
disturbed or previously excavated ground and appropriate controls should be implemented. When
working near disturbed ground, the risk assessment should consider the capacity of shoring to resist
any additional pressures. It may be necessary to seek advice from a geotechnical engineer to
ascertain types and magnitude of any additional pressures.

6.2 Prevention of inadvertent entry into excavation

6.2.1 Many accidents on excavation sites have involved people, including children, sustaining
serious injuries as a result of inadequate control measures being put in place to prevent inadvertent
entry to the site.

6.2.2 The contractor is obliged to ensure the safety of not just his workers but all others affected by
the work he is doing, including contractors, visitors and delivery drivers.

6.2.3 Risk assessment should be conducted in order to determine which controls should be
implemented to ensure the security of excavation both during work and when left unattended.

6.2.4 The control measures implemented should be appropriate and effective for the hazards and
risks of the situation. Consideration should be given to factors such as how long the excavation will
be open, the size of the excavation, its proximity to public place, and who may gain access to the
excavation (all persons including pedestrians, children).

6.2.5 The following control measures should be considered:

(a) Isolating the hazardous area, such as by the use of perimeter fencing, barricades, screens,
barriers, handrails and/or covers, which are capable of preventing access or preventing a
person from falling;

(b) Removal of ladder from the excavation when work is not being carried out in it;

(c) Immobilisation of machinery or equipment to prevent unauthorised use;

(d) Compliance with relevant authority requirements (e.g. Ministry of Manpower, Building and
Construction Authority, Singapore Police Force, Fire Safety and Shelter Department of the
Singapore Civil Defence Force);

(e) Hazard warning lights, signs, markers or flags;

(f) Sentries (may be necessary to provide protection for the public and employees);

(g) Site security measures, including fencing or use of security guards; and

(h) Lighting.

6.2.6 Signs should be erected around the site showing the name and contact telephone number
(including emergency number after office hours) of the contractor.

6.2.7 Provision of proper access for public

Every effort should be made to separate pedestrians from work site activities and adjacent vehicular
traffic by providing:

(a) information/directional signs;

(b) a well-lit covered and sturdy walkway to protect pedestrians from falling debris;

(c) a smooth and clearly delineated travel path similar to a normal footpath to encourage its
usage by pedestrians; and
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(d) continuous fencing or barricades to keep pedestrians from potential danger or interference
with the work activity and vehicular movements.

6.3 Fall prevention

6.3.1 A safe system of work and appropriate control measures shall be provided wherever persons
are exposed to a risk of falling during excavation work. Every excavation exceeding 2 m deep shall
be effectively fenced or provided with other equally effective means to prevent persons from falling
into the excavation. Every platform, open sides of stairways and stairway landings, where a person
can fall a distance of more than 2 m, shall be provided with guardrails.

6.3.2 The following measures to prevent falls should be considered:

(a) Pedestrian detours, which should be clearly defined and protected;

(b) Use of intermediate platforms for deep excavation;

(c) Provision of a safe means of movement between different levels of the excavation;

(d) Provision of an adequate fall arrest system; and

(e) Backfilling as work progresses (see 6.3.5).

6.3.3 In addition to the safety measures listed above, the following measures should be taken to
protect persons from falling into excavated areas:

(a) Proper means of access to and egress from the excavations shall be provided;

(b) All passageways, platforms and other places of work should be kept free from accumulations
of debris and from obstructions that could cause tripping;

(c) If ladders are used, they shall be properly secured to prevent slipping. The ladder shall be
secured at both the top and bottom against displacement. Ladders shall also have non-slip
surfaces and set up to an angle of 1:4 whenever practicable. The stiles of the ladder shall
extend at least 1 m above the landing place;

(d) Suitable walkways or gangways with guardrails and handholds should be provided to enable
the crossing of persons over excavations. Signages indicating Safe Working Load should be
placed conspicuously;

(e) Sufficient lighting and warning lights shall be provided;

(f) Pedestrian access shall be clearly defined and protected; and

(g) Intermediate landings of not more than 9 m intervals shall be used for access into deep
excavations.

6.3.4 Control measures should be properly installed and maintained until the work is completed or
until there is no longer any risk of persons falling into the excavation.

6.3.5 Backfilling procedures

6.3.5.1 Backfilling as work progresses reduces the exposure to risks of collapse of excavation.
Progressive backfilling has the following advantages:

(a) Reduce the implementation and maintenance of other safeguards over a larger distance/area;

(b) Eliminate the hazard of falling into excavations;

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(c) Assist control of the job by restricting the work area;

(d) Provide alternative means of access/egress into the excavation rather than by ladders; and

(e) Provide an alternative to the use of fences and handrails.

6.3.5.2 Progressive backfilling should be conducted in pipe laying work. Risk assessment should be
used to determine the length of pipe left exposed both during work and when work is discontinued for
any period of time. Where compaction work is to be undertaken using a motorised compactor, the
hazards associated with its use should be considered.

6.4 Prevention of drowning

6.4.1 Where an excavation is likely to collect or retain water such that it becomes a hazard to
persons in the vicinity, the excavation should be covered or fenced off. Control measures should be
provided where there is a risk of a person drowning as a result of a fall into water. The following
measures should be considered:

(a) Provision of positive means of fall protection such as fencing, handrails and safety harness;

(b) Increasing the number of egress points from the excavation;

(c) Provision of exploratory or warning holes where water flows at a reduced rate to warn of
danger;

(d) Provision of membranes to prevent the rising or inrush of water;

(e) Provision of flotation vests;

(f) Provision of rescue means such as lifebuoys or rescue boats; and

(g) Provision of an observer.

6.4.2 Consideration should also be given to ensuring the availability of qualified personnel to
administer first aid and cardio-pulmonary resuscitation.

6.4.3 If water is controlled or prevented from accumulating by the use of water removal equipment,
the water removal equipment should be monitored by a competent person.

6.4.4 If excavation work interrupts the natural drainage of surface water, diversions should be used
to prevent surface water from entering the excavation and to provide adequate drainage of the area
adjacent to the excavation.

6.4.5 An effective emergency rescue plan shall be available to handle a situation whereby persons
may be trapped within water-filled excavations.

6.4.6 For excavation with accumulation of stagnant water with depth 1 m or more or flowing water
with depth 0.2 m or more, suitable measures should be taken. Suitable lifebuoys with rescue lines
shall be provided and maintained at appropriate and defined intervals along the excavation. Every
lifebuoy shall be fitted with a rescue line with appropriate length, knotted at suitable intervals to assist
handhold. Alternatively, grab lines shall also be installed along the excavation. The area shall be
barricaded for safety reasons.

6.5 Underground services

6.5.1 Before starting the work, the location of any underground services (e.g. gas, water, sewer,
electricity, telecommunication cables, etc) should be identified and necessary permits shall be
obtained from the relevant authorities. Wherever service plans are available, they should be obtained
by the principal contractor and also provided to the contractor and operator carrying out the

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excavation work. The contractor carrying out the work should allow for inaccuracies and the
possibility of other unknown or hidden services. This may be assisted by hand digging or allocating a
spotter to search for services when strata changes occur. The following are ways of checking for
underground services:

(a) Contacting relevant authorities and organisations that can assist in locating underground
services;

(b) Using cable detector and pipe detector;

(c) Using gas detectors; and

(d) Hand digging, using hand tools with non-conductive handles.

6.5.2 Appropriate control measures should be implemented after consultation with relevant service
providers. These measures may include the protection, support or removal of services to ensure
safety of workers. See 6.5.17 for further information on underground electrical hazards.

6.5.3 Utility owners shall be contacted, advised on the proposed work, and asked to establish the
location of the underground utility installations prior to the start of actual excavation. The contractor
shall clearly mark out the position of the services according to the available plans and shall conduct
on-site checks prior to commencement of work.

6.5.4 When utility owners cannot provide the necessary information within a reasonable time frame,
or cannot establish the location of such installations, the contractor may proceed with caution with the
use of cable detection equipment or other acceptable means to locate the utility installations.

6.5.5 Every person whose work will be affected by any utility installations shall be advised on the
location of every underground service.

6.5.6 The exact location of the installations shall be determined by safe and acceptable means
when the excavation approaches the estimated location of underground utility. Services shall be
exposed at sufficient intervals to positively identify their location.

6.5.7 Appropriate control measures shall be implemented after consultation with relevant service
providers. Underground installations shall be protected, supported or removed as necessary to
safeguard employees while the excavation is still open.

6.5.8 Hand digging tools used shall be of non-conductive handles. Appropriate personal protective
equipment such as wearing of rubber boots and insulating gloves shall be used.

6.5.9 Metal or wire reinforced ladders shall not be used if there is a risk of contact with electrical
powerlines or of electric shock. Non-conducting ladders should be used or a clearance of at least 4 m
from conductors shall be maintained.

6.5.10 Standby personnel shall be appointed in accordance with the requirements of the relevant
authorities. He shall look out for any signs of danger arising from utilities earthworks excavation and
sound the appropriate and immediate alarm for evacuation in case of emergency. He shall also
receive sufficient training to ensure that he is competent to perform his duty.

6.5.11 Obtain plans from relevant authorities

6.5.11.1 Principal contractors involved in earthworks shall obtain from the utility companies the
service layout plans containing the necessary cable route map and plant information at the vicinity of
intended excavation. The underground services to be identified shall include but are not limited to
electrical cables, telecommunication cables, street lighting, traffic detection/lighting lines, water, gas,
sewerage pipes and appurtenances.

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6.5.11.2 Information should be recorded on site plans so that it can be communicated readily and
clearly to those parties who carry out the works.

6.5.11.3 However, the information in the plans and drawings cannot be assumed to be exhaustive
and completely accurate. This is because it is not possible to draw/plot the cables accurately to scale.
Moreover, the reference points, for instance, road boundaries, landmarks, buildings are often altered
due to roadworks. The depth of the underground services can also be made shallower or deeper
through the process of road levelling or refilling. Additionally, some site constraints such as the
presence of culverts or the existence of other services may affect the actual laying of services which
may not follow strictly the information in the plans and drawings. Therefore, it is important that such
plans and drawings shall be used in conjunction with detectors or locators and other suitable
measures. However, they can give an indication of the position, layout and number of underground
services and will help in their subsequent accurate location.

6.5.12 Notification of intended earthworks

Persons/contractors who intend to carry out earthworks in the vicinity of services are required to notify
the service department in writing prior to commencement of the earthworks in accordance with the
requirements of the relevant authorities.

6.5.13 Use of detectors

6.5.13.1 Telecommunication/electrical cable detection work can only be carried out or performed by a
licensed telecommunication/electrical cable detection worker who have undergone the necessary
training and is registered with the relevant authorities. Pipe locators shall be used to trace the
location of service pipes.

6.5.13.2 The position of any services in or near the proposed work area shall be pinpointed as
accurately as possible by means of a detector, in conjunction with information already obtained
above.

6.5.13.3 Locators or detectors shall be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturers'
instructions and shall be regularly calibrated, checked and properly maintained. Sufficient training
shall be provided for the person who is appointed as the detection worker.

6.5.13.4 It is necessary to make frequent and repeated use of detectors during the course of work
because their accuracy depends on a number of factors, such as the characteristics of the detectors,
the type and depth of the service, the magnitude of the current carried by a cable, effects of other
cables and metal pipes nearby. The line of identified services should be noted and marked out on the
site plans by the appointed cable detection worker.

6.5.13.5 Cable detection alone does not guarantee that cable damage can be avoided. Cable
detection shall be done in combination with other measures, such as excavator operator's extreme
care during earthwork and the supervisor's effective site supervision, if damage is to be prevented.

6.5.14 Trial holes

6.5.14.1 Trial holes shall be carried out by manual digging when working in or near the vicinity of
utility lines to determine the depth and alignment of the services.

6.5.14.2 It is important that as a prelude to any full-scale excavation, pipe-jacking, tunnelling, piling
or boring, a sufficient number of trial holes shall be dug, not only to confirm the position of
underground services but also to ensure that the intended cable route is free of services. The pipes
located are checked against the services drawings obtained to ensure that every pipe in the drawings
has been accounted for.

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6.5.14.3 If the trial holes revealed positively that no cables/services are located thereat, contractors
are assured that the position is safe to carry out the intended work. However, if cables/services are
exposed or revealed by the trial holes, the contractor will have to seek a new position to carry out the
intended work.

6.5.15 Hand digging when approaching depths/positions where utility lines are buried

6.5.15.1 Excavation equipment (backhoes, excavators etc) shall be restricted to outside a 2 m limit
from underground utility services. Hand digging shall be implemented within 2 m lateral distance of
these services. Digging should then be carried out alongside the service rather than directly above it
and final exposure of the service shall be by horizontal digging.

6.5.15.2 Where practicable, hand-held power tools shall not be used within 2 m of the indicated line of
an electrical cable buried in or below a paved surface. When power tools are used to break the
surface away from the indicated line, the position of the electrical cable shall be positively located by
hand digging.

6.5.15.3 If it is not possible to locate the cables or pipes by detector/locator, hand digging shall be
used for their precise location before any mechanical/mechanised excavation is allowed. Mechanical
excavators shall not be used within 2 m of a gas pipe.

6.5.15.4 Once underground services have been uncovered, it is essential to identify them correctly. All
services shall be assumed to be "LIVE" unless written confirmation of disconnection is received from
the utility.

6.5.15.5 All exposed cables and pipes shall be given suitable protection against damage. Electrical
cables more than 1 m long shall be supported by slings or props.

6.5.16 Do's and don’ts for earthworks

6.5.16.1 Do's

(a) Do contact service departments to obtain service plans, arrange site meetings to discuss
possible diversion or provide support to the services' plants affected by the development;

(b) Do carry out trial holes by manual digging, ascertain location of plants;

(c) Do engage licensed cable detector worker and notify service departments before
commencement of earthworks;

(d) Do seek service departments' assistance, provide visible and distinctive markings such as
poles, tapes etc to indicate position of plants within the worksite;

(e) Do submit method of support and protection to exposed cables/plants for approval;

(f) Do sever roots before grubbing tree stump;

(g) Do inform service departments on dismantling of supports and backfilling procedure;

(h) Do disseminate information regarding services layout to main contractor, subcontractors and
machine operators because poor communications has been found to be one of the main
causes of damage;

(i) Do note that the depth of cables/plants varies due to site conditions; and

(j) Do report any damage immediately to service departments.

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6.5.16.2 Don'ts

(a) Don't dig trial holes with mechanical excavator;

(b) Don't carry out any excavation or earthworks in the vicinity of cables/plants without confirming
their positions;

(c) Don't grub up tree stumps without severing their roots;

(d) Don't assume that cables/plants will always run in straight lines;

(e) Don't cover up damages but report them immediately;

(f) Don't assume that cables cannot be deeper than 1.5 m;

(g) Don't remove any encasement around any cable/plant after exposing it unless prior approval
has been given by service departments; and

(h) Don't try to repair damaged gas mains on your own. Report damage immediately to relevant
authorities and cordon off area.

6.5.17 Protection from electrocution from underground electrical/telecommunication

cables when excavating near power lines

6.5.17.1 Live electrical equipment

6.5.17.1.1 Electrical, telecommunication equipment and lines shall always be presumed to be "LIVE"
unless they are positively known to be "ISOLATED" and "DE-ENERGISED". The risks of a "LIVE"
cable that is disturbed are of a few kinds, depending on the voltage level. Hazards can be scalding
(for high-voltage cables filled with oil under pressure), flashover and explosion, as well as electric
shock.

6.5.17.1.2 Before commencement of any work, preliminary tests and inspection shall be conducted
to determine whether the power lines are "LIVE" or otherwise.

6.5.17.1.3 Power lines in the work area that is normally at ground potential and is suspected to be
re-energised due to accidental connections, storm damage etc shall be handled with similar caution
as when handling known energised lines.

6.5.17.2 Competent person

6.5.17.2.1 Energised electrical/telecommunication lines shall be de-energised, isolated and

grounded by a competent person.

6.5.17.2.2 Only trained workers or workers in training under the supervision of a competent person
shall be assigned to work in proximity to energised power lines, conductors or apparatus.

6.5.17.3 Electrocution hazards

6.5.17.3.1 In cases where the underground utility services, electrical and telecommunication lines
are in close proximity to one another or in contact with each other, the worker shall immediately report
the matter to the supervisor who will contact the relevant utility companies for assistance to correct
the situation.

6.5.17.3.2 Workers working in proximity to electrical power lines or equipment energised above 750
volts phase shall maintain a minimum clearance of 1 m and shall work in a manner to prevent
electrical contact with body, equipment or tools.

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6.5.17.3.3 Unless required to operate the equipment/machines, workers shall not contact or stand
near excavating equipment while digging operations are in progress in close proximity to energised
underground plant.

6.5.17.3.4 When working on power wires, contact with grounded components such as guys, strand,
cable sheath that are bonded to the system shall be avoided.

6.5.17.4 De-energising of cables

6.5.17.4.1 Cables are de-energised when their equipment are both electrically isolated and
grounded (effectively earthed).

6.5.17.4.2 Respective utility companies shall be informed whenever de-energising is necessary.

Exposed cables can be treated by the respective utility company in the following ways:

(a) where the cables obstruct the construction work, they are to be diverted i.e. shifted to a new
route away from the construction site;

(b) where the cables are only temporarily in the way of the construction work and their presence
can be tolerated, they are to be properly supported and protected; and/or

(c) where it is necessary to work very close to the disturbed cables such as cable shifting,
supporting or protecting works, the utility company shall be asked to make the cable "dead",
or an alternative safe method of excavation shall be agreed with the utility before work starts.
Where cables are de-energised, work shall proceed under a look-out procedure with the
establishment of a permit-to-work system to ensure that the circuit is not unintentionally or
accidentally re-energised until work is completed and everyone is out of the way of
potential danger.

6.5.17.4.3 Positive identification of cables shall be established before any cable is cut or opened or
grounded.

6.5.17.4.4 Caution shall be used when opening, or breaking continuity of, any cable sheath, guy wire
or strand etc as high currents can flow.

6.5.17.4.5 Workers shall not depend on the insulation coverings of power lines for protection. Avoid
contact with bare hands.

6.5.17.4.6 Where sheath currents are suspected, rubber gloves shall be worn.

6.5.17.4.7 Only nonconductive ropes, lines or measuring tapes shall be used in proximity to
energised electrical apparatus.

6.5.17.5 Wearing of rubber gloves and boots

6.5.17.5.1 When workers are required to stand on the ground to operate excavation or cable-laying
plant within 1.5 m of energised underground plant, rubber gloves and boots shall be worn.

6.5.17.5.2 The rubber gloves shall have a minimum rating and shall be maintained in accordance
with standards acceptable by the relevant authorities.

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6.6 Excavations adjacent to buildings or structures

6.6.1 Excavation work which is likely to reduce the security or stability of any part of any building or
structure shall not be commenced or continued unless adequate steps are taken before and during
the progress of the work to prevent danger to any person from collapse of the building or structure or
a part of a building or structure. In assessing the risk, measures such as the following should be
considered before starting excavation work:

(a) Surveying of the foundations and seeking advice from appropriately qualified engineers;

(b) Undertaking a geotechnical investigation and analysis;

(c) Engaging a competent person to supervise the progress of the excavation work;

(d) Erection of temporary support structures;

(e) Underpinning of structures;

(f) Construction of effective retaining walls;

(g) Minimising ground disturbance and vibration by taking into account the location of machinery,
the sequence of work, the impact, severity and scale of excavation;

(h) Backfilling as work progresses; and

(i) Evacuation of affected areas.

6.6.2 The stability of pedestrian or vehicular access which may be affected by the work should be
ensured by suitable means.

6.7 Protection against rising or inrush of water or materials

6.7.1 Where there is a risk from rising water or materials, suitable means to enable every person to
reach a position of safety should be provided.

6.7.2 These may include the following:

(a) Implement isolating procedures such as physical or mechanical barriers, provision of suitable
valves, etc to isolate the supply;

(b) Provision of membranes to prevent the rising or inrush of water;

(c) Provision of exploratory or warning holes where water flows at a reduced rate to warn of
danger;

(d) Provision of sumps;

(e) Lowering the water table (e.g. use of spear pumps);

(f) Freezing the ground;

(g) Increasing exit points e.g. increasing the number of exit ladders;

(h) Provision of suitable life-saving equipment e.g. lifelines and buoyancy vests; and

(i) Provision of pumps.

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6.7.3 Considerations with regards to the use of dewatering techniques include but not limited to the
following:

(a) Ensure that excavated surfaces are not disturbed when pumping water;

(b) Control and monitor the water flow to prevent any removal of fine granular materials like sand
and gravel;

(c) Disposal of pumped water should not affect the stability of other parts of the site or adjoining
property by flooding;

(d) Any sumps for water collection should be constructed clear of the excavations and filled in on
completion of the works; and

(e) Permanent drains should not be used for the disposal of water direct from the excavations
unless otherwise directed.

6.7.4 Other techniques

Ground treatment techniques or construction methods are also available to control movement of the
water table, e.g. grouting, contiguous sheet piling, diaphragm walling. Before any decision is made to
use them, specialist advice from an expert is essential.

6.8 Materials and loads above and near excavations

6.8.1 No material should be placed or stacked near the edge of any excavation work such that it
could endanger persons who work below.

6.8.2 To reduce the risk of excavation collapse, excavated or other loose materials shall be
effectively placed or stored at least 1 m away from the excavation. Excavated materials should be
placed outside the zone of influence of the excavation. Alternatively, the support system should be
designed to accommodate such additional loads, which may include ground water pressures and
saturated materials.

6.8.3 Mechanical plant, or vehicles or any heavy loads should not be allowed to approach within, or
encroach upon the zone of influence of an excavation unless the support system has been specifically
designed for such loads (see 6.11.3).

6.8.4 When excavating on a slope, the waste should be placed on the down slope side, unless
there is compelling reason to place on the up slope side, in such a case, a risk assessment shall be
conducted.

6.8.5 Access and egress points should be effectively controlled by restricting persons from the
excavated areas. Such access and egress points shall be relocated if they are within the dangerous
zone.

6.8.6 When excavating for pipe laying, a system of dig and lay shall be adopted to reduce the risk
of overloading from pipes stored near the excavation.

6.9 Protection from falling objects

6.9.1 Persons should be adequately protected from loose earth or rock that could slide from
excavation face and pose as a falling object hazard from the excavation face.

6.9.2 Employers should provide overhead protection, wherever practicable, where there is a
likelihood of persons being injured by falling objects. Tools, materials and equipment can fall from
ladders, scaffolds, cranes and work platforms.

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6.9.3 Risk assessment should be used to determine appropriate control measures to protect
persons from accidental falls of objects including tools, plant and other construction materials. As far
as practicable, loads should not be suspended over, or travel over, a person. The following control
measures should be considered:

(a) Fences;

(b) Hand rails and toe boards;

(c) Overhead protection;

(d) Enclosed walkways;

(e) Safety helmets and other adequate means of protection;

(f) Provision of safe means of lowering and raising plant, materials, spoils etc;

(g) Use of lanyards to secure loose tools; and

(h) Loads should be lifted/suspended within the safe working limits of the machinery used.

6.9.4 The risk of injury from falling or displaced objects increases during high winds. Practical
guidance on the design, supply, installation and use of overhead protective structures is found in the
WorkCover NSW publication Code of Practice: Overhead protective structures.

6.9.5 Excavation below footing or foundation should not be permitted except when:

(a) the excavation is in stable ground;

(b) a support system is provided to ensure the stability of the structure;

(c) a professional engineer has approved the excavation to be non-hazardous to the persons;
and/or

(d) a professional engineer has approved the structure to be sufficiently removed from the
excavation so as to be unaffected by the excavation activity.

6.10 Contact with ordnance

6.10.1 Efforts should be made to firstly try to obtain information on the site and the materials
involved. Sites where explosives may be present can fall into two groups:

(a) Remises of former explosives factories and Ammo Depot; and

(b) Areas affected by wartime activities or which suffered from military action.

6.10.2 Information from both groups should be sought in the locality. If the investigation suggests
the presence of former factories and Ammo Depot, detailed information may be available from either
the present explosives industry, or the licensing authority. Any excavation work at these sites should
proceed with caution. Discoloration of the soil or finds of unusual objects should be regarded as
indicating the presence of explosives. Work shall stop until the substances or articles can be
identified. The police and other relevant authorities shall be informed and their advice followed.

6.10.3 Sites subject to wartime activity and areas subject to military action are more likely to involve
items such as bombs, shells, and rockets, etc rather than substances. Any suspect articles of this
type found during excavation should not be further disturbed. The site shall be evacuated and the
police and other relevant authorities called in.

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6.11 Movement and position of heavy equipment/plant

6.11.1 Where the operator does not have a clear and direct view of the excavation, a warning
system should be utilised to guide him, such as barricades, hand or mechanical signals, or stop logs
and guidance by the signalman, if required.

6.11.2 Heavy equipment and plant should be prevented from approaching within or encroaching on
the zone of influence of an excavation unless the support system has been specifically designed for
such loads. The maximum expected ground loading should be ascertained prior to positioning the
plant near an excavation to ensure the stability of the excavation edges.

6.11.3 Where the risk assessment has identified a risk of collapse as a result of movement of heavy
equipment/plant above or near the excavation, support systems shall be in place before any person
enters the excavation (see Figures 2c and 2d).

6.12 Ground vibration

6.12.1 An assessment of the possible areas likely to be affected by ground vibration should be made
prior to allowing any movement near or across the excavation. Appropriate measures shall be taken
to protect the persons in the excavation susceptible to excessive vibration. No person shall remain in
the excavation when there is excessive vibration.

6.12.2 No material shall be placed near the edges of an excavation or stock pile to a height that will
cause the material to drop into the excavation as a result of ground vibration.

6.12.3 The contractor, in consultation with other parties, should conduct risk assessment with
specific consideration for the safety of those affected by the work.

6.12.4 Where work is to be carried out using moving plant, the tasks to be performed should be
carefully planned before carrying out any work.

6.12.5 Where work is to be carried out on public roads, vehicle movement plans shall comply with
the requirements of the relevant authority in charge of roads and transportation.

6.12.6 Vehicle movement plans should be used to identify the preferred travel paths for vehicles
associated with a worksite entering, leaving or crossing the traffic stream. A vehicle movement plan
may be a documented procedure, a diagram, combined with or superimposed on a traffic control plan,
or may be a verbal information and instruction specific to the task. This shall be done after the risk
assessment has been completed and shall be updated each time the conditions on the site change in
a way that will affect the safety and health of the employees and the general public.

6.12.7 The measures to be taken should include but not limited to the following:

(a) Employees who are exposed to moving plant and vehicular traffic shall be provided with and
shall wear warning vests or other suitable garments recognised by the industry as safety
clothing marked with or made of reflective or high-visibility material; and

(b) A designated, trained flag person along with signs, signals and barricades shall be used when
necessary.

6.13 Vehicular traffic

6.13.1 The measures to be taken should include but not limited to the following:

(a) The area where moving plant is being used shall be secured, e.g. fencing, barriers,
barricades, temporary warning or control signs or a combination;

(b) The direction of plant movement shall be planned so that the visibility of operators is not
restricted;

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(c) Use of audible alarms and/or other methods to indicate vehicle moving in reverse;

(d) The number of moving plant working at one time at the same location shall be minimised.
Where multiple plants are being operated, a competent person shall be used to direct the
plants:

(i) when operating in close proximity to one another;

(ii) when reversing;

(iii) when persons are working nearby; and

(iv) other situations indicated by risk assessment;

(e) Systems of control and notices shall be placed at all entrances and exits to the work area to
protect and warn all persons in the vicinity when construction plants enter or leave the work
area by public roads;

(f) To have a designated loading and unloading area; and

(g) All persons likely to be affected by the hazards shall be warned.

6.14 Inclement weather

6.14.1 Under such circumstances, all works at or near the excavation shall be stopped, and all
persons shall withdraw away from the excavation. The excavation shall not be re-entered until after it
has been inspected by a designated competent person. The excavation can only be re-entered after
the competent person has declared it safe for re-entry.

6.14.2 If the competent person finds evidence of a situation that could result in a possible cave-in,
indications of failure of protective systems, hazardous atmospheres or other hazardous conditions,
exposed employees shall be removed from the hazardous area until the necessary precautions have
been taken to ensure their safety.

6.15 Contaminated ground

6.15.1 Risk assessment should be conducted to determine the risk the contaminants pose, and the
method to eliminate this risk. All necessary precautions should be taken to prevent any person from
being exposed to the risk posed by the contaminants.

6.15.2 The measures to be taken should include but not limited to the following:

(a) Action taken in the design to alleviate the risks and describe those hazards which are not
reasonably practicable to remove by design but should be controlled by the contractor and
any other relevant parties;

(b) Site investigation to determine the hazardous nature of the premises as well as the ability of
the land to support the permanent works;

(c) Full information available on the nature and distribution of the contaminants on-site;

(d) Permissible exposure levels should be established;

(e) Soil samples at appropriate depths and spacing should be taken for testing by a qualified
person to identify any contaminant that may be present;

(f) Monitoring of airborne contaminants through air samples;

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(g) Submission of method statements by the contractor and assessment of adequacy before
commencement of work;

(h) Seeking professional advice from occupational hygienist, suitable experienced safety
practitioner, industrial chemist or an occupational physician;

(i) Provision of suitable personal protective equipment;

(j) Demarcation of the contaminated area with warning signs posted;

(k) Washing and changing facilities for persons entering or leaving the working area;

(l) Measures to control dust which can be blown off site, thus producing a possible risk to those
working on-site as well as the public;

(m) All site plant and machinery to be thoroughly washed down before leaving the site;

(n) Persons entering the contaminated site should be informed of the hazards and the
precautions needed;

(o) Enforcing good personal hygiene;

(p) Periodic medical examination and monitoring for exposed workers;

(q) Monitoring the influence of the worksite on the impact to the environment at the site boundary
and beyond; and

(r) Monitoring of contaminated dust build-up in the cabs of site plant and vehicles which will pose
a hazard to the operators.

6.15.3 The client shall ensure that sufficient information is provided on the nature, extent and level of
contamination. The client shall brief the design team to determine, as far as practicable, the nature of
contamination and the consequences, both for the development and for all those who will be affected
by that development in the short and long term. The firms involved can then assess the risks to which
they are likely to be exposed.

6.15.4 Where possible, entry into confined trenches and associated confined spaces should be
avoided. If entry is necessary, clear procedures including a permit-to-work system shall be enforced
for entry. Where determined to be confined spaces, the working areas shall be subjected to the
provisions of the relevant industry standards.

6.15.5 The measures to be taken shall include but not limited to the following:

(a) Where oxygen deficiency (atmospheres containing less than 19.5% oxygen), oxygen
enrichment (atmospheres containing more than 23.5% oxygen), or a hazardous atmosphere
exists or could reasonably be expected to occur, the atmosphere in the excavation shall be
tested before persons enter the excavation and thereafter at regular intervals;

(b) The atmosphere shall be tested for:

(i) oxygen deficiency;

(ii) flammable gases;

(iii) common toxic gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide; and

(iv) other gases indicated by site contaminants;

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(c) If hazardous atmospheres are suspected, all persons shall be evacuated from site and kept
away from the area until control measures are implemented;

(d) Where a hazardous work area is identified, the area shall be secured against unauthorised
entry and appropriately signed;

(e) Ventilation of the working areas to supply an adequate level of oxygen and extract the
hazardous gases or fumes; and

(f) Establish emergency rescue procedures and provision of stand-by rescue equipment such as
breathing apparatus, safety harness and lifeline or a basket stretcher.

6.15.6 Employees entering boreholes, caissons or other similar deep and confined footing
excavations shall wear a harness with a lifeline securely attached to it. The lifeline shall be separated
from any line used to handle materials, and shall be individually attended at all times while the
employee is in the excavation. A retrieval system equipped a mechanical winch or other equivalent
device shall be on-site.

Figure 2a – Shoring designed for surcharge loads

Figure 2b – Shoring designed for soil loads only

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Figure 2c – Limiting approach of equipment

Figure 2d – Spoil altering depth of trench

Figure 2 – Placement of spoil/surcharge away from zone of influence

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Annex A

Sample of permit-to-work application form

Company XYZ

Excavation Permit

Instructions: (a) This permit is applicable for excavation > 1.5 m depth
(b) Application to be submitted in advance and approved before
commencement of work
(c) Permit to be displayed prominently at work area
(d) Permit valid only for period stated

This section is for official use

Serial no. : Received by :
Designation : Date & time :

SECTION 1 : Details of Application

Project
: Contractor :
name
Location
(attach : Trade :
sketch)
Tools /
Reasons for
: Equipment :
excavation
used
Depth of
excavation : No. of workmen :

Special
:
request(s)

SECTION 2 : Validity Period

Completion
Start date : date :

Completion
Start time : :
time

SECTION 3 : Checklist of Workplace Safety and Health Precautions

General items / X / NA Remarks
1 Risk assessment conducted for the works?
Open sides of excavation > 2 m depth effectively
2
barricaded?
Edges of excavation are clear of other loads and falling
3
objects (1m away from the edges of excavation)?
4 Shoring provided for excavation > 1.5 m depth?
Shoring according to PE design for excavation > 4 m
5
depth?
6 Public safety has been taken into account?
7 Stability of adjoining structures has been ascertained?
8 Excavation is clear of buried services?
9 Safe means of access/egress provided?

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Tools/equipment to be used is in proper working

10
condition?
Designated person appointed to inspect excavation
11 and its vicinity for signs soil failure after hazard
increasing occurrence (inclement weather)?
Machinery operators are adequately trained and
12
competent?
13 Warning signs provided?
Incompatible works are not carried out at same
14
location?
15 Excavation is not carried out in contaminated ground?
Precautions taken to avoid excavation turning into
16
confined space?
17 Personal protective equipment provided?
Items for excavating near buried services / X / NA Remarks
18 Detection by Licensed Cable Detection Worker?
Trial holes dug manually to ascertain location of
19
services?
20 Notice for Commencement of Earthworks available?
21 Excavator operator has valid license from PUB?
22 Services clearly marked/pegged?
Set of existing services location kept by excavator
23
operator?
Additional essential precautions required Remarks

SECTION 4 : Applicant’s Details

I have checked the above-mentioned work area and satisfied that it is safe to proceed, in accordance to safe
work practices and current legislation. Workmen will be briefed on the hazards and safe work practices for
this operation before commencement.
Name : Signature :
Designation : Date & time :

SECTION 5 : Safety Assessor’s Details

I have verified the above-mentioned work area and satisfied that it is safe to proceed, in accordance to safe
work practices and current legislation.
Name : Signature :
Designation : Date & time :

SECTION 6 : Project Manager’s Approval

Permission is hereby granted to the bearer of this permit to carry out the necessary works.
Name : Signature :
Designation : Date & time :

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Annex B

Engineering classification of soils

B.1 Introduction
Trench, pit and other open excavations usually involve the removal of subsurface materials within a
designated area and for a selected depth for the construction of shallow foundations, drains, services,
pipelines, cables and other utilities. The subsurface materials may consist of soil and/or rock. Such
open excavations in soils usually require support for stability. Open excavations in rock, on the other
hand, are often self-supporting unless the excavation covers a large area and extends to a significant
depth. A good geotechnical practice for open excavations of this nature requires a sound
understanding of the local soil conditions. An engineering classification of local soils is therefore
necessary.

B.2 Soils in Singapore

B.2.1 The major geological formations in Singapore include the Gombak Norite, the Bukit Timah
Granite, the sedimentary Jurong Formation, the Old Alluvium, the Kallang Formation (Public Works
Department 1976), and others such as the Bouldery Clay1) that co-exists with the Jurong formation,
and sand fills at recent reclamation sites in Singapore.

B.2.2 Residual soils derived from weathering of the Bukit Timah Granite and the Jurong Formation
cover nearly two-thirds of the land surface in Singapore and they are mainly distributed in the central-
north and western parts of the main island, respectively. Although the fines content in these residual
soils varies widely, depending on the causes and degree of weathering, they are classified as either
silty sand, clayey silt or sandy to silty clay and are generally cohesive in nature. The residual soils of
Singapore are typically of low to medium plasticity and range from stiff to hard in consistency.

B.2.3 The Old Alluvium that consists mainly of lightly cemented clayey sand sediments or silty sand
to silty clay (Tan et al. 1980) covers the eastern and northwestern parts of Singapore and occupies
around a quarter of the main island. A distinction between soils for which cohesion is provided
primarily by the presence of clay minerals and soils for which cementation appears to have developed
between the relatively clean sand particles can be found. These soils are generally over-consolidated
with low plasticity.

B.2.4 The types of soil found in the Kallang Formation, including marine clay, fluvial sand and peaty
soils (Tan and Lee 1977) are generally considered as “weak” soils. The marine clay that dominates
the Kallang Formation is generally of high plasticity and of soft to medium stiff consistency. The fluvial
sand is generally relatively clean and loose. The peaty soils often consist of organic plastic silty or
sandy clays of high water content and low shear strength.

B.2.5 All the soils found in Singapore, including sand found at reclaimed sites, should be classified
based on the universally accepted Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), which is usually
available in standard soil mechanics textbook, for engineering purposes.

1)
The Bouldery Clay that belongs to the Fort Canning Boulder Bed is a clayey stratum consisting of a mixture of
clay, silt and sand and with 5 to 35% embedded boulders, mainly found in the central business district. The
boulder content may have an effect on the selection of excavation and shoring methods. The clay is generally
very stiff to hard and is considered as heavily over-consolidated.

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B.3 Soil types

The following coarse classification, based mainly on the self-supporting capability of common soils in
Singapore, will be useful for conventional open excavation works involving construction of trenches.

B.3.1 Type A soils

B.3.1.1 Type A soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 150 kPa or
greater. They include stiff to very stiff clay, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam and, in some cases, silty
clay loam and sandy clay loam.

B.3.1.2 However, the following soils are excluded:

(a) Fissured soil;

(b) Soil that is subject to vibration from heavy traffic, pile driving, or similar effects;

(c) Previously disturbed soil;

(d) Soil that forms part of a sloped or a layered stratification where the layers dip into the
excavation on a slope of four horizontal to one vertical (4H:lV) or steeper; and

(e) Soil influenced by and subject to factors such as parallel excavations, nearby abandoned
stream channels, erratic soil deposits, etc.

B.3.2 Type B soils

B.3.2.1 Type B soils are:

(a) medium stiff to stiff cohesive, uniform and non-structured soils with an unconfined
compressive strength greater than or equal to 50 kPa but less than 150 kPa;

(b) stiff to very stiff cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength of 150 kPa or
greater, and fissured or subject to vibration;

(c) granular cohesionless soil such as angular gravel (similar to crushed rock), and medium stiff
to stiff silt, silty loam, sandy loam, and in some cases silty clay loam and sandy clay loam,
that are above the water table.

B.3.2.2 However, no soil is classified as type B if the soil is part of a sloping layered system where the
layers dip into the excavation on a slope of four horizontal to one vertical (4H: 1 V) or steeper.

B.3.3 Type C soils

Type C soils are:

(a) soft cohesive, uniform and non-structured soils with an unconfined compressive strength
greater than or equal to 25 kPa but less than 50 kPa;

(b) materials in a sloping, layered soil where the layers dip into the excavation or a slope of four
horizontal to one vertical (4H:1V) or steeper;

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(c) all cohesionless granular soils, such as gravel sand, silty sand and loamy sand that are
present below water table. This type of soil is particularly problematic when they are
submerged in water. Problems could arise when carrying out trenching and other excavation
works if the groundwater flow is not carefully controlled. Common problems such as slope
failure, loss of ground and erratic settlement, due to seepage and development of quick
condition in front of sheeting at the bottom of excavation, can be avoided through effective
control of groundwater by either proper diversion, appropriate filter construction or total
exclusion measures.

B.3.4 Type D soils

Type D soils are very soft cohesive, uniform and non-structured soils with an unconfined compressive
strength less than 25 kPa.

B.4 Ground exploration and tests

B.4.1 General

Before an excavation method and a support system are designed, it is essential to carry out site
exploration to ascertain the character and variability of the strata in the site. In particular, it is
necessary to assess those properties that may directly affect the performance and the choice of
construction method.

B.4.2 Collection of available information

As a preliminary, it is prudent to collect geological information related to the site. Such information
could be obtained from past records, geological maps, soil maps, site investigations, local knowledge,
aerial photographs and local authority archives. A visual examination of the site may also provide
indication of the ground water level, the drainage and previous flooding conditions.

B.4.3 Type of exploration

B.4.3.1 For shallow depths, where conditions are suitable, trial pits have the advantage in that the
sides of the pit can be inspected at all levels for on-site assessment of important properties such as
stratification and soil strength. Where `made' ground is encountered, trial pits enable it to be
identified. For deeper explorations where the ground is unsuitable for trial pits, boreholes, drill holes
or sounding methods are required.

B.4.3.2 Samples should be procured from each stratum for the purpose of identification and strength
determination. Other methods of investigation, such as in situ testing, probing or sounding may also
provide useful supplementary information. Guidelines on design and construction of foundations for
the normal range of buildings and engineering structures can be found in SS CP 4 : 2003.

B.4.4 Planning of exploration

B.4.4.1 The disposition and spacing of the trial pits, borings or drillings should be such as to reveal
any major changes in thickness, depth and properties of the strata including ground water movement.
The number of trial pits, boring or drillings required will vary with the size and depth of excavation, the
general nature of the site and the adequacy of local geological and geotechnical information. Where
necessary, supplementary tests and measures may be designed to provide additional information.

B.4.4.2 Exploratory boreholes, drill holes and trial pits should be positioned and reinstated as far as
possible in such a way as to minimise interference with construction work; their positions and depths
should all be fully recorded and taken account of in the planning of construction work.

B.4.4.3 Exploration should be carried to a depth that includes all strata likely to be significantly
affected by stresses of the construction operations.

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B.4.5 Groundwater

The location of water table is important when excavating in a free-draining (cohesionless granular)
soils belonging to Type D. The water table can be easily observed in boreholes or trial pits. For less
permeable soils, the water levels as observed in boreholes or observation wells will be useful only if
sufficient time is allowed for the water inside the borehole to reach a level that is in equilibrium with
the surrounding groundwater. Seasonal variation in the level of the water table may be important.
Where deep excavation is required, levels of water-bearing strata should be determined with
particular care so that necessary precautions may be taken during excavation. Seeping water into the
trenches should be considered as a serious instability condition.

B.4.6 Unconfined compressive strength test

The load per unit area at which a cohesive soil will fail in uniaxial compression is defined as the
unconfined compressive strength. It can be determined by laboratory testing, or estimated in the field
using a pocket penetrometer or a hand-operated shear vane, and other suitable methods. Laboratory
tests should be carried out on “undisturbed” soil samples retrieved from boreholes or freshly cut faces.
The samples should be handled with great care so as not to destroy its natural structure or moisture
content. Pocket penetrometer tests or hand-held torvane tests can be carried out either on
“undisturbed” samples or in-situ on undisturbed soils inside a test pit.

B.5 Acceptable visual and manual tests

B.5.1 Acceptable visual analysis

B.5.1.1 Visual examination of soil particle size may be conducted by an experienced engineer to
determine qualitative information regarding the excavation site in general, and the characteristics of
soil adjacent to the excavation, on the sides of the open excavation, and taken as samples from
excavated materials.

B.5.1.2 Soil particle size

Examine samples of soil that are excavated from the sides of the slopes and bottom of the
excavation. Estimate the range and the relative amounts of the particle sizes. Soil that is primarily
composed of fine-grained materials, for which the particles cannot be seen by naked eye, may be
cohesive. Soil composed primarily of coarse-grained particles, seen with the naked eye, such as
sand and gravel is granular in nature.

B.5.1.3 Soil clumps

Examine soil as it is excavated. Soil that remains in clumps when excavated is cohesive. Soil that
breaks up easily and does not stay in clumps is granular and non-cohesive.

B.5.1.4 Excavation sides and adjacent area

Examine the sides of the excavation and the surface area adjacent to the excavation. Openings such
as cracks could indicate fissured materials. If chunks of soil spall off a vertical side, the soil could be
fissured. Small spalls are evidence of moving ground and indicate potentially hazardous situations.

B.5.1.5 Utilities, structures and previously disturbed soil

Examine the area adjacent to the excavation and the excavation itself for evidence of existing utilities
and other underground structures, and to identify previously disturbed soil.

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B.5.1.6 Layers and sloping of layers

Examine the opened sides of the excavation to identify any layered soil. Examine layered soils to
determine if they slope toward the excavation. Estimate the angle of slope of the layers. The steeper
the angle of slope, the greater is the danger of instability.

B.5.1.7 Water or seeping water

Examine the bottom and the sides of the excavation for water. Examine the water level adjacent to
the excavation and the sides of the opened excavation for evidence of surface water, water seeping
from the sides of the excavation, and the level of the water table.

B.5.1.8 Sources of vibration

Examine the area around the excavation and the area within the excavation for sources of vibration
that may affect the stability of the excavation face.

B.5.2 Acceptable manual tests

B.5.2.1 Manual tests on soil samples are conducted to determine semi-quantitative as well as
qualitative properties of soils, and to provide more information for classification of soils. These are
useful tests to be done cautiously by a competent person.

B.5.2.2 Plasticity

Mold a moist or wet sample of soil into a ball and attempt to roll it into threads 3 mm in diameter.
Cohesive materials can be successfully rolled into threads without crumbling. For example, if at least
a 50 mm length of 3 mm diameter thread can be held on one end without breaking it, the soil is
cohesive.

B.5.2.3 Dry strength

lf the soil is dry and crumbles on its own or with moderate pressure into individual grains or fine
powder, it is granular (any combination of gravel, sand, or silt). If the soil can be formed into a small
ball of around 10 mm in diameter and the ball falls into clumps that break up into smaller clumps,
which can only be broken up with difficulty after drying, it may be clay in any combination with gravel,
sand or silt. If the small ball breaks into clumps that do not break up into smaller clumps, which can
only be broken with difficulty, and there is no visual indication that the soil is fissured after drying, the
soil may be considered unfissured and cohesive.

B.5.2.4 Thumb penetration

The thumb penetration test can be used to estimate the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive
soils. This test must be performed preferably on a saturated or nearly saturated, “undisturbed” soil
sample. Type A soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 150 kPa or greater can be indented
with the thumb; however, they can be penetrated with the thumb only with great effort. Type C soils
with an unconfined compressive strength of equal to or between 25 and 50 kPa can be easily
penetrated several centimetres with the thumb, and can be molded with light finger pressure. Thumb
penetration of a type B soil is between those of type A and type C, but the depth of the penetration is
less than 25 mm. This test should be conducted directly on a freshly excavated face or on an
“undisturbed” soil sample, such as a large intact clump of spoil, as soon as practical after excavation
to minimise the effects of exposure to drying. If the excavation is later exposed to moisture through
rain, flooding or seepage, the classification of the soil must be changed accordingly. Type D soils,
which are cohesive and with an unconfined compressive strength of less than 25 kPa, can be
penetrated without any noticeable resistance with the thumb.

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B.5.3 Drying test

B.5.3.1 The basic purpose of the drying test is to differentiate among fissured cohesive materials,
unfissured cohesive materials, and granular materials. The procedure involves drying a sample of soil
that is approximately 25 mm thick and 150 mm in diameter in air for about 10 minutes to 2 or 3 hours
depending on the type of soil. lf the sample develops cracks as it dries, significant fissures are
indicated.

B.5.3.2 Samples that dry without cracking are to be broken with the hand. If considerable force is
necessary to break a sample, the soil has significant cohesive material content. The soil can be
classified as an unfissured cohesive material and the unconfined compressive strength of the
undisturbed material should be determined.

B.5.3.3 lf a sample breaks easily with the hand, it is either a fissured cohesive material or a granular
material. To distinguish between the two, pulverise the dried clumps of the sample with the hand or
step on them. lf the clumps do not pulverise easily, the material is cohesive with no fissures. If they
pulverise easily into very small fragments, the material is granular.

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Annex C

Requirements for protective system

C.1 Application

C.1.1 Excavations of 1.5 m or less in depth

(a) A competent person shall examine if an excavation poses cave-in hazards with due regard to
the type of geology, duration of exposure, environment factors, etc., and determine if shoring
or other means of protective system is required.

(b) The competent person may recommend that the shoring or protective system to be designed
by a professional engineer if he deems it necessary.

(c) A protective system that is designed by a professional engineer shall be constructed and
maintained in accordance with the designs and drawings of the professional engineer.

C.1.2 Excavations between 1.5 m and 4 m in depth

(a) Every excavation including trenches shall be protected against collapse by shoring or other
means of protective system.

(b) Such shoring or other means of protective system shall be designed by a professional
engineer, unless:

(i) A professional engineer has examined and certified that it is safe without any shoring
or protective system; or

(ii) The excavation is solely for the purpose of constructing any pile cap, footing, sump,
lift pit or trench that does not exceed 10 m2 in area and 2 m in depth.

(c) A protective system that is designed by a professional engineer shall be constructed and
maintained in accordance with the designs and drawings of the professional engineer.

C.1.3 Excavations of more than 4 m in depth

(a) Every excavation including trenches shall be protected against collapse by shoring or other
means of protective system.

(b) Such shoring or other means of protective system shall be designed by a professional
engineer.

(c) A protective system that is designed by a professional engineer shall be constructed and
maintained in accordance with the designs and drawings of the professional engineer.

NOTE – Every excavation and its shoring or other means of protective systems shall be subject to all relevant
statutory requirements under every prevailing laws in relation to excavation including the Building Control Act and
the Workplace Safety & Health Act.

C.2 Effectiveness of protective system

Protective systems shall have the capacity to resist without failure all loads that are intended or could
reasonably be expected to be applied or transmitted to the system.

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C.3 Classification of soils

The design of protective system depends on the type of soils. Soils are classified into four types, as
shown in Annex B, namely Type A, Type B, Type C and Type D.

Before the selection of protective systems, the competent person shall examine the soils and
determine the soil type. If the soil type cannot be practically determined, it shall always be considered
as “Type D” soils.

The competent person shall base either on at least one visual and one manual test or one strength
test in order to determine the soil type. Examples of visual tests are observation of soil clumps,
observation of excavation sides and observation of seeping water. Examples of manual tests are
plasticity, dry strength and thumb penetration tests. An example of a strength test is penetration with
a pocket penetrometer or a hand-held torvane. Thumb penetration, pocket penetrometer and torvane
tests should be conducted on a saturated or nearly saturated, “undisturbed” soil sample.

C.4 Selection of protective systems by the competent person

The selection of protective system is important in ensuring that the excavation remains stable
throughout the period of its intended use. While there are many different ways to protect an
excavation, the method chosen must be based on sound engineering judgement.

In some instances, the soil is of such nature, and the depth of the excavation is shallow enough to
allow the excavation to stand without the face needing structural support by means of shoring.
However, in most instances, some form of protection would be required.

By and large, there are 2 possible options available in making such a decision:

(a) Option 1 – Conditions and properties of the excavation that do not require the protective
systems to be designed by a professional engineer.

(b) Option 2 – Conditions and properties of the excavation that do require the protective systems
to be designed by a professional engineer.

C.4.1 Design of sloping and benching systems

The slopes and configurations of sloping and benching systems shall be selected by the competent
person and shall be constructed in accordance with the requirements of one of the following 3 options:

C.4.1.1 Option 1 – Determination of slopes and configurations based on soil types

C.4.1.1.1 Maximum allowable slope angle (or angle of repose) is the steepest incline of an excavation
face that is acceptable for the most favorable site conditions as protection against cave-ins, and is
expressed as the ratio of horizontal distance to vertical rise (H:V). The actual slope (the slope to
which an excavation face is excavated) shall not be steeper than the maximum allowable slope.

C.4.1.1.2 Maximum allowable angle of repose and allowable configurations for sloping and benching
systems shall be determined in accordance with the soil type. This option is limited to a maximum
depth of 1.5 m. For excavations greater than 1.5 m in depth, the sloping and benching systems shall
be designed by a professional engineer (refer to C.4.1.3).

C.4.1.1.3 Configurations of sloping and benching systems for excavation depths up to 1.5 m shall be
in accordance with Figure C.1 unless otherwise selected by a professional engineer.

C.4.1.1.4 The competent person shall make use of his own discretion to determine the necessity and
also the degree to which the actual slope must be reduced below the maximum allowable angle of
repose in response to any hazard-increasing occurrence such as inclement weather.

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Type A, θ2

S/N Soil or rock Angle of repose, θ

type
1 Stable rock 900, vertical
Type B, θ3 2 Type A 450, slope of 1:1
3 Type B 340, slope of 1½:1
4 Type C 210, slope of 2½:1
5 Type D 140, slope of 4:1

Type C, θ4

Stable
Rock, θ1 Type D, θ5

Note: Diagram not drawn to scale

Figure C.1 – Maximum allowable angle of repose

C.4.1.1.5 Excavations made in layered soil

(a) Maximum slope for each layer of soil shall be the same as that for individual soil type for the
following arrangements, where the soil strength increases with depth:

(i) Type B soil on top of Type A soil;

(ii) Type C soil on top of Type A soil;

(iii) Type C soil on top of Type B soil; and

(iv) Type D on any other type of soil.

(b) Maximum slope for both layers of soil shall be the same and shall be equivalent to the
weaker layer of soil type for the following arrangements:

(i) Type A soil on top of Type B soil;

(ii) Type A soil on top of Type C soil;

(iii) Type B soil on top of Type C soil; and

(iv) Type A soil on top of Type B soil, which is in turn on Type C soil.

C.4.1.2 Option 2 – Designs using other tabulated data

C.4.1.2.1 Designs of sloping or benching system shall be selected from and be in accordance with
approved tabulated data which shall be in written form and shall include all of the following:

(a) Identification of the soil types and the parameters that affect the selection of a sloping or
benching system drawn from such data;

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(b) Identification of the limits of use of the data, to include the magnitude and configuration of
slopes determined to be safe; and

(c) Explanatory information as may be necessary to aid the user in making a correct selection of
a protective system from the data.

C.4.1.2.2 At least one copy of the tabulated data that identifies the professional engineer who
approved the data shall be maintained on site during construction of the protective system.

C.4.1.3 Option 3 – Design by a professional engineer

C.4.1.3.1 Sloping and benching systems for excavations more than 1.5 m in depth shall be
constructed in accordance to the design and drawings of a professional engineer.

C.4.1.3.2 At least one copy of the professional engineer’s design shall be maintained at the site of the
excavation while the slope is being constructed.

C.4.2 Design of support systems

C.4.2.1 For excavations less than 1.5 m in depth, the support system that is used shall meet the
following minimum requirements:

(a) The excavation shall be closely boarded with planks;

(b) Planks used for sheet piling shall be at least 50 mm thick;

(c) The maximum spacing between horizontal walings shall be such as to keep the planks
between their safe bending stresses. Struts shall be of adequate stiffness and shall be so
placed as to be effective for their intended purposes.

C.4.2.2 Support systems for excavations more than 1.5 m in depth shall be designed by a
professional engineer. It shall be constructed under the direction of the competent person and shall be
in accordance with the design requirements.

C.4.2.3 At least one copy of the professional engineer’s design shall be maintained at the excavation
during construction of the protective system.

C.4.3 Installation and removal of supports

C.4.3.1 Support systems shall be installed and removed in a manner that protects employees from
cave-ins, structural collapse, or from being struck by members of the support system.

C.4.3.2 Before temporary removal of individual members, additional precautions shall be taken to
ensure the safety of employees, who are installing other structural members to carry the loads
imposed on the support system.

C.4.3.3 Removal shall begin at, and progress from, the bottom of the excavation. Members shall be
released slowly so as to note any indication of possible failure of the remaining members of the
structure or possible cave-in of the sides of the excavation.

C.4.3.4 Backfilling shall progress together with the removal of support systems from excavations.

C.4.4 Proprietary shoring systems

C.4.4.1 There is a wide range of proprietary shoring systems available for excavation works. These
equipment offers engineering solutions to provide shoring for excavations. Some examples include
aluminium hydraulic shoring, slide rail systems and trench boxes.

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C.4.4.2 When such systems are deployed, the instructions from the manufacturer shall be complied
with. For instance, the method of installation has to be carried out safely according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.

C.4.4.3 Contractors and workers shall be adequately trained on the safe method of installation and
usage of the proprietary shoring systems. Installation shall be carried out in a safe manner so as not
to endanger any persons.

C.4.5 Materials and equipment

All materials and equipment used for protective systems shall be free from damage or defects that
may affect their proper function. They should be properly used and maintained, and in accordance
with the manufacturers’ recommendations, if available. They should also be examined regularly by
the competent person to ensure their effectiveness at all times.

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Annex D

Examples of shoring systems for excavations and trenches

Figure D.1 – Sheet piling

timber strutting

Figure D.2 – Cofferdam with timber strutting

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steel strutting

Figure D.3 – Cofferdam with steel strutting

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Figure D.4 – Timber shoring

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Figure D.5 – Trench box

Figure D.6 – Trench shield

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Figure D.7 – Plate lining system

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ABOUT SPRING SINGAPORE

SPRING Singapore is an agency under the Ministry of Trade and Industry responsible for helping
Singapore enterprises grow and building trust in Singapore products and services. As the national
standards and accreditation body, SPRING develops and promotes an internationally-recognised
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E-mail: [email protected]
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ABOUT THE NATIONAL STANDARDISATION PROGRAMME

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meet international standards and conformity requirements by creating awareness of the importance of
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In the international arena, SPRING Singapore represents Singapore in the International Organisation
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Commission which is supported by SPRING Singapore, represents Singapore in the IEC.

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The Singapore Standardisation
Programme is managed by
SPRING Singapore
1 Fusionopolis Walk,
#01-02 South Tower, Solaris
Singapore 138628
Tel : +65 6278 6666
Fax : +65 6278 6667
www.spring.gov.sg