Surveying

INTRODUCTION
The art of determining the relative positions of features on the surface of earth by means of
measurement of different parameters like distance, direction, elevation, etc.
The primary objective of surveying is the development of map/plan of an area
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
1. Based on the nature of surveying (Primary classification)
a. Plain Surveying
The survey in which the curvature of the earth is not considered is called plain survey. In this
kind of survey the lines connecting two points are straight lines, the formed triangle are plain
triangles and the angles are plain angles. This type of survey is used for all general engineering
works. Its limit is for an area of upto 260 square kilometer
b. Geodic Surveying
The survey in which the curvature of the earth is considered is called geodic survey. In this kind
of survey the lines connecting two points are curved lines, the formed triangle are spherical
triangles and the angles are spherical. This type of survey is used for establishing control points
1. The limitation for geodic survey is
a) 150 Sq. Km. c) 350 Sq. Km.
b) 250 Sq. Km. d) 450 Sq. Km.
2. The difference in the lengths of an arc and its subtended chord on the earth surface for a
distance of 18.2 km, is only
a. 1 cm c. 10 cm
b. 5 cm d. 100 cm.

Answer: 1, B 2.C
2. Based on the nature of field
On this basis field of survey may be classified as

a. Land survey: It involves measurement of various objects on land. This type of survey may be
further classified as given below:
i. Topographic surveys: They consist of measurement of various points to plot natural features
such as rivers, streams, lakes, hill and forests as well as man – made feature like roads, railways,
towns, villages and canals.
ii. Cadastral survey: These surveys are for marking boundaries of municipalities, states, etc. the
surveys made to mark properties of individual also come under this category.
iii. City survey: The surveys made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply
and sewage lines fall under this category.

b. Marine or Hydrographic Surveys: The survey conducted to find depth of water at various
points in bodies of water like sea, river and lakes fall under this category of surveying.

c. Astronomical Surveys: Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun and stars to locate
absolute position of points on the earth and for the purpose of calculating local times is known as
astronomical survey.

1. Hydrographic Survey deals with the mapping of

a) Large water bodies c) Cloud Movement
b) Canal Systems d) None of above
2. In city for planning, the map used for plotting the details as well as property line is
a) Topographical map c) Land use map
b) Cadastral map d) None of above
3. The surveying used to determine additional details such as boundaries of fields, is called
a. City surveying c. Cadastral surveying
b. Location surveying d. Topographical surveying
Answer :
1. A 2.B 3.C

3. Classification Based on Object of Surveying

On the basis of objective of surveying, the classification can be as

a. Engineering survey: The objective of this type of surveying is to collect data for designing
roads, railways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposal projects. These surveys may be
further subdivided into:
a. Reconnaissance survey for determining feasibility ad estimation of the scheme.
b. Preliminary survey for collecting more information to estimate the cost of the project selected,
c. Location survey to set the work on the ground.

b. Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out points of strategic importance.

c. Mine survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.

d. Geological survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the earth’s crust.
e. Archaeological survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity.

Based on the Methods Employed

Based on the methods employed, surveying may be classified as triangulation and traversing.
1. Triangulation: In this method control points are established through a network of triangles

2. Traversing: In this scheme of control points consist of a series of connected points

established through linear and angular measurements. If last line meets the starting point it is
called as closed traverse. If it does not meet, it is known as open traverse.
PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
1. Work from whole to part
In surveying large areas, a system of control points is identified and they are located with high
precision. Then secondary control points are located using less precise methods. With respect the
secondary control point’s details of the localized areas are measured and plotted. This is called
working from whole to part. This principle in surveying helps in localizing the errors. If the
surveying is carried out by adding localized areas, errors accumulate.

2. Fixing positions of new control points by measurement from two known points
For fixing new control points with respect to already fixed points, at least two independent
processes should be followed. IF A and B are two already located control points and with respect
to them new control point C is to be located, this can be done by making two distance
measurement or making two angular measurement etc.

1. Under survey “Working from whole to part” is done to

a) Prevent accumulation of error c) Both of above
b) Localize the error d) None of above
2. The working from whole to the part is done in surveying in order to ensure that
a. Survey work is completed more quickly c. Plotting is done more quickly
b. Number of errors is minimum d. Errors and mistakes of one portion do not
affect the remaining portion
Answer : 1. C 2. D
PLAN AND MAP
Plan and map are both the projection of the earth’s features into the horizontal plane.
A Plan is made in a larger scale and therefore provides more details of a small area, and contains
multiple data
A Map on the other hand use a smaller scale and thus provides lesser details than a plan, and is
focused on one type of data. Some of the common plans used in engineering purpose are as
follows

SCALES
It is not possible and also not desirable to make maps to full scale. All distances are reduced by
fixed proportion and drawings are made. The scale of a map or the drawing is the fixed
proportion which every distance on the map bears to the corresponding distance on the ground.
The different types of scales are as follows

1. Numerical Scale: The scale is shown in numbers it is further divided into two types
(a) Engineers scale : The scale in which one cm on the map shows a certain distance on the
ground is called engineers scale for e.g. 1cm = 5m
(b) Fraction Scale : The scale which is presented in the form of ration of length on the map to
the actual map on the ground is called fractional scale. If the numerator of the fraction is 1 then
the fractional scale is called Representative fraction for e.g. if 1cm on the map represented
5m(500cm) on the ground then the fractional scale is 1:500(This fractional scale is also the
representative fraction).

2. Graphical Scale :
A line drawn on the plan(or map) which shows the actual distance on the ground is called
graphical scale. The different types of graphical scales are

(a) Plain Scale: Can measure two unit say centimeter and millimeter
(b) Diagonal scale: Can measure three units meter, centimeter, millimeter
(c) Scale of chords: Used to make, measure angles.
Vernier: It is a device used to measure dimensions very accurately. The Vernier arrangement
consists of the main scale and the sliding Vernier scale, the main and the Vernier scale coincide
on different amounts. Based on this Vernier is of two types. Vernier scales
(i) Direct Vernier: If N units of main scale coincide with N+1 units of Vernier scale then the
Vernier is called direct Vernier
(ii) Retrograde Vernier: If N units of main scale coincide with N-1 units of Vernier scale then
the Vernier is called direct Vernier

Least Count: It is the lowest value of measurement that the Vernier can take . It is equal to
LC = |One unit of Vernier – One unit of main scale|
𝒑
𝑳𝑪 =
𝒑
𝒏 𝒑
𝑳𝑪 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝑪 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒓
𝑵−𝟏 𝑵+𝟏
Where
p is the smallest unit of the main scale
n is the number of division of the vernier scale
N is the number of divisions of the main scale conceding with n units of vernier scale
1. The scale representing three unit or one unit and its fraction upto second place is
a) Diagonal scale c) Simple Vernier
b) Comparative scale d) Shrunk Scale
2. If the smallest division of a Vernier is longer than the smallest division of primary scale
then the Vernier is called
a) Diagonal Vernier c) Dimple Vernier
b) Comparative scale d) Retrograde Vernier
3. Least count is given by
a) p – v c) p + v
b) v – p d) Both a) and b)
Answers
1. A 2.D 3.D
ERROR
Error: The difference between measured value and the true value is called error.
Discrepancy: The difference between the two measured values of a quantity is called
discrepancy
Residual error: The difference between the measured value and the most probable value is
called residual error
Types of error
Cumulative Error(Instrumental errors)/ Systematic Error:Instruments used for linear
measurements may not be having true length due to manufacturing defects and instruments may
not show true horizontal and vertical angles due to manufacturing defects or out of adjustments.
There are limitations on the scales used which contribute to instrumental errors.
These errors are cumulative in nature and tend to accumulate in one direction thus can be
corrected
If measured value is greater than the true value then the error is positive and the correction is
negative for e.g. the length of line measured by a chain which is short. These are called positive
cumulative error.
If measured value is smaller than the true value then the error is negative and the correction is
positive for e.g. the length of line measured by a chain which is long. These are called negative
cumulative error.
Compensating error: Errors will creep in because of the natural phenomena like variation in
temperature humidity refraction, curvature of the earth and magnetic declination. These errors
tend to appear in either direction and tend to compensate each other. It is proportional to the
square root of the length of the line. Since their nature is not known they cannot be corrected
Accidental error: This occurs due to the carelessness of the staffs involved they are quite large.
They can be avoided by following good surveying practice by taking precautions and check
readings. The magnitude of accidental error is proportional to the square root of the number of
observations taken.
1. The errors which are not possible to correct are
a) Positive cumulative errors c) Compensative error
b) Negative cumulative errors d) None of above
2. The type of error which are of cumulative in nature and can be corrected is known as
a) Permissible errors c) Expected error
b) Residual error d) Systematic error
3. Theory of probability is applied to
a) Cumulative errors c) Compensative error
b) Accidental error d) None of above
4. The error in measured length due to incorrect holding of chain is
a. Compensating error c. Instrumental error
b. Cumulative error d. Negative cumulative error

5. When the length of chain used in measuring distance is longer than the standard length,
the error in measured distance will be
a. Positive error c. Compensating error
b. Negative error d. None of these
6. The error in measured length due to sag of chain or tape is known as
a. Positive error c. Compensating error
b. Negative error d. Instrumental error
Answer
1. C 2.D 3.B 4.A 5.B 6.A

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy: It is the phenomena of the measured value being close to the true value of the
quantity
Precision: It is the phenomena of the two or more measured values of the quantity being equal to
each other.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT
It is the process of deterring the distance between two points.It is of following types
Direct Measurement:In this method the distances are actually measured in the field by means of
chains tapes etc. on the ground
Indirect (Computative) method: In this method the distance are measured by using indirect
methods like tachometry, EDM etc.
Approximate method:
Pacing: The surveyor walks along the line to be measured and counts number of steps. Then the
distance measured is equal to no. of steps * average length of a step. Average length of a step can
be found by walking along a known length. A normal man takes a step of length 0.75 m.
Passometer: A passometer is a watch – like instrument which should be carried vertically in the
shirt pocket or tied to a leg. Mechanism of the instrument gets operated by the motion of the
body and records number of paces. Thus, the problem of counting paces is eliminated.
Pedometer: It is an instrument similar to passometer, but it records the distances instead of
paces. In this before walking zero setting is made and length of pace is set depending upon the
person.
Odometer: It is an instrument which is attached to the wheel of a cycle or other vehicle. It
records number of revolutions made by the wheel. Knowing the circumference of the wheel, the
distance travelled may be found.
1. The average length of pace of normal human being is
a) 60cm```` c) 100cm
b) 80cm d) 120 cm
2. The method of measuring distance by approximate methods such as pacing is used for
a) Reconnaissance c) Location Survey
b) Preliminary survey d) All of above
3. Greatest accuracy in linear measurement is obtained in
a) Tachometry c) Direct taping
b) Direct chaining d) All are equally accurate

Answers
1.B 2.A 3.C
Ranging
It is the process of forming a line between two points. It can be done through
Direct ranging:Done when points are inter-visible. Can be done through line ranger or manual
methods. Takes three ranging rod
Indirect ranging:Done when the points are not inter-visible. Two possible cases are
 Non visibility due to Intervening raised grounddone by reciprocal ranging Takes four
ranging rods
 Non visibility due to large distance done by random line ranging,
1. Select the correct statement
a) Accurate chaining is no possible without c) chaining and ranging proceed
ranging simultaneously
b) Accurate ranging is no possible without d) None of above
chaining
Answer : A
Equipments for Linear Measurement:
1. Chain:
Gunter or surveyor’s chain: It is a 66 ft long chain divided in 100.links. It was used for land
measurement and for making milestones along the roads10chain lengths are equal to one furlong
(1/8th of a mile)
Revenue chain: Revenue chain is 33 ft long and is divided in 16 links. It is used for measuring
fields in cadastral surveys.
Engineer’s chain: It is 100 ft long chain with 100 links. Hence, it is convenient in all
engineering surveys to record readings in foot units.

Metric chain: Commonly used metric chains are of 20m and 30m. They have 100 links and 150
links respectively with brass rings at every 1m and tallies at every 5m.

2. Tape
Cloth or linen tape: 12 to 15 mm wide cloth or linen is varnished to resist moisture and
graduations are marked. They are provided with brass handle at the ends. They are available in
the length of 10 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m, these tapes are light and flexible and hence easy to
handle. However because of the following disadvantages. They are not popular is use:
1. Due to moisture or dampness they shrink
2. Extend due to stretching
3. Not strong
Metallic tape: These are made up of varnished strip of waterproof linen interwoven with small
wires of brass, copper or bronze. They are provided with handle at the end. They are provided
with leather or suitable strong plastic materials. Tapes of length 10m, 20m, 30m and 50 m are
available.
Steel tape: Steel tape consists of 6 to 10 mm wide strip with metal ring at free end and wound in
well sewn leather or a corrosion resistant metal case. A suitable winding device is provided. The
tapes are marked legibly on one side only indicating 5 mm, centimeters, decimeters and metres
clearly. The end 10 cm length is marked with millimeters also. The tapes are available in 1 m, 2
m, 10m, 20m, 30m, and 50 m lengths.
Invar tape: It is made up of an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel, which has very low coefficient of
thermal expansion. The width of the tape is 6 mm. it is available in 30 m, 50 m and 100 m
lengths. It is the most accurate tape but is expensive. It is delicate and hence should be handled
with care. It is used for high precision works only
3. Arrow: When the length of the line to be measured is more than chain length, there is need to
mark end of a chain length. Arrows are used for this purpose. They are made of 4 mm diameter
tempered steel wire with one end sharpened and other end bent into a loop.
4. Pegs: To mark the station points wooden pegs are used they are made of wood of 25 mm* 25
mm section. 150 mm long with a tapered. When driven in ground they project to about 40 mm.
5. Ranging Rod For ranging intermediate points in measuring 2 to 3 m long rods are used.
They are made of hard wood and are provided with an iron shoe at one end.
The rods are usually circular in section with 30 mm diameter.
6. Plumb Bob: In measuring horizontal distances along sloping ground plumb bobs are required
to transfer the points to ground. They are also used to check the verticality of ranging poles.
7. Line Ranger : It is an optical instrument used for locating a point on a line.

1. Metallic Tape are made up of

a) Steel c) Cloth and Wires
b) Invar d) Nickel
2. The tape commonly used to measure offset in chain survey is
a) Linen tape c) Metallic tape
b) Steel tape d) Invar tape
3. For accurate works steel tape is preferred because
a) It is light in weight
b) It is easy to handle
c) It is practically inextensible
d) all of above

1.C 2.C 3.C

Process of Linear Measurement
1. On Plain Ground
2. On Sloping Ground
a. Direct Method (Stepping)
b. Indirect Method (Using Abney level)
While measuring horizontal distance by stepping in hilly terrain we follow
a) Down hill c) along the center
b) Up hill d) all of above
The permissible limits of errors while chaining in hilly or rough grounds is
a) 1:2000 c) 1:500
b) 1:1000 d) 1:250
Answers
1.A 2.D
Errors in Chaining
Errors in chaining may be classified as:
1. Personal errors
2. Compensating errors, and
3. Cumulative errors
Chain and Tape Correction
If the measured length is greater than the actual length then the error is positive and the
correction is negative
If the measured length is smaller than the actual length then the error is negative and the
correction is positive
The following five corrections may be calculated for the measured length of chain or tape:

Correction for length Correction for Pull

C L = La – L (𝑃 − 𝑃 )𝐿
Where 𝐶 =
𝐴𝐸
La = Actual length of Tape Where
L = Marked length of Tape L = Length of tape
Pm = Measurement pull
Po = Original pull
Correction for slope Correction for Sag
ℎ 𝐿 𝑊
𝐶 = − (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 10 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) 𝐶 =−
2𝐿 24 𝑃
Where Where
h = Height difference between ends W = Total weight of tape
𝐶 = − 𝐿(1 − cos 𝜃) (For all slopes) P= Applied pull
𝜃 = Angle of slope
Correction for Temperature
𝐶 = 𝐿𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
Where
L = Length of tape
Tm = Measurement temperature
To = Original Temperature

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Principle
It is based on the principle that if the traverse is reduced by a given scale then the details are also
reduced by the same scale.

Plain table surveying includes steps like reducing the traverse at the desired scale, plotting it into
the map in the field and then locating details by measuring the distances in the same reduced
scale
Instruments used
Alidade or sight rule: An alidade is a straight edge ruler having some form of sighting device.
One edge of the ruler is beveled edge which is also known as fiducial edge. This edge is
graduated and used for drawing line of sights.
There are two types of alidade:

(i)Plain alidade a sight vane at each end of the ruler is provided. One of the sight vane is
provided with a narrow slit and it serves as eye vane. The other sight vane known as object vane
is wider and it carries a horse hair or a thin wire at its center. The two vanes are provided with
hinges at their base so that they can be folded on the ruler when not in use. Plain alidade is not
suitable in surveying hilly areas as the inclination of line of sight is limited.

(ii)Telescopic alidade consists of a telescope mounted on a column that is fixed to the ruler. The
size of the ruler is 380 mm long and 65 mm wide. The line of sight through telescope is provided
with a level tube and a vertical graduation arc. When inclined sights are taken vertical angel of
sight can be measured. The telescope alidade is generally fitted with a stadia diaphragm and
hence can be used as a tachometer to find horizontal distances and elevations.
(iii) Plumbing fork: Plumbing fork is a U – shaped metal frame with an upper horizontal arm
and a lower inclined arm. The upper arm is provided with a pointer, while lower arm is provided
with a hook. When the plumbing fork is kept on plane table and a plumb bob is suspended from
the hook, the plumb line passes through the end of the pointer in the upper arm.
(iv) Plumb bob: In the beginning of plane table survey, plumb bob helps in transferring ground
station to the drawing sheet and later on it helps in transferring station positions on drawing
sheets to the ground.

(v) Spirit level: A spirit level with flat base is used for leveling plan table. To ensure proper
leveling, spirit level should be used in two positions at right angles to each other and leveling of
plane table should be ensured.

(vi) Trough compass: A trough compass consists of an 80 to 150 mm long and 30 mm wide box
carrying a freely suspended magnetic needle at its center. The top of the box is provided with a
glass cover. At the ends of the needle graduations are marked from zero to five degrees on either
side of the center. When needle ends coincide with zero – zero, the line of needle ends is parallel
to the long edge of the box. Hence, a marking on either side of long edge indicates north
direction of the survey. Thus, the troughs compass I useful for marking north line on the drawing

(vii) Drawing sheet and accessories for drawing: The drawing paper of superior quality should
be used in plane table survey. It should be well seasoned before use by exposing it alternatively
to dry and damp atmosphere. By seasoning, shrinkage of sheets in future is reduced
considerably. The sheet should be able to withstand rubbing by alidade. The drawing sheet
should not be folded. Many times two sheets mounted with their grains at right angles to each
other and with a sheet of muslin between them are used. For works of importance, fibre glass
sheets or paper backed with thin aluminum sheets are used.

Clips, clamps and adhesive tapes may be used for fixing drawing sheet to the table. Sharp hard
pencil, good quality eraser, pencil cutter and sand paper to keep pencil point sharp are other
accessories required for drawing work. Waterproof cover like plastic sheet should be carried by
the surveyor, to protect drawing sheet from rain, if required.
If the plain table is not horizontal in a direction perpendicular to the alidade the line of
sight is parallel to fiducial edge for
a) Horizontal sight c) Inclined sight downwards
b) Inclined Sight Upwards d) None of above
Answer: A

Working Operations
After fixing the table to the stand and drawing sheet to the table, the following operations are to
be carried out:

1. Centering: This is the process of adjusting the position of point on plane table exactly over its
position on ground station. This is achieved using plumbing fork and moving legs of tripod.

2. Leveling: Sprit level is used to check the level of the table. The level should be ensured in two
positions of spirit level which are at right angles to each other. The legs of tripod are moved
radially or along the circumference to adjust the level of the table.

3. Orientation: Orientation is the process of setting plane table at a station such that all the line
plotted is parallel to corresponding lines on the ground. This is very important process in plane
tabling. Accuracy of plan table survey mainly depends upon how accurately at each station
perfect orientation is achieved. It can be achieved by any one of the following methods:

(i) Orientation using trough compass: When the survey work begins form the first station, the
table is oriented in appropriate direction and the north direction is marked near right – hand top
corner using trough compass. This orientation is to be maintained at all subsequent stations.
This method of orientation is considered rough, since the local attraction to compass can
affectproper orientation. This method is used as preliminary orientation and finer orientation is
obtained by other methods.
(ii) Orientation by back sighting: It is a commonly employed method. Before shifting the table,
from station A to station B, line ab is drawn from plotted position of station towards next station
B. Distance AB is measured and plotted position b of station B is located. Then plane table is
shifted to station B, and centred such that point ‘b’ is exactly over station B. now keeping the
alidade along ba station A is sighted and clamped. This gives the required orientation. Checks
may be applied by sighting already plotted objects from point b.
(iii) Orientation by resection
1. Setting up of plain table consist of operation
a) Leveling c) Leveling and centering
b) Centering d) Orientation
2. After fixing the plane table to the tripod, the main operations which are needed at each
plane table station are i) leveling ii) orientation iii) centering The correct sequence of these
operations is
a. (i), (ii),.(iii) c. (iii), (i), (ii)
b. (i), (iii), (ii) d. (ii) , (iii) , (i)
(But remember these three operations take more than one turn for the perfect alignment)
Answer : 1.C 2.B
Methods of Plane Tabling
The following four methods are available for carrying out plane table survey:
i) Radiation: To fill up details of objects near station. Rays are radiated and measured from the
same station.
ii) Intersection: In this method rays are drawn to an object form plotted positions of two stations
and the intersection is the plotted position of the objet. Thus, it needs linear measurements
between the two station points and there is no need to measure distances up to objects.
iii) Traversing: This is the method used for locating instrument stations in closed or in open
traversing. From first station before shifting to next station a ray is taken. In closed traverse ray
is taken to the last station also. After going to the new station, the distance is measured and the
new station is located. Lot of care is taken in this measurement. After centering and Leveling
Resection: This method is used to locate the plotted position of survey station by drawing
resectors from plotted position of the objects. It can be done by

i) Resection after orientation by back sighting:

Plain table is oriented by using back sighting and resectors are drawn from known points which
intersects to give the plotted position of the new point p.

ii)Resection after orientation by compass:

Plain table is oriented by using compass and resectors are drawn from known points which
intersects to give the plotted position of the new point p. This method us affected by local
attraction and therefore is limited to a small are only

iii) Three point Problem

If a, b and c are the plotted positions of stations A, B and C then to locate instrument station P on
the paper, after orienting the table resectors are drawn from a b and c by sighting to A B and C
on the ground F the orientation at P is correct all resectors will pass through a single point. That
point is the plotted position P of station P. If not then the Triangle of Error is formed. The main
goal now is to obtain the correct orientation. This can be done through number of methods

1. Mechanical method (Tracing paper method)

2. Graphical method, or
3.Trial and error method (Lehman’s method).
This method is also known as Lehman’s method and triangle of errors method. The method is as
given below:

1. Set the table above point P and orient approximately by looking at station A, B, C and their
plotted positions a, b, and c. clamp the table.
2. Draw the rays aA, bB and cC. if orientation is not correct a triangle is formed. This is called
triangle of error.
3. To eliminate the triangle of error and get a point P an approximate position of p say p’ is
selected near the triangle of error. Keeping alidade along p’ a orientation of table is slightly
changed to sight A. Table is clamped and resectors Bb and Cc are drawn. The size of triangle of
error reduces.
4. Step 3 is repeated till triangle of error is eliminated and all the three resectors Aa, Bb, Cc pass
through a point. That point is the position of station P and that orientation is the required
orientation.

Lehman’s Rules
The following rules presented by Lehman assist in getting correct orientation quickly.

Rule 1: The distance of point sought is in the same proportion form the corresponding rays as
the distance of those form the plane table station.
Rule 2 : Defining the triangle ABC on the field as great triangle and the circle passing through
ABC on the field as great circle
a) If the plane table station O lies inside the great triangle ABC, ‘p’ lies inside the triangle of
error.
b) If the plane table station P lies outside the great triangle the point sought ‘p’ will be outside
the triangle of errors
c) If the plane table station lies on the great circle, correct solution is indeterminate since all the
rays intersect at a single point irrespective of the three positions.

4. Two – point problem

Point is located by using two known points only, it is tedious in nature but eliminates the
requirement of the third point so can be useful in some conditions
Questions
1. The method of plain tabling generally adopted to obtain details and plotting of
inaccessible points is
a) Radiation c) Resection
b) Intersection d) All of above
2. Detailed plotting is generally done by
a. Radiation c. Resection
b. Traversing d. All of the above
3. The detail plotting in hilly area is done by
a) Radiation c) Resection
b) Intersection d) All of above
4. The method most suitable for plain tabling in hilly areas is.
a) Radiation c) Resection
b) Intersection d) All of above
5. Intersection is preferred to radiation when
a) The lengths are too short c) The points are too far and invisible
b) It is not possible to measure any distance d) The points are inaccessible
6. Radiation method of plain tabling is best suited when
a) Distances are long but accessible c) Distances are long but inaccessible
b) Distances are short but accessible b) Distances are short but inaccessible
7. Two and three point problems are methods of
a) Orientation c) Orientation and resection
b) Resection d) None of above
8. Resection by two point problem as compared to three point problem
a) Requires more labor c) Gives more accurate results
b) Takes less time d) None of above
9. Strength of fix of plane table is
a) Accuracy in centering
b) Accuracy in locating the position of station by taking observation to two or three points
c) Fixity of table while solving two or three point problem
d) None of above
10. Strength of fix is poor when
a) The station is within the great triangle c) The angle subtended is large
b) When the station is near great circle d) None of above
11. A poor fix of table is
a) The station is within the great triangle c) The angle subtended is large
b) When the station is near great circle d) When station is on the great circle
12. The method of plane tabling commonly used for establishing the instrument stations
only, is a
a. method of radiation c. method of traversing
b. method of intersection d. method of resection
Answers
1.B 2.B 3.A 4.B 5.D 6.B 7.C 8.A 9.B 10.B 11.D 12.D
Errors in plain table survey
The possible errors in plane table survey may be grouped into

Instrumental errors: This type of errors are listed below:

1. Surface of plane table not perfectly plane
2. Fiducial edge of alidade not straight
3. Sight vanes of alidade not perpendicular to the base
4. Plane table clamp being loose
5. Sluggish magnetic compass
6. Sluggish or defective bubble tube
7. Drawing sheet being of poor quality.

Personal errors:
1. Centering errors 4. Errors due to instability of tripod
2. Leveling errors 5. Sighting errors
3. Orientation errors 6. Plotting errors
To avoid personal errors:
i) Set tripod on firm ground
ii) do not apply undue pressure on table
iii) use sharp edged pencil
iv) Take all the care to draw rays correctly.
Advantages and limitations of plane table survey
Advantages
1. There is no possibility of omitting measurements.
2. The surveyor can compare the plotted work in the field itself.
3. Irregular objects are represented more accurately since they are seen while plotting.
4. Possibilities of booking errors are eliminated
5. Local attractions will not influence the plotting. Hence suitable for the magnetic area likecities.
6. No great skill is required to produce satisfactory map.
7. Less costly than theodolite survey
8. Method is fast.
Limitations
1. Reproduction of map to different scale is difficult.
2. Survey cannot be conducted in wet weather and rainy days
3. Plane table is heavy, cumbersome and difficult to carry
4. It needs several accessories
5. It is less accurate.

1. Plain table is considered good as compared to other survey since

a) Easy to shift and carry c) Plotting is done outdoor
b) Number of equipment is less d) Chances of missing details are less
2. A Disadvantage of plain table survey is
a) It is heavy cumbersome and awkward to c) Details are not available while redrawing
carry to different scale
b) It can’t be used in wet climate d) Accessories are likely to be lost
Answers
1.D 2.C

COMPASS SURVEYING
Principle -
Measurement of direction by compass and distance by tape.
Terminology
1. Angle -the direction of a line with respect to another is called angle.
2. Meridian- Any fixed direction is called meridian, a meridian might be
a. True meridian-line passing through the north and south is called true meridian
b. Magnetic meridian-The direction shown by a freely floating magnet
c. Arbitrary meridian- it is a convenient direction i.e. permanent/prominent mark/signal.
3. Bearing-the direction of a line with respect to known meridian is called bearing. If it is
measured from the beginning of the line then it is called the fore bearing and if it is
measured from the back/end of the line then it is called the back bearing
Types of bearing
1. Whole circle bearing:- With respect to north
2. Quadrant bearing: - It is the smallest angle which is measured between the meridian and the
survey line it is measured with respect to North or South toward East or West and is
measured in clockwise as well as counter clockwise directions. It is also referred to as
azimuth.
3. Traverse
It is a series of straight lines connected together to form an open or closed loop. There are
two types of traverse
1. Closed traverse- a traverse which closes at the station of beginning or runs between two
stations whose co-ordinates are known is called closed traverse.
2. Open traverse- a traverse which neither ends on the beginning point nor ends on a
known co-ordinates is known as open traverse.
1. The true or geographical meridian
a) Are parallel c) Converge from North Pole to South Pole
b) Converge at the poles from Equator d) Converge from South Pole to North Pole
2. If the bearing AB is N30Wand bearing of BC is N40E then find the angle ABC
a. 10 c. 110
b. 70 d. 170
3. The W.C.B of a line is preferred to a quadrennial bearing merely because
a. Bearing is not completely specified by an c. Sign of correction of magnetic declination is
angle different in different quadrant
b. Bearing is completely specified by an angle d. All of the above
Answers
1.B 2.C 3.B
Dip
The Angle between the needle of a compass and the horizontal plane at a point is called dip. It is
due to the earth’s magnetic lines of force. The dip at the equator is zero while that at the
magnetic north pole and South Pole is 90°
Magnetic declination
The angle between the true north and the magnetic north is known as magnetic declination. It is
equal to the difference between the true and the magnetic declination at a place. If the
declination is toward the east then the declination is called eastern (positive) declination. If the
declination is towards west then it is called as western (negative) declination.
The line joining places with equal declination is called isogonic lines while that joining places of
zero declination is called agonic lines.
The declination at a point is not constant but varies. Different variations are
1. Secular variation- long period nearly equal to 250 years. It magnitude is almost 40-50 o
therefore it is very important in surveying specially if the data are from long duration of
time
2. Annual variation- 1 year
3. Diurnal variation- during day and night time
4. Irregular variation
1. Magnetic declination
 a. Remain same at different places c. Does not vary with temperature
b. Varies from place to place d. None of the above
2. If the magnetic bearing of sun at noon at a place in southern hemisphere is 150, the magnetic
declination at that place is
a. 30 E c. 20 E
b. 30 W d. 20 W
3. In survey works declination varies from time to time and place to place. The main important
variation is
a. Secular variation c. Diurnal variation
b. Annual variation d. Irregular variation
4. Which of the following variation appears to be of the periodic character and follows a sine
curve pattern?
a) Diurnal variation c) Secular variation
b) Annual variation d) Irregular variation
Answers
1.B 2.A 3.A 4.C

Magnetic Compass
Prismatic compass Surveyors compass
Needle is attached to the index i.e. Card Index is not attached to needle
attached to needle
0° at south WCB reading Reduced bearing 90°E in the left
Graduations are engraved The graduations are erect
Reading taken with the help of prism Reading taken by direct observation
Sighting and reading cannot be taken Sighting and reading can be taken
simultaneously simultaneously
Can be used without tripod Cannot be used without tripod

1. Quadrant system confines the user to measure the bearing from

a. The north point clockwise c. The north point anticlockwise
b. The north point or south point d. None of the above
whichever is nearer
2. The whole circle bearing of a line is 270° then find the reduced bearing of a line
a. 0° c. 180°
b. E90° d. W90°
 3. Prismatic compass and surveyors compass respectively gives
a. The whole circle bearing of a line c. Both whole circle bearing of a line
and quadrantal bearing of a line d. Quadrantal and whole circle
b. Both quadrantal bearing of a line bearing of a line
Answers
1. B 2.D 3.A
Process of compass survey
1. Reconnaissance
2. Marking and referencing
3. Traverse formation and Detailing
4. Calculation
Local attraction and elimination
 Angle calculation
a. By bearing correction (sum of angle match)
b. By angle correction
5. Plotting
a. Plotting of Traverse
i. Distance and bearing
ii. Distance and included angles
iii. Distance and Deflection angles
b. Linear correction
c. Plotting of details : By Bearing
1. The survey station set up during traversing with compass should be such that
a. They are visible from each other c. The line joining them are near the objects to be located
b. Chaining between them is easy d. They are as long as possible
2. The foremost work to be executed while traversing with a compass is
a. Marking and referencing of station c. Picking up of details
b. Running survey lines d. Reconnaissance

3. Local attraction at a place may be due to

a. Key bunches c. Current carrying base wire
b. Steel buttons d. Electric storm
4. The amount of correction due to local attraction at a place
a. Is constant for all bearing c. Changes from time to time
b. Varies with bearing d. Sometimes additive and sometimes subtractive

5. Local attraction in a compass surveying may be due to

a. Faulty adjustment in compass c. Loss of magnetism in the needle
b. Presence of magnetic material d. Friction of the needle at the points
Answers
1.C 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.B
Errors in compass survey
1. Instrumental errors:
They are those which arise due to the fault adjustments in instruments.
a. The needle not being perfectly c. Pivot bent
straight d. Improper balancing weight
b. Sluggish needle. e. Blunt pivot point
2. Personal errors:
a. Inaccurate Leveling c. Inaccurate bisection
b. Inaccurate centering
3. Natural errors:
a. Variation in declination
b. Local attraction due to forces around
c. Irregular variations due to storms
1. If the sights are vertical .
a. The eye vane and object vane will be in c. There will be no local attraction
same line
b. The eye vane, object vane and string d. None of the above
will be parallel and in same line

2. If the needle is truly magnetic and not sluggish .

a. It will be always oscillating and c. It will be always free from local
never stop attraction
b. When it stops it will be exactly on d. All of the above
magnetic meridian
Answers
1.B 2.B

LEVELING
Leveling is the art of determining the elevation of given points above or below a datum line or
establishing in given points of required height above or below the datum line. It involves
measurement in vertical plane.

Definition of basic terms used in Leveling:

(i) Level surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called level surface
and the line drawn on level surface is known as level line.
(ii) Horizontal surface: Any surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called -
Horizontal surface at point. Hence horizontal line is at right angles to plumb line at the point of
tangency only
(iii) Vertical line/plumb line: It is the line joining the center of the earth and the point on the
surface. It is perpendicular to the level line
(iv)Vertical Plane: The plain containing the vertical line is called vertical plane
(v) Vertical angle: the angle between the inclined line and the vertical line is called vertical
angle
(vi) Datum surface : The assumed mean surface with reference to which the elevations of
different points are evaluated is called datum surface the most commonly used datum is the
mean sea level which is the mean of hourly observation of sea level at a place over a period of 19
years
If the datum considered us the mean sea level then the elevation is called Reduced Level (RL).
(vii) Bench Mark
A point of known elevation is known as bench mark (BM) . There are four types of bench mark
1. Great Trigonometrical Survey Bench Marks: These bench marks are established
throughout the country with high precision by the Government Agency such as Survey of India
Department. Their location and reduced levels are shown on the G.T.S. maps published by
Survey of India Department elaborate.
2. Permanent Bench Mark (P.B.M.): These permanent reference points are established
between the G.T.S. bench marks on the well-defined and permanent objects such as top of
parapet of a culvert or a bridge, Plinth of some prominent building, etc. Its exact location and
reduced level is marked on the top of permanent object.
3. Arbitrary Bench Mark (A.B.M.): When Leveling work is restricted to a small area, any
prominent object such as step, Plinth of a building is chosen as a bench mark and its elevation is
arbitrarily assumed and then this is known as Arbitrary B.M.
4. Temporary Bench Mark (T.B.M.): When the Leveling work cannot be finished in.a day,
certain prominent and permanent objects are chosen on which the Leveling is ended at the end of
day’s work. These serve as the temporary bench marks from which Leveling work is started on
the next day. These Objects which serve as the reference points should be easily identifiable.
1. The irregular surface around the earth having equal elevation is called
a) Mean sea level c) Level surface
b) Geoid c) Horizontal surface
2. A level line is
a) Line parallel to mean spherical surface of the earth c) Both a and b
b) Line normal to plumb line at all points d) None of above

3. The difference between the level line and the horizontal line is that
a) Level line is normal to plumb line horizontal c) Both a and b
line is not d) None of above
b) Level line is curved but horizontal line is not
Answers
1.B 2.C 3.C
Methods of Leveling
A. Barometric Leveling
This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure depends upon the elevation of
place. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure and hence elevation is computed.
However it is not accurate method since the atmospheric pressure depends upon season and
temperature also. It maybe used in exploratory surveys.
B. Hypsometric Leveling
This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the elevation of the
place. Hence the elevation difference between two points may be found by noting the difference
in boiling point of water in the two places. This method is also useful only for exploratory
survey.
C. Direct Leveling (Spirit Leveling)
It is common form of Leveling in all engineering projects. In this method horizontal sight is
taken on a graduated staff and the difference in the elevation of line of sight and ground at which
staff is held are found. Knowing the height of line of sight from the instrument station the
difference in the elevations of instrument station and the ground on which staff is held can be
found. This method is thoroughly explained in next article.
D. Indirect Methods
In this method instruments are used to measure the vertical angles. Distance between the
instrument and staff is measured by various methods. Then using trigonometric relations, the
difference in elevation can be computed. For e.g. trigonometric Leveling
Spirit Leveling
Instruments used in Spirit Leveling :
(i) The level
Level consists of three parts
a. Telescope: It is the optical instrument used for magnifying and viewing the image of distant
objects. It consists of
1. Objective Lens:
 It is the lens on which the rays from an object are incident. It is a compound lens
consisting of
o The front double convex lens made of crown glass
o The back convex lens mad of flint glass
 The two lens in combination forms a surface which is achromatic in nature

2. Eye piece:
 It is a set of two Plano convex lens of equal focal length place with the spherical faces
facing each other. It magnifies the image of the object formed by the objective and forms
the image seen by the eye
3. Cross Hairs
 They are hairs placed at the position in front of the eye piece at its focus i.e. where a
inverted image of the object is formed by the eye piece first
 The cross hair and the inverted are then magnified and send to eyes together by the

Focusing of the telescope:

It is the process of obtaining a clear image of the object at the plane of the cross piece. It is done
in two steps
o Focusing of eye piece : To make the cross hair clear
o Focusing of the objective : To make the image of the object at the plain of the cross hairs

Types of telescope:
Based on the type of focusing the types of telescope are as follows
External focusing telescope
The telescope in which the focusing is obtained by means of the external movement of tube is
called external focusing telescope. The body is made up of two tubes which can slide over one
another so that focusing is done
Internal focusing telescope
The telescope body is rigid and the focusing is obtained by means of a double concave lens
provided which is capable of sliding along the length.
Optical Characteristics of a telescope
Aplantation: Absence of spherical aberration
Achromatism: Absence of Chromatic aberration
Definition: The capacity of lens to form distant images of objects situated at slight angular distances
Magnification: It is the ability of a lens or other optical instruments to magnify, expressed as the ratio of
the size of the image to that of the object
Fundamental axis of Telescope
Fundamental axis of theodolite are as follows
Line of collimation: It is an imaginary straight line joining the intersection of the cross hairs at
diaphragm to the optical center of the object glass and its continuation.
Axis of Bubble tube: It is an imaginary line tangential to the curved surface of the bubble tube at its
middle point, it is also known as bubble line. When the bubble is in the centre of its run, the bubble line
will be horizontal.
Axis of Telescope: It is the imaginary line joining the center of the eye piece and the optical center of
the object glass. Vertical Axis: The axis about which the telescope can be turned in a horizontal plane is
known as the vertical axis of the instrument.

Relationship between the fundamental lines level.

1. Axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to vertical axis.
2. The line of collimation of telescope is parallel to the axis of bubble tube.
3. The axis of telescope and the line of collimation should coincide

b. Level tube: it consists of a glass tube placed in copper tube sealed in plaster of Paris . The
whole tube is filled with ether or alcohol and a small bubble is left which occupies the center
when the tube is horizontal.
c. Leveling head: it consists of two parallel plates with three of four screws. The upper plate is
known as tribrach and lower plate as trivet. The screws can be adjusted till the upper plate is
horizontal i.e. the bubble comes to the center
1. In telescope the diaphragm is held
a) Inside the eyepiece c) Near to the eye piece
b) Inside the objective d) Near to the object piece
2. When the image formed by the objective is not situated in the plane of the cross hairs
a) The cross hairs should be adjusted c) The objective should be focused
b) The eye piece should be adjusted d) The parallax should be removed
3. When Bubble of the telescope is centered
a) Line of sight is horizontal c) Line of sight is inclined
b) Line of sight is vertical d) None of above
4. In internal focusing telescope focusing is done by the movement of
a) Convex lens b) Concave lens
c) Plano convex d) Objective lens
5. Level tube which is used to make the line of sight horizontal is filled with
a) Ether c) Alcohol
b) Chloroform d) All of above

Answers
1. C 2. C 3.A 4.B 5.D

Types of Leveling Machine

1. Dumpy level
The dumpy level originally designed by – Gravatt consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in
two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the spindle.
2. Wye level
The telescope is supported in the Y frame and can be taken out as well as tilted by tilting the Y
frame
3. Tilting level
The telescope is not fixed to the frame and can be tilted about the horizontal axis.
4. Auto level
The telescope is foxed any out of level can be corrected by the telescopt itself by using the
correcting prism
(ii) Staff
A leveling stave or staff consists of a straight rectangular piece of well-seasoned wood or invar on which
graduations are painted. Reading on the staff with a leveling instrument shows the height of the station
above or below the line of sight of the level.
Leveling staffs are of two types.
1. Self-reading staffs:
In the self-reading staff, the level man observes the staff reading where the horizontal wire appears to
intersect the face of the rod through the level. The level man records the readings. Self-reading staff is
of three types
o Solid staff
o Hinged or foldable staff
o Telescopic staff

2. Target staffs:
The Target staff is provided with a Vernier which is adjusted by the staff man under the direction of the
level man who observes through the level, until the horizontal cross hairs of the diaphragm coincides
with the center of the Vernier. The reading is recorded by the staff man. Target staffs are used where
the sights are long. However, these are not commonly used in India (or Nepal).
1. The type of level generally used in hilly areas is
a) Abney level c) Hand level
b) Dumpy level d) None of above
2. Which of the following is not common in all Leveling equipment?
a) Telescope c) Level rods
b) Level vials d) Tilting screws
3. A digital level reads a
a) Target staff c) Digital staff
b) Bar-coded staff d) Telescopic staff
4. Which of the following is used to make a line of sight horizontal in a level?
a) Foot screws c) Telescope bubble/ Altitude bubble
b) Leveling head d) Tangent screws
5. Dumpy level is most suitable when
a. The instrument is to be shifted frequently c. Many readings are to be taken from a single
setting of the instrument
b. Fly Leveling is being done over long distance d. All of the above
Answers :
1.B 2.D 3.B 4.C 5.C
Adjustments of the Level
Permanent Adjustments
Permanent adjustments are made when the fixed relationship between the fundamental lines of an
instrument is disturbed. Once these adjustments are made, they last for a long time. two peg test ,
adjustment of the vertical axis are the two permanent adjustment of the level
Temporary Adjustments
Temporary adjustments are those which have to be performed at every instrument setting and
are done before the observations are taken with the instrument.
Process of Temporary Adjustment
1. Setting up
2. Leveling up
3. Elimination of parallax:
i). Focusing the eye piece
ii). Focusing the object glass
1. Permanent adjustment is carried out to
a) Set up the level c) Focus the eyepiece
b) Establish a fixed relation between the d) Focus the objective
fundamental axes
2. The line of collimation should coincide with
a) Bubble tube axis c) Axis of telescope
b) Vertical axis d) None of above
3. Two peg method is used to check parallelism between
a) Line of collimation and axis of bubble tube d) All of above
b) Line of collimation and axis of telescope
c) Axis of bubble tube and vertical axis
Answers
1.B 2.C 3.A

Special Terminology used in spirit Leveling

1. Station: Station is the point where leveling staff is held & not the point where level is kept.
2. Height of instrument: For any set up of the level the height of instrument is the elevation of
the plane of sight respect to assumed datum. This also known as – plane of collimation.
3. Back sight: It is sight taken on a level staff held at a point of known elevation with an
intention of determining plane of collimation or sight.
4. Intermediate sight (I.S): Sight taken on after taking back sights before taking last sight from
an instrument station is known as – intermediate sight.
The sight is also known as positive sight (add)
5. Fore sight (F.S): This is the last reading – taken from instrument just before shifting the
instrument. This is also negative sight.
6. Change point (C.P): This is a point on which both fore sight & back sight are taken.
7. Reduced level: Reduced level of a point is the level of the point with respect to assumed
datum.
1. In leveling The place where reading is taken is known as
a) Level c) Station
b) Ground d) All of above
Answers
1.C
Types of spirit Leveling
Simple Leveling
It is a simple and basic form of leveling in which the leveling instrument is placed
between the points which elevation is to be find. Leveling rods are placed at that points
and sighted them through leveling instrument. It is performed only when the points are
nearer to each other without any obstacles.

1. Staff reading is more at:

a) Lower point c) First point
b) Higher point d) Last point
Answer: A

Differential Leveling
Differential leveling is performed when the distance between two points is more. In this
process, number of inter stations are located and instrument is shifted to each station and
observed the elevation of inter station points. Finally difference between original two
points is determined.

Fly Leveling
Fly leveling is conducted when the benchmark is very far from the work station. In such
case, a temporary bench mark is located at the work station which is located based on the
original benchmark. Even it is not highly precise it is used for determining approximate
level.

Profile Leveling
Profile leveling is generally adopted to find elevation of points along a line such as for
road, rails or rivers etc. In this case, readings of intermediate stations are taken and
reduced level of each station is found. From this cross section of the alignment is drawn.

Cross sectioning
In many engineering projects to calculate earth work involved not only LS is Involved but CS of
ground is taken in regular intervals.
Precise Leveling
Precise leveling is similar to differential leveling but in this case higher precise is wanted.
To achieve high precise, serious observation procedure is performed. The accuracy of 1
mm per 1 km is achieved.
Reciprocal Leveling
When it is not possible to locate the leveling instrument in between the inter-visible
points, reciprocal leveling is performed. This case appears in case of ponds or rivers etc.
Reciprocal leveling eliminates the error due to collimation and error due to curvature of
Earth completely, but as the refraction depends upon the atmosphere which may change
every minute. In case of reciprocal leveling, instrument is set nearer to 1 st station and
sighted towards 2nd station and then vice versa.
(ℎ − ℎ ) (ℎ − ℎ )
𝐻=
2
Where
H = Height difference between a and b
ha , hb = Readings on staffs taken when level is near the station A
ha’, hb’= Readings on staffs taken when level is near the station B
1. Reciprocal Leveling eliminates error due to
a) Refraction and Curvature c) Both a and b
b) Error due to line of collimation not adjusted d) None of above
properly
2. In reciprocal Leveling, the error which is not completely eliminated, is due to
a) Earth's curvature c) Refraction
b) Non-adjustment of line of collimation d) Non-adjustment of the bubble tube
3. In reciprocal Leveling, the error which is not completely eliminated, is due to
a) Earth's curvature c) Refraction
b) Non-adjustment of line of collimation d) Error due to parallax
4. An operation of determining the relative position of different points on the surface of
earth is called
a) Leveling c) Differential Leveling
b) Simple Leveling d) Longituditional Leveling
5. The method of surveying used for determining the relative heights of points on the
surface of the earth is called
a) Leveling c) Longituditional Leveling
b) Simple Leveling d) Differential Leveling
6.Bench marks are fixed by the process of
a) Trigonometric Leveling c) Spirit Leveling
b) Barometric Leveling d) Profile Leveling
7. The method of leveling used to carry out the reconnaissance of area is
a. Check leveling c. Profile leveling
b. Fly leveling d. Simple leveling
Answers
1.C 2.C 3.D 4.C 5.A 6.C 7.B

Method of Reduction of Levels

1. Collimation method is more preferred in
a) Profile Leveling c) Check leveling
b) Differential leveling d) Both b and c
2. Rise and fall method provides check on
a) Back sight c) Intermediate sight
b) Fore sight d) All of above
3. The method of booking used in fly Leveling is
a) HI Method c) Both
b) Rise and fall method d) None
Answer
1.A 2.D 3.B

Curvature and Refraction correction

Curvature correction: The points appear lower i.e. the staff reading is more than actual value
therefore error is positive in nature and correction to staff reading is negative in nature given by
Cc = - 0.0785 d2 meters
Where
d = Distance in kilometers

Refraction correction: The points appear higher than they are therefore is error is negative in
nature and correction is positive given by
CR = Cc/7 = + 0.0112 d2 meters
Where
d = Distance in kilometers

THEODOLITE SURVEYING
The system of surveying in which the angles are measured with the help of a theodolite, is called
Theodolite surveying.
The Theodolite is a most accurate surveying instrument mainly used for :
• Measuring horizontal and vertical angles. • Setting out grades
• Locating points on a line. • Ranging curves
• Prolonging survey lines. • Tacheometric Survey
• Finding difference of level.

Classification of theodolites
Theodolites may be classified as;

Based on the transit property

A. Transit Theodolite: A theodolite is called a transit theodolite when its telescope can be
transited i.e. revolved through a complete revolution about its horizontal axis in the vertical
plane, whereas in a-
B. Non-Transit type: the telescope cannot be transited. They are inferior in utility and have now
become obsolete.

Based on vernier
A. Vernier Theodolite: For reading the graduated circle if verniers are used, the theodolite is
called as a Vernier Theodolite.
B. Micrometer Theodolite: If a micrometer is provided to read the graduated circle the same is
called as a Micrometer Theodolite.

Parts of a Theodolite

1. Leveling head: It consists of two parts

The upper tribrach which consists of the Leveling screws and the female axis into which the
upper parts are inserted.
The lower tribrach which contains a hole in which the tripod stand can be attached and plumb
bob can be hanged
2. Lower Plate (or scale plate): The lower plate is attached to the outer spindle and contains the
scale
A theodolite is designated by diameter of the graduated circle on the lower plate. The common
sizes are 8cm to 12 cm while 14 cm to 25 cm instrument are used for triangulation work. Greater
accuracy is achieved with larger theodolites as they have bigger graduated circle with larger
divisions hence used where the survey works require high degree of accuracy.
3. Upper Plate (vernier plate): The upper plate is attached to the inner spindle, it contains two
diametrically opposite verniers. The upper plate fully covers the lower plate except in the case of
the areas with the vernier.
4. The standards (or A frame):These are two strands in the shape of the English letter A
attached to the upper plates. The top of these forms the bearings of the pivots of the telescope,
the strands are made high enough to allow the telescope to rotate.
5. T Frame or the index bar: It consists of a T shaped frame centered at the horizontal axis in
the frame of the vertical circle. Consists of two vernier on the either side and a bubble tube at the
top

6. Plate Bubble (or Plate bubbles): It consists of either on or two bubbles provided at the top of
the upper plate which are used to level the device
7. Telescope: It consists of an objective lens, an eye piece and focusing mechanism. It is of two
types
a. External focusing telescope
b. Internal focusing Telescope
8. Vertical circle:
It is attached to the telescope and is graduated in many ways. It is used to take vertical angle
readings

1. The outer spindle attached to the lower plate in a transit theodolite known is
 a. Vernier plate c. Alidade
b. Scale plate d. None of the above
Answer : B
Definition of Technical Terms
1. Centering
Centering means setting the theodolite exactly over an instrument- station so that its vertical axis
lies immediately above the station- mark. It can be done by means of plumb bob suspended from
a small hook attached to the vertical axis of the theodolite.
2. Transiting
Transiting is also known as plunging or reversing. It is the process of turning the telescope about
its horizontal axis through 1800in the vertical plane thus bringing it upside down and making it
point, exactly in opposite direction.
3. Swinging the telescope
It means turning the telescope about its vertical axis in the horizontal plane. A swing is called
right or left according as the telescope is rotated clockwise or counter clockwise.
4. Face Left
If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer while taking a reading,
the position is called the face left and the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in
this position, is known as the face left observation. In face left condition the telescope is said to
be Telescope normal
5. Face Right
If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer while taking a reading,
the position is called the face right and the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle
in this position, is known as the face right observation.In face left condition the telescope is said
to be Telescope inverted
6. Changing Face
It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the observer, if originally it is to
the left, and vice – versa. It is done in two steps; firstly revolve the telescope through 180 0 in a
vertical plane and then rotate it through 1800 in the horizontal plane i.e. first transit the telescope
and then swing it through 1800.
7. Line of Collimation
It is also known as the line of sight .It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross-
hairs of the diaphragm to the optical center of the object- glass and its continuation.
8. Axis of the telescope
It is also known an imaginary line joining the optical center of the object- glass to the center of
eye piece.
9. Axis of the Level Tube
It is also called the bubble line. It is a straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level
tube at the center of the tube. It is horizontal when the bubble is in the center. 21
10. Vertical Axis
It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the horizontal plane.
11. Horizontal Axis
It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in the vertical plane. It is also called the
trunnion axis.
Geometry of the Transit
 The inner and outer spindle must be concentric i.e. they shall rotate in a same axis
 The line of collimation and the line of sight shall be identical
 The line of sight, the vertical axis and the trunnion axis must be perpendicularwhen the
line of sight is horizontal
 The axis of bubble tube shall be perpendicular to the vertical axis i.e. the vertical axis
shall be truly vertical when the bubble tube axis is horizontal (or bubble is at the center)
 The horizontal graduated circle and the vernier must be concentric with the vertical axis
 The Vertical circle must be concentric with the trunnion axis
1. The process of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the observer is called
a. Face left c. Changing face
b. Face right d. All of the above
Answer: C
Adjustment of a theodolite
The adjustments of a theodolite are of two kinds:-
1) Permanent adjustments: The permanent adjustments are made to establish the relationship
between the fundamental lines of the theodolite and, once made, they last for a long time. They
are essential for the accuracy of observations.
The permanent adjustments in case of a transit theodolites are:-
i) Adjustment of Horizontal Plate Levels: The axis of the plate levels must be perpendicular to
the vertical axis. This is done by checking whether the bubble remains centered or not while
completing a whole circle
ii) Collimation Adjustment: The line of collimation should coincide with the axis of the
telescope and should be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
iii) Horizontal axis adjustment:The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
 Spire test : A telescope when turned about the trunnion axis shall bisect a perfectly
vertical body all through its height once a point has been bisected
iv) Adjustment of Telescope Level or the Altitude Level:The axis of the telescope levels or
the altitude level must be parallel to the line of collimation. (Two peg test)
v) Vertical Circle Index Adjustment: The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line
of collimation is horizontal.
1. ‘SPIRE test’ is used in permanent adjustment of theodolite for
a. Adjusting the plate level c. Adjusting the vertical axis
b. Adjusting the line of sight d. Adjustment of horizontal axis
Answer: D
2. Temporary Adjustment:The temporary adjustments are made at each set up of the
instrument before we start taking observations with the instrument. There are three temporary
adjustments of a theodolite:-
 i) Centering.
ii) Leveling.
iii) Focusing.
Theodolite Operations
1. Measuring of Horizontal angles
a. Direct method
b. Method of repetition
c. Method of reiteration
2. Measuring of Vertical Angles
3. Measuring of Bearings
4. Measuring of deflection angles
1. The error eliminated by taking mean of both face observation is
a. Error due to eccentricity of verniers c. Error due to line of collimation not
b. Error due to imperfect adjustment of being perpendicular to horizontal axis
level d. All of the above
2. The included angle of the theodolite traverse are generally measured
a. Clockwise from the back station c. Anti-clockwise from the forward station
b. Clockwise from the forward station d. Anti-clockwise from the back station
3. Right face and left face reading are taken to
a. Get the correct reading c. Eliminate error in vertical axis
b. Eliminate error of trunnion axis not d. Eliminate error in the line of collimation
exactly horizontal
Answers
1.C 2.A 3.D
Theodolite Traversing
a. Reconnaissance:Reconnaissance is carried before commencing the actual traverse for the purpose of
selecting the suitable route along which the traverse will be run. The surveyor should travel quickly all
along the area and shall fix the most suitable routes for the measurements to be carried out. While doing
this the following shall be kept in mind
 The number of station shall be least and inter-visible
 The stations shall be close to the points where detailing shall be done
b. Selection and marking of stations
The traverse stations are marked so that they can be accessed later. As far as possible they shall be
marked on pakka positions. Precise and accurate description of each station shall be maintained in the
field books. Referencing i.e. marking distance from at least two points shall also be done for these points.
c. Measurement of traverse legs
Measurement of traverse legs shall be done using direct methods as far as possible , Generally ordinary
tape is used if better accuracy is required then steel tapes can also be used. A pair of distance are taken
and precision is calculated for normal works precision shall be more than 1:1000

d. Measurement of traverse angle

Traverse angle can be measured in terms of
1. Horizontal angle (or deflection angle)
2. Vertical angle
These angles can be computed by using the repetition method or repetition method
e. Measurement of details
f. Traverse Computation
 Checking of field observations
 Computation of traverse angles and traverse legs
 Angle correction
 Ascertaining the bearing of the first leg
 Determining the bearing of next consecutive line
 Plotting : Independent coordinate method
 Calculation of consecutive co-ordinate
o Latitude = L Cos θ
o Departure = L Sin θ
 Calculating the closing error
 Balancing the consecutive co-ordinate
Three methods
Bowditch rule
Transit rule
Axis Rule
 Calculation of independent co-ordinate and Plotting
1. In a closed traverse the closing error should not be more than
a) N X Least count of instrument c) X Least count of instrument
b) √𝑁 X Least count of instrument
d) X Least count of instrument
√
2. When angular and linear measurement have the same degree of accuracy then the
method used is
a) Bowditch rule c) Axis rule
b) Transit rule d) None of above
3. The most reliable method of plotting a theodolite traverse, is
a) By consecutive co-ordinates of each station
b) By independent co-ordinates of each station
c) By plotting included angles and scaling off each traverse leg
d)By the tangent method of plotting.
4.Transit rule of adjusting the consecutive coordinates of a traverse is used where
a. Linear and angular measurements of the c. Linear measurements are more accurate
traverse are of equal accuracy than angular measurements
b. Angular measurements are more accurate d. All of the above
than linear measurements
5. Independent co-ordinates can be calculated from
a) Geometric co-ordinates c) Consecutive co-ordinates
b) Cylindrical co-ordinates d) Spherical co-ordinates
Answers
1.B 2.A 3.B 4.B 5.C
TACHEOMETRY
Tachometric is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are determined by
taking angular observation with an instrument known as a tachometer. Tacheometric surveying is
adopted in rough in rough and difficult terrain where direct leveling and chaining are either not
possible or very tedious. The accuracy is less but if the purpose of a survey does not require
accuracy, the method is unexcelled.
Uses of Tachometry
 Tachometry is used for
o Preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are
required to be measured;
o Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are
inconvenient;
o Reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc.
o Establishment of secondary control points.
1. Tachometry is adopted where
a. Too many curves at the borders exists c. Limitation of space exists
b. Obstacles, undulation exists d. None of the above
2. Tachometry is best suited
a. Where chaining is impossible c. In broken grounds
b. For populous areas d. For extremely accurate survey
Answer:

1.B 2.C
Instruments
Conventionally a separate telescopic unit called the tachometer was used now an ordinary transit
theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for Tacheometric survey. The stadia
diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above the other at equal distance below the horizontal
cross-hair, the stadia hairs being mounted in the ring and on the same vertical plane as the horizontal
and vertical cross-hairs.
A tacheometer (or Tacheometric theodolite) must essentially incorporate the following features:
(i) An anallactic lens shall be used so that the multiplying constant should have a nominal value of 100
and the error contained in this value should not exceed 1 in 1000.
(ii) The axial horizontal line should be exactly midway between the other two lines.
(iii) The telescope should be truly anallactic.
(iv) The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters.
1. For a tacheometer the additive and multiplying constants are respectively
a. Zero and zero c. 100 and zero
b. Zero and 100 d. 100 and 100
2. Which one is wrong
a. Anallatic lens is not a concave lens c. Anallatic lens is used to eliminate the additive
constant to zero
b. Anallatic lens is a convex lens
d. None of the above
3. An Anallatic lens is a ……. Used to remove an additive constant in a tacheometer
a. Convex lens c. Compound concave and convex lens
b. Concave lens d. Plain lens
4. The advantage of anallatic lens is
a. Helps in external focusing b. Protecting against moisture
c. Computation become easy as the addictive
constant in distance formula vanishes
 d. All of the above
Answers
1.B 2.D 3.A 4.C
Different systems of Tacheometric Measurement:
The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as follows:
1. The stadia System
(a) Fixed Hair method of Stadia method
In this method, the angle at the instrument at a subtended by a known short distance along a staff kept
at B is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart.
The readings are on the staff corresponding to all the three wires taken. The staff intercept, i.e., the
difference of the readings corresponding to top and bottom stadia wires will therefore depend on the
distance of the staff from the instrument. When the staff intercept is more than the length of the staff,
only half intercept is read. For inclined sight, readings may be taken by keeping the staff either vertical
or normal to the line of sight. This is the most common method in tacheometry.
(b) Movable hair method, or Subtense method
This method is similar to the fixed hair method except that the stadia interval is variable. Suitable
arrangement is made to vary the distance between the stadia hair as to set them against the two targets
on the staff kept at the point under observation. Thus, in this case, the staff intercept, i.e., the distance
between the two targets is kept fixed while the stadia interval, i.e., the distance between the stadia hair
is variable. As in the case of fixed hair method, inclined sights may also be taken.
2. The tangential system
In this method, the stadia hairs are not used, the readings being taken against the horizontal cross-hair.
To measure the staff intercept, two pointings of the instruments are therefore, necessary. This
necessitates measurement of vertical angles twice for one single observation.
1. The stadia hairs are not used in
a. Movable hair method c. Tangential hair method
b. Fixed hair method d. Substense hair method
Answer : C

Formulation of Stadia System

a) For Horizontal line of sight

D = KS + C

a) For Inclined line of sight

𝑫 = 𝑲𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝑪 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑲𝑺 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝑽= + 𝑪 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝟐
Where
K = f/i = Multiplication constant
C = f + i = additive constant
Formulation of Tangential System
 𝑺
𝑫= 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟐

𝑺
𝑫=
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟏

𝑺
𝑫=
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽𝟐

CONTOURING

Contouring in surveying is the determination of elevation of various points on the ground and fixing
these points of same horizontal positions in the contour map.

To exercise vertical control leveling work is carried out and simultaneously to exercise horizontal control
chain survey or compass survey or plane table survey is to be carried out.

Terminology

Contour Interval

A contour interval in surveying is the vertical distance or the difference in the elevation between the
two contour lines in a topographical map. Usually there are different contour intervals for the different
maps. Considering the size of the area to be mapped, contour intervals are assumed. In every map, on
the right-hand bottom side, the contour interval is specified.
 Horizontal Equivalent
The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contour lines for a given slope is known
as horizontal equivalent.
The difference between Contour intervals and Horizontal Equivalent are tabulated below:

1. An imaginary line connecting the points of equal elevation on the ground surface is known as
a. Contour line c. Horizontal equivalent
b. Contour interval d. Contour gradient
2. An imaginary line lying through the surface of ground, having a constant inclination to the horizontal
is known as
a. Contour line c. Contour interval
b. Contour gradient d. Horizontal equivalent
3. Horizontal equivalent of uniform slope must be
a. Equal c. Contour interval
b. Unequal d. None of the above
4. Contour interval within the limits of a map
a. May be kept constant c. Must be kept constant
b. May not be kept constant d. May vary according to the configuration
Answers
1.A 2.B 3.A 4.C
Characteristics of Contour Lines in Surveying
Following are the characteristics of contour lines in surveying for reading contour maps:
(1) Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
(2) Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
(3) Closely spaced contour indicates steep ground.
(4) Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.
(5) Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.
(6) Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards center indicate a pond.
(7) Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards center indicate hills.
(8) Contour lines with U-shape and convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge
(9) Contour lines with approximate V-shapeand convexity towards higher ground indicate valley
(10) Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.
 If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff.
 If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave.

1. The limit of water level in a river represents a

a. contour line c. contour gradient
b. horizontal surface d. none of the above
2. The V Shaped contour represents
a. Valley c. Hill
b. Ridge d. Pond
Answer : 1. B 2.A

Methods of Contour Surveying

Direct Method
It consists in finding vertical and horizontal controls of the points which lie on the selected contour line.
For vertical control Leveling instrument is commonly used. A level is set on a commanding position in
the area after taking fly levels from the nearby bench mark. The plane of collimation/height of
instrument is found and the required staff reading for a contour line is calculated.
The instrument man asks staff man to move up and down in the area till the required staff reading is
found. A surveyor establishes the horizontal control of that point using his instruments. After that
instrument man directs the staff man to another point where the same staff reading can be found. It is
followed by establishing horizontal control. Thus, several points are established on a contour line on one
or two contour lines and suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally suited for this work. After
required points are established from the instrument setting, the instrument is shifted to another point.
to cover more area. The level and survey instrument need not be shifted at the same time. It is better if
both are nearby to communicate easily.
Indirect Method of Contouring
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are reduced,i.e. in this method
horizontal control is established first and then the levels of those points found. After locating the points
on the plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are interpolated between the selected points.
For selecting points any of the following methods can be used:
(1) Method of Squares
In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid points are marked and then contours
are interpolated

(2) Method of Cross-Section

In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular interval. By Leveling the reduced level of all
those points are established. The points are marked on the drawing sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are
marked and contour lines interpolated.

(3) Radial Line Method

[Fig. 3]. In this method several radial lines are taken from a point in the area. The direction of each line is
noted. On these lines at selected distances points are marked and levels determined. This method is
ideally suited for hilly areas. In this survey theodolite with tacheometry facility is commonly used.

1. In direct method of contouring, the process of locating or identifying points lying on a contour is
called
a. Ranging c. Horizontal control
b. Centering d. Vertical control
2. Which of the following methods of contouring is most suitable for a hilly terrain?
a. Direct method c. Cross-sections method
b. Square method d. Tacheometric method
Answers 1.D 2.D

Contour Interpolation
For interpolating contour points between the two points any one of the following method may be used:
(a) Estimation
(b) Arithmetic calculation

(c) Mechanical or graphical method.

Mechanical or graphical method of interpolation consists in linearly interpolating contour points using
tracing sheet:

Uses of Contour Maps

Contour maps are extremely useful for various engineering works:
• A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to identify. Suitable site for
the project works to be taken up.
• By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground along that line. It
helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if formation level of road/railway is decided.
• Indivisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground along that line.
• The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to minimize and balance
earthworks.
• Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of canal or river can be found. This
study is very important in locating bunds, dams and also to find out flood levels.
• From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM):
EDMs were first introduced in 1950's by Geodimeter Inc. Early instruments were large, heavy,
complicated and expensive. Improvements in electronics have given lighter, simpler, and less
expensive instruments. EDM can be manufactured for use with theodolites (both digital and optical)
or as an independent unit. These can be mounted on standard units or theodolites.
Principle of EDM:
The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam from one
transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving it back at the master
station. The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter and receiver by modulating the
continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then measuring the phase difference at the
master station between the outgoing and the incoming signals. This establishes the following
relationship for a double distance (2D):

Where
m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within double distance
Φ is the measured phase difference
λ is modulation wavelength, and
k is constant.
Classification on the basis of range
EDMs are also available as:
High range micro wave equipment for ranges up to 100 km e.g. Tellurometer
Medium range visible light with frequency modulation for ranges up to 25 km e.g. Geodimeter
Short range electro-optical equipment using amplitude modulated infra-red ranges up to 5 km e.g.
Distomat
Total Station:
This is an electronic instrument. In this instrument, all the parameters required to be observed during
surveying can be obtained. The value of observation gets displayed in a viewing panel. The precision
of this type of instrument varies in the order of 0.1" to 10". Total station surveying - defined as the
use of electronic survey equipment used to perform horizontal and vertical measurements in
reference to a grid \system. It is also a form of an electronic theodolite combined with an electronic
distance measuring device (EDM).

CURVES:
They are geometrical figures which are mad to allow transition on roads they are of following
type
1. Horizontal Curves
They are curves that are provided in each and every points of intersection of two straight
alignments of roads in order to change the direction. They are of following types
Types of Horizontal Curve
Simple circular curve :
They are circular curves having only one radius. The different elements of simple circular curves
are as follows

Radius of Curve R = 1718.9 / D

Length of Curve L = πRΔ /180o

Tangent: T = R tan(Δ/2)

Chord: C = 2R sin(Δ/2)

Mid Ordinate: M = R(1 –cos(Δ/2) )

External Distance: E = R (sec(Δ/2) –1)

Transition Curve
Definition
A curve of varying radius between straight and circular path provide in order that the application
of centrifugal force would be gradual.
Objectives:
i. To introduce centrifugal force gradually in order to avoid a sudden jerk or discomfort to the
passengers.
ii. To introduce superelevation at a desirable rate
iii. To enable the driver to turn his vehicle slowly and comfortably.
iv. To introduce Extrawidening at the desirable rate.
v. To fit the road alignment in a given topography and also to improve the appearance of road.
Types of Transition Curve:
i. Spiral or clothoid
ii. Bernolli's leminscate or lemniscate
iii. Cubic parabola

Spiral is considered as ideal transition curve because

1. It satisfies that rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is constant
i.e., Ls.R = constant. Where Ls = length of transition curve R = radius of curve.
2. The calculation and field implementation of spiral curve is simple and easy.
3. It enhances aesthetics also.
Length of Transition Curve
Elements of Transition curve

Setting Out of Circular Curve

1. Offsets from tangent
2. Radial Offsets

3. Offsets from Long Chord

4. Rankine Method
5. Two theodolite Method

Layout of Transition

2. Vertical Curve
It is a curve provided between two tangents to ease the change in gradient
Necessity:
i. to obtain adequate visibility and safe driving
ii. to secure comfort to the passengers
Types:
i. Vertical Summit Curve
 ii. Vertical Valley Curve
Length of Vertical Curve
|𝑔 − 𝑔 |
𝐿= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝑟
Where
g1 = gradient at beginning
g2 = gradient at end
r = allowable change in gradient per chain
Elements of Vertical Curve

AREA and VOLUME:

1. Mechanical Method
2. Manual Method
Area: Area Computation involves two steps
(i) Computation by dividing into regular figures like triangle squares and rectangles
(ii) Computation of boundary area: This can be done through
a. Mid Ordinate Rule
Mid ordinate(h1) = (O1 + O2) / 2

b. Average Ordinate rule

Let L = Sum of all horizontal divisions = n.d
Average ordinate (h) = Σhi /n

Area = h x L
c. Trapezoidal Rule

Area = d/2 (First ordinate + Last ordinate + 2(sum of all other ordinate))
Area = d/2 (O1 + On+ 2(O2 +…. +On-1))
d. Simpsons rule

Volume :
Area of Cross section : Refer Books/Class Notes

Computation of volume from cross sectional area

a. Trapezoidal Rule
Volume = L/2 (First area + Last area + 2(sum of all other area))
Area = L/2 (A1 + An + 2(A2 +…. +An-1))
b. Prismoidal rule
Volume = L/3 (First area + Last area + 2(sum of all odd area) + 4(Sum of all even area))
Area = L/3 (A1 + An + 2(A3 +…. +Aodd) + 4(A2 + …. + Aeven))