UNIT

2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

We will make electricity so cheap that only the rich will burn candles
– Thomas A. Edison

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this unit, the student is exposed to

• Flow of charges in a metallic conductor
• Ohm’s law, electrical resistance, V-I characteristics
• Carbon resistors and combination of resistors
• Kirchhoff ’s laws - Wheatstone’s bridge and its applications
• Electric power and Electric energy
• Heating effect - Joule’s law – Experimental verification and applications
• Thermoelectric effects – Seebeck effect – Peltier effect – Thomson effect

In unit 1, we studied the properties of charges

INTRODUCTION when it is at rest. In reality, the charges are
always moving within the materials. For
example, the electrons in a copper wire are
never at rest and are continuously in random
motion. Therefore it is important to analyse
the behaviour of charges when it is at motion.
The motion of charges is called ‘electric current’.
Current electricity is the study of flow of electric
charges. It owes its origin to Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827), who invented the electric battery
which produced the first steady flow of electric
current. Modern world depends heavily on the
use of electricity. It is used to operate machines,
communication systems, electronic devices,
home appliances etc., In this unit, we will study
about the electric current, resistance and related
phenomenon in materials.
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 2.1 charges from one end of the conductor to
other end and hence no current. When a
ELECTRIC CURRENT potential difference is applied by the battery
across the ends of the conductor, the free
electrons drift towards the positive terminal
Matter is made up of atoms. Each atom of the battery, producing a net electric
consists of a positively charged nucleus with current. This is easily understandable from
negatively charged electrons moving around the analogy given in the Figure 2.1.
the nucleus. Atoms in metals have one or In the XI Volume 2, unit 6, we studied,
more electrons which are loosely bound to that the mass move from higher gravitational
the nucleus. These electrons are called free potential to lower gravitational potential.
electrons and can be easily detached from Likewise, positive charge flows from higher
the atoms. The substances which have an electric potential to lower electric potential
abundance of these free electrons are called and negative charge flows from lower
conductors. These free electrons move at electric potential to higher electric potential.
random throughout the conductor at a So battery or electric cell simply creates
given temperature. In general due to this potential difference across the conductor.
random motion, there is no net transfer of

High potential
Equal potential

Flow of water

No water flow Low potential

(a) Equal gravitational (b) Water flows from high gravitational potential
potential-No water flow to low gravitational potential
(c) (d) I

B A
–
Copper wire
+
A B

End A and B are at same A is at higher electric potential

electric potential. Hence no th
than BB. SSo currentt flows
fl f
from
current A to B

Figure 2.1 Water current and Electric current

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 The electric current in a conductor is E X A M P L E 2. 1
defined as the rate of flow of charges through
a given cross-sectional area A. It is shown in Compute the current in the wire if a charge
the Figure 2.2. of 120 C is flowing through a copper wire
in 1 minute.
Solution
+
+ The current (rate of flow of charge) in the
+ wire is
+ Q 120
+ I= = = 2A
A t 60

I
2.1.1 Conventional Current
Figure 2.2 Charges flow across the area A
Direction of current
I
If a net charge Q passes through any
cross section of a conductor in time t, then
+
Q V
the current is defined as I = . But charge –
t
flow is not always constant. Hence current
can more generally be defined as
Flow of electrons
∆Q
I avg = (2.1) Figure 2.3 Direction of conventional
∆t
current and electron flow
Where ∆Q is the amount of charge that
passes through the conductor at any cross In an electric circuit, arrow heads are used
section during the time interval ∆t. If the to indicate the direction of flow of current.
rate at which charge flows changes in time, By convention, this flow in the circuit should
the current also changes. The instantaneous be from the positive terminal of the battery
current I is defined as the limit of the average to the negative terminal. This current is
current, as ∆t ® 0 called the conventional current or simply
∆Q dQ current and is in the direction in which a
I = lim = (2.2)
∆t →0 ∆t dt positive test charge would move. In typical
circuits the charges that flow are actually
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A) electrons, from the negative terminal of
1C the battery to the positive. As a result, the
1A =
1s flow of electrons and the
direction of conventional
That is, 1A of current is equivalent to
current points in opposite
1 Coulomb of charge passing through a
direction as shown in
perpendicular cross section in 1second. The
Figure 2.3. Mathematically,
electric current is a scalar quantity.
a transfer of positive charge
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 is the same as a transfer of negative charge electric field accelerates the electrons, while
in the opposite direction. ions scatter the electrons and change the
direction of motion. Thus, we have zigzag
paths of electrons. In addition to the zigzag
motion due to the collisions, the electrons
move slowly along the conductor  in a
direction opposite to that of E as shown in
the Figure 2.4.

Ions
Any material is made up of neutral
atoms with equal number of electrons
Electric current is not only produced and protons. If the outermost electrons
by batteries. In nature, lightning bolt leave the atoms, they become free
produces enormous electric current electrons and are responsible for
in a short time. During lightning, very electric current. The atoms after losing
high potential difference is created their outer most electrons will have
between the clouds and ground so more positive charges and hence are
charges flow between the clouds and called positive ions. These ions will not
ground. move freely within the material like the
free electrons. Hence the positive ions
will not give rise to current.
2.1.2 Drift velocity
In a conductor the charge carriers
are free electrons. These electrons move →
vd
freely through the conductor and collide
repeatedly with the positive ions. If there
is no electric field, the electrons move in –
random directions, so the directions of
their velocities are also completely random
direction. On an average, the number of -
electrons travelling in any direction will be
equal to the number of electrons travelling
in the opposite direction. As a result, there is →
E
no net flow of electrons in any direction and
hence there will not be any current.
Figure 2.4 Electric current
Suppose a potential difference is set
across the conductor by connecting a 
battery, an electric field E is created in the This velocity is called drift velocity vd . The
conductor. This electric field exerts a force drift velocity is the average velocity acquired
on the electrons, producing a current. The by the electrons inside the conductor when

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 it is subjected to an electric field. The E X A M P L E 2. 2
average time between successive collisions is
called the mean free time denoted by τ. The If an electric field of magnitude 570
 N C-1, is applied in the copper wire, find the
acceleration a experienced
 by the electron
in an electric field E is given by acceleration experienced by the electron.

 −eE  
a=
m
(since F = −eE ) (2.3) Solution:
 E = 570 N C-1, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C,
The drift velocity vd is given by
  m = 9.11 × 10-31 kg and a = ?
vd = a τ
F = ma = eE
 eτ 
vd = − E (2.4) eE
m 570×1.6×10−19
 a= =
 m 9.11×10−31
vd = −µE (2.5)
912×10−19 ×1031
eτ =
Here µ = is the mobility of the 9.11
m
electron and it is defined as the magnitude = 1.001 × 1014 m s-2
of the drift velocity per unit electric field.
Misconception

vd  here is a common misconception that
(i) T
µ=  (2.6)
E the battery is the source of electrons. It
m2 is not true. When a battery is connected
The SI unit of mobility is . across the given wire, the electrons in the
Vs
closed circuit resulting the current. Battery
The typical drift velocity of sets the potential difference (electrical
Note electrons in the wire is 10-4 m s-1. energy) due to which these electrons in
If an electron drifts with this the conducting wire flow in a particular
speed, then the electrons leaving direction. The resulting electrical energy
the battery will take hours to reach the is used by electric bulb, electric fan etc.
light bulb. Then how electric bulbs glow
Similarly the electricity board is supplying
as soon as we switch on the battery?
When battery is switched on, the electrons
the electrical energy to our home.
begin to move away from the negative (ii) We often use the phrases like ‘charging
terminal of the battery and this electron the battery in my mobile’ and ‘my
exerts force on the nearby electrons. This mobile phone battery has no charge’
process creates a propagating influence etc. These sentences are not correct.
(electric field) that travels through the
wire at the speed of light. In other words,
the energy is transported from the battery
to light bulb at the speed of light through
propagating influence (electric field). Due
to this reason, the light bulb glows as soon
as the battery is switched on.

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 When we say ‘battery has no charge’, Substituting for dx from equation (2.7)
it means, that the battery has lost ability in (2.8)
to provide energy or provide potential = (A vd dt ) n
difference to the electrons in the circuit. Total charge in volume element dQ =
When we say ‘mobile is charging’, it implies (charge) × (number of electrons in the
that the battery is receiving energy from AC volume element)
power supply and not electrons.
dQ = (e)(Avddt)n
dQ neAv d dt
2.1.3 Microscopic model of Hence the current I = =
dt dt
current
I = ne Avd .(2.9)
Consider a conductor with area of cross
section A and an electric field E applied from Current density (J)
right to left. Suppose there are n electrons per The current density ( J ) is defined as the
unit volume in the conductor and assume current per unit area of cross section of the
that all the electrons move with the same conductor.
 I
drift velocity vd as shown in Figure 2.5. J=
A
The S.I unit of current density is A2 (or) A m-2
dx m
neAvd
J= (from equation 2.9)
A
→
v
- d J = ne vd (2.10)
A
The above expression is valid only when
e -
the direction of the current is perpendicular
to the area A. In general, the current density
vd dt is a vector quantity and it is given by
 
J = nevd
Figure 2.5 Microscopic model of current 

Substituting vd from equation (2.4)
The drift velocity of the electrons = vd  n ⋅ e2 τ 
J =− E (2.11)
The electrons move through a distance m
dx within a small interval of dt  
J = −σE
vd = dx ; dx = vd dt(2.7) But conventionally, we take the direction
dt of (conventional) current density as the
Since A is the area of cross section of direction of electric field. So the above
the conductor, the electrons available in the equation becomes
 
volume of length dx is J = σE (2.12)
= volume × number per unit volume ne 2 τ
where σ = is called conductivity.
m
= Adx ´n(2.8) The equation 2.12 is called microscopic
form of ohm’s law.
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 The inverse of conductivity is called E X A M P L E 2. 4
resistivity (ρ ) [Refer section 2.2.1].
Determine the number of electrons flowing
1 m per second through a conductor, when a
ρ= = 2 (2.13)
σ ne τ current of 32 A flows through it.
Solution
E X A M P L E 2. 3
A copper wire of cross-sectional area I = 32 A , t = 1 s
0.5 mm2 carries a current of 0.2 A. If the free Charge of an electron, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
electron density of copper is 8.4 × 1028 m-3
then compute the drift velocity of free The number of electrons flowing per
electrons. second, n =?

Solution I=
q ne
=
t t
The relation between drift velocity of
electrons and current in a wire of cross- It
n=
sectional area A is e

I 0. 2 32×1
vd = = n=
ne A 8.4 ×10 ×1.6×10−19 ×0.5×10−6
28
1.6×10−19 C

vd = 0.03 x 10-3 m s-1 n = 20 × 1019 = 2 × 1020 electrons

2.2

Why current density is a vector OHM’S LAW

Note but current is a scalar?
In general, the current I is
defined as the scalar product of the The ohm’s law can be derived from the
current density and area vector in which equation J = σE. Consider a segment of wire
the charges cross. of length l and cross sectional area A as
shown in Figure 2.7.

The current I can be positive or negative

depending on the choice of the unit l
vector normal to the surface area A.
A I
S

A →
A


E
A 
JJ

I = JA cos 
V
Figure 2.6 Current is a scalar
Figure 2.7 Current through the conductor

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 When a potential difference V is applied of resistance R of the conductor. It is shown
across the wire, a net electric field is created in the Figure 2.8 (a).
in the wire which constitutes the current.
For simplicity, we assume that the electric I I
field is uniform in the entire length of the
wire, the potential difference (voltage V)
can be written as
V = El
As we know, the magnitude of current
density Slope =
1
R
V
J = σE = σ (2.14) V
l
But J = I , so we write the equation (a) (b)
(2.14) as A
I I
I V
=σ .
A l
By rearranging the above equation, we
get
 l 
V = I  (2.15) 1
 σA  Slope =
R
l V
The quantity is called resistance of V
σA
the conductor and it is denoted as (a)R. Note (b)
that the resistance is directly proportional Figure 2.8 Current against voltage for
to the length of the conductor and inversely (a) a conductor which obey Ohm’s law
proportional to area of cross section. and (b) for a non-ohmic device (Diode
Therefore, the macroscopic form of given in XII physics, unit 9 is an example
ohm’s law can be stated as of a non-ohmic device)

V = IR (2.16)
Materials for which the current against
voltage graph is a straight line through the
From the above equation, the resistance
origin, are said to obey Ohm’s law and their
is the ratio of potential difference across
behaviour is said to be ohmic as shown in
the given conductor to the current passing
Figure 2.8(a). Materials or devices that do
through the conductor.
not follow Ohm’s law are said to be non-
V
R=  (2.17) ohmic. These materials have more complex
I
relationships between voltage and current.
The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). A plot of I against V for a non-ohmic
From the equation (2.16), we infer that the material is non-linear and they do not have
graph between current versus voltage is a constant resistance (Figure 2.8(b)).
straight line with a slope equal to the inverse
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 E X A M P L E 2. 5 proportionality constant ρ is called the
resistivity of the material.
A potential difference across 24 Ω resistor
is 12 V. What is the current through the If l = 1 m and A = 1 m2, then the resistance R
resistor? = ρ. In other words, the electrical resistivity
of a material is defined as the resistance
Solution
offered to current flow by a conductor
of unit length having unit area of cross
24 Ω section. The SI unit of ρ is ohm-metre
(Ω m). Based on the resistivity, materials are
classified as conductors, insulators and semi-
I
12 V
conductors. The conductors have lowest
+ – resistivity, insulators have highest resistivity
and semiconductors have resistivity greater
than conductors but less than insulators. The
typical resistivity values of some conductors,
V = 12 V and R = 24 Ω
insulators and semiconductors are given in
Current, I = ?
V 12 the Table 2.1
From Ohm’s law, I = = = 0.5 A
R 24
Table 2.1 Resistivity for various
2.2.1 Resistivity materials
In the previous section, we have seen that Resistivity, ρ (Ω m)
Material
the resistance R of any conductor is given by at 200C
l Insulators
R= (2.18)
σA Pure Water 2.5 × 105
where σ is called the conductivity of the Glass 1010 - 1014
material and it depends only on the type of Hard Rubber 1013 - 1016
the material used and not on its dimension.
NaCl - 1014
The resistivity of a material is equal to
the reciprocal of its conductivity. Fused Quartz - 1016
Semiconductors
1
ρ = (2.19) Germanium 0.46
σ
Silicon 640
Now we can rewrite equation (2.18)
using equation (2.19) Conductors

l Silver 1.6 × 10-8

R = ρ (2.20)
A Copper 17 × 10-8
The resistance of a material is directly Aluminium 2.7 × 10-8
proportional to the length of the conductor Tungsten 5.6 × 10-8
and inversely proportional to the area Iron 10 × 10-8
of cross section of the conductor. The
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 E X A M P L E 2. 6 B
C
B
C

The resistance of a wire is 20 Ω. What A A

will be new resistance, if it is stretched + – +

–
uniformly 8 times its original length? I = IAB
I= ?

(a) V (b) V

Solution
If a potential difference of V is applied
R1 = 20 Ω, R2= ?
between the two faces A and B of the block
Let the original length (l1) be l. (figure (a)), the current IAB is observed.
The new length, l2 = 8l1 (i.,e) l2 =8l Find the current that flows if the same
potential difference V is applied between
l1
The original resistance, R1 = ρ the two faces B and C of the block (figure
A1
(b)). Give your answers in terms of IAB.
l2 ρ(8l )
The new resistance R2 = ρ =
A2 A2 Solution
Though the wire is stretched, its volume is In the first case, the resistance of the block
unchanged.
length C
Initial volume = Final volume RAB = ρ =ρ
Area AB
A1l1= A2l2 ,  A1l = A28l V V AB
The current I AB = = ⋅ (1)
A1 8l RAB ρ C
= =8
A2 l In the second case, the resistance of the
 y dividing equation R2 by equation R1,
B block RBC = ρ A
BC
we get V V BC
The current I BC = = ⋅ (2)
R2 ρ(8l ) A1 RBC ρ A
= ×
R1 A2 ρl
To express IBC interms of IAB, we multiply
R2 A1 and divide equation (2) by AC, we get
= ×8
R1 A2
A1 V BC AC V AB  C 2 C 2
Substituting the value of , we get I BC = ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ I AB
A2 ρ A AC  ρ C  A2 A2
R2
= 8×8 = 64 Since C > A, the current IBC > IAB
R1
R2 = 64 × 20=1280 Ω
Hence, stretching the length of the wire has The human body contains a large
increased its resistance. amount of water which has low
resistance of around 200 Ω and
the dry skin has high resistance of
E X A M P L E 2. 7
around 500 k Ω. But when the skin is wet, the
Consider a rectangular block of metal of resistance is reduced to around1000 Ω. This is
the reason, repairing the electrical connection
height A, width B and length C as shown
with the wet skin is always dangerous.
in the figure.

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 and R3 since the charges cannot accumulate
2.2.2 Resistors in series and
anywhere in the circuit. Due to this reason, the
parallel
current I passing through all the three resistors
An electric circuit may contain a number is the same. According to Ohm’s law, if same
of resistors which can be connected in current pass through different resistors of
different ways. For each type of circuit, different values, then the potential difference
we can calculate the equivalent resistance across each resistor must be different. Let V1,
produced by a group of individual resistors. V2 and V3 be the potential difference (voltage)
Resistors in series across each of the resistors R1, R2 and R3
When two or more resistors are connected respectively, then we can write V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2
end to end, they are said to be in series. The and V3 = IR3. But the total voltage V is equal to
resistors could be simple resistors or bulbs the sum of voltages across each resistor.
or heating elements or other devices. Figure
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3(2.21)
2.9 (a) shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3
connected in series. V = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
The amount of charge passing through
resistor R1 must also pass through resistors R2 V = I.RS (2.22)
R1
I I where RS is the equivalent resistance,
V1
RS= R1 + R2 + R3(2.23)
+
V V2 R2
–
When several resistances are connected
V3
I
in series, the total or equivalent resistance
I
R3 is the sum of the individual resistances as
(a) Three resistors in series shown in the Figure 2.9 (b).
I Note: The value of equivalent resistance
in series connection will be greater than
each individual resistance.
+
V RS
–
E X A M P L E 2. 8
Calculate the equivalent resistance for the
(b) Equivalent resistance (RS) has the same current circuit which is connected to 24 V battery
and also find the potential difference across
Resistor
4 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in the circuit.
1kΩ
+
Battery

Resistor

R1 R2
2kΩ

–
4Ω 6Ω
Resistor

3kΩ
I
I

(c) Resistors in series (Actual photo )

Figure 2.9 Resistors in series + -

24 V

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 Solution I

Since the resistors are connected in series, I1 I2 I3

the effective resistance in the circuit +

V R1 R2 R3 V
–
= 4 Ω + 6 Ω = 10 Ω
V 24
The Current I in the circuit = = = 2. 4 A
Req 10 I
(a) Three resistors in parallel
Voltage across 4Ω resistor I

V1 = IR1 = 2.4 A× 4Ω = 9.6V

Voltage across 6 Ω resistor +

RP
–
V2 = IR1 = 2.4 A×6 Ω = 14.4 V

Resistors in parallel I
(b) Equivalent resistance (RP) has the same current
Resistors are in parallel when they are
connected across the same potential
1kΩ
difference as shown in Figure 2.10 (a).
In this case, the total current I that leaves
2kΩ
the battery is split into three separate paths.
Let I1, I2 and I3 be the current through the 3kΩ
resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Due to
Battery
the conservation of charge, total current in
– +
the circuit I is equal to sum of the currents
through each of the three resistors.
(c) Resistors in parallel(Actual photo)

I = I1 + I2 + I3(2.24)
Figure 2.10 Resistors in parallel
Since the voltage across each resistor
Here RP is the equivalent resistance of the
is the same, applying Ohm’s law to each
parallel combination of the resistors. Thus,
resistor, we have
when a number of resistors are connected
V V V in parallel, the sum of the reciprocal of the
I1 = , I 2 = , I 3 = (2.25)
R1 R2 R3 values of resistance of the individual resistor
Substituting these values in equation is equal to the reciprocal of the effective
(2.24),we get resistance of the combination as shown in
the Figure 2.10 (b)
V V V 1 1 1
I= + + =V  + +  Note: The value of equivalent resistance
R1 R2 R3 R 
 1 R2 R3  in parallel connection will be lesser than
V each individual resistance.
I= House hold appliances are always
RP
connected in parallel so that even if one
1 1 1 1
= + + (2.26) is switched off, the other devices could
RP R1 R2 R3
function properly.
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 E X A M P L E 2. 9 Solution

Calculate the equivalent resistance in the Rs = R1 + R2 = 15 Ω  (1)

following circuit and also find the current R1R2 56
RP = = Ω (2)
I, I1 and I2 in the given circuit. R1 + R2 15
 rom equation (1) substituting for R1 + R2
F
R1
in equation (2)
4Ω
R1R2 56
I1
R2 = Ω
15 15
6Ω

I
I2
∴ R1R2 = 56

+ –
R2 = 56 Ω  (3)
24 V 15
Substituting for R2 in equation (1) from
Solution equation (3)
Since the resistances are connected in 56
R1 + = 15
parallel, therefore, the equivalent resistance R1
in the circuit is R12 + 56
Then, = 15
R1
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + R12+ 56 = 15 R1
RP R1 R2 4 6
1 5 12
= Ω or RP = Ω R12-15 R1+ 56 = 0
RP 12 5
 he above equation can be solved using
T
The resistors are connected in parallel, the factorisation.
potential (voltage) across each resistor is
R12-8 R1-7 R1+ 56 = 0
the same.
R1 (R1– 8) – 7 (R1– 8) = 0
V 24V
I1 = = = 6A (R1– 8) (R1– 7) = 0
R1 6Ω
V 24 If (R1= 8 Ω)
I2 = = = 4A
R2 6
using in equation (1)
The current I is the total of the currents in
the two branches. Then, 8 + R2 = 15

I = I1 + I2= 6 A + 4 A = 10 A R2 = 15 – 8 = 7 Ω ,

R2 = 7 Ω i.e , (when R1 = 8 Ω ; R2 = 7 Ω)
E X A M P L E 2. 10
If (R1= 7 Ω)
When two resistances connected in series
Substituting in equation (1)
and parallel their equivalent resistances
56 7 + R2 = 15
are 15 Ω and Ω respectively. Find the
15 R2 = 8 Ω , i.e , (when R1 = 8 Ω ; R2 = 7 Ω )
individual resistances.
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 E X A M P L E 2. 11
1Ω 2Ω 3Ω

Calculate the equivalent resistance between A B

A and B in the given circuit.
Equivalent resistance between A and B is
2Ω 4Ω 6Ω

A B 6Ω
2Ω 4Ω 6Ω
A B

Solution
Parallel connection
E X A M P L E 2. 1 2
Part 1
Five resistors are connected in the
1 1 1
= + configuration as shown in the figure.
R p1 R1 R2
Calculate the equivalent resistance between
1 1 1 2 the points a and b.
= + = R p1 = 1Ω
R p1 2 2 2
c

4Ω 6Ω
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
A RP1 B

4Ω 6Ω
5Ω
a b

Part II
1Ω 1Ω
1 1 1 2 1 1
= + = , = , R p2 = 2 Ω
R p2 4 4 4 R p 2 d
2

6Ω
Solution
1Ω 6Ω
A
R
B Case (a)
P2
6Ω
To find the equivalent resistance between
the points a and b, we assume that current
Part III
is entering the junction a. Since all the
1 1 1 2 resistances in the outside loop are the same
= + =
R p3 6 6 6 (1Ω), the current in the branches ac and
1 1 ad must be equal. So the electric potential
= , R p3 = 3 Ω
R p3 3 at the point c and d is the same hence no
current flows into 5 Ω resistance. It implies
R = R p1 + R p2 + R p3 that the 5 Ω has no role in determining
the equivalent resistance and it can be
R=1+2+3R=6Ω
removed. So the circuit is simplified as
The circuit became: shown in the figure.

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 1Ω 1Ω Table 2.2 Color Coding for Resistors
1/2Ω 1/2Ω 1Ω
Color Number Multiplier Tolerance
a c, d b a b
a c, d b
1Ω 1Ω Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
1Ω
1/2Ω 1/2Ω
Red 1Ω 2 102
Orange 3 103
a c, d b a b
c, d b Yellow 4 104
1Ω
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
1/2Ω 1/2Ω 1Ω
Gray 8 108
a c, d b a b
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 5%
Sliver 10−2 10%
The equivalent resistance of the circuit
between a and b is Req = 1Ω Colorless 20%

shows the tolerance of the resistor at 10% or

2.2.3 Color code for Carbon 5% as shown in the Figure 2.12 .If there is no
resistors fourth ring, the tolerance is 20%.
For the resistor shown in Figure 2.12,
the first digit = 5 (green), the second digit
= 6 (blue), decimal multiplier = 103 (orange)
and tolerance = 5% (gold). The value of
resistance = 56 × 103 Ω or 56 kΩ with the
Figure 2.11 Resistance used in our tolerance value 5%.
laboratory
While reading the colour code,
Note hold the resistor with colour
Carbon resistors consists of a ceramic
bands to your left. Resistors
core, on which a thin layer of crystalline
never start with a metallic band on the left.
carbon is deposited as shown in Figure 2.11.
These resistors are inexpensive, stable and Decimal
multiplier Tolerance
compact in size. Color rings are used to (metallic band)
indicate the value of the resistance according
to the rules given in the Table 2.2.
Three coloured rings are used to indicate
the values of a resistor: the first two rings First digit
Second digit
are significant figures of resistances, the
third ring indicates the decimal multiplier
Figure 2.12 Resistor color coding
after them. The fourth color, silver or gold,
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 increase in temperature according to the
expression,

ρT = ρ 1 + α (T − T ) (2.27)

where ρT is the resistivity of a conductor

Measuring current
at T oC, ρo is the resistivity of the conductor
at some reference temperature To (usually at
o
C) and α is theMeasuring
Measuring20resistance temperature
voltagecoefficient
of resistivity. It is defined as the ratio of
increase in resistivity per degree rise in
temperature to its resistivity at To.
From the equation (2.27), we can write
Measuring current
ρT − ρ = α ρ (T − T )

Measuring resistance Measuring voltage ρT − ρ ∆ρ

∴α= =
ρ (T − T ) ρ ∆T

where ∆ρ = ρT – ρo is change in resistivity

for a change in temperature ∆T = T – To. Its
unit is per oC.
α of conductors
For conductors α is positive. If the
temperature of a conductor increases, the
average kinetic energy of electrons in the
Measuring resistance Measuring voltage conductor increases. This results in more
A multimeter is a very useful frequent collisions and hence the resistivity
electronic instrument used to increases. The graph of the equation (2.27)
measure voltage, current, resistance is shown in Figure 2.13
and capacitance. In fact, it can also Even though, the resistivity of conductors
measure AC voltage and AC current. like metals varies linearly for wide range
The circular slider has to be kept in of temperatures, there also exists a non-
appropriate position to measure each linear region at very low temperatures. The
electrical quantity. resistivity approaches some finite value as
the temperature approaches absolute zero as
shown in Figure 2.13(b).
As the resistance is directly proportional
2.2.4 Temperature to resistivity of the material, we can also write
dependence of resistivity the resistance of a conductor at temperature
The resistivity of a material is dependent T oC as
on temperature. It is experimentally found
that for a wide range of temperatures, the
RT = R 1 + α (T − T ) (2.28)
resistivity of a conductor increases with
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 (Ωm)
ρ
ρ (Ωm)

0 T
(K)

T(K)
ρ0

0
T
Figure 2.14 Temperature dependence of
resistivity for a semiconductor

Figure 2.13 (a) Temperature

dependence of resistivity for a conductor
Table 2.3
(b) Non linear region at low temperature
Temperature
Color
Coefficient α [(°C)−1]
The temperature coefficient can be also Silver 3.8 × 10−3
be obtained from the equation (2.28),
Copper 3.9 × 10−3
RT − R = α R (T − T )
Gold 3.4 × 10−3
RT − R 1 ∆R
∴α= = Aluminum 3.9 × 10−3
R (T − T ) R ∆T
1 ∆R Tungsten 4.5 × 10−3
α= (2.29)
R ∆T  Iron 5.0 × 10−3
where ∆R = RT − R is change in resistance Platinum 3.92 × 10−3
during the change in temperature ∆T = T − T Lead 3.9 × 10−3
α of semiconductors Nichrome 0.4 × 10−3
For semiconductors, the resistivity Carbon −0.5 × 10−3
decreases with increase in temperature. As Germanium −48 × 10−3
the temperature increases, more electrons Silicon −75 × 10−3
will be liberated from their atoms (Refer
unit 9 for conduction in semi conductors). We can understand the temperature
Hence the current increases and therefore dependence of resistivity in the following
the resistivity decreases as shown in Figure way. In section 2.1.3, we have shown that
2.14. A semiconductor with a negative ne 2 τ
the electrical conductivity, σ = . As the
temperature coefficient of resistance is m
called a thermistor. resistivity is inverse of σ, it can be written as,
The typical values of temperature
m
coefficients of various materials are given in ρ= (2.30)
ne 2 τ
table 2.3.
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 The resistivity of materials is E X A M P L E 2. 1 4
i) inversely proportional to the number
density (n) of the electrons Resistance of a material at 100C and 400C
ii) inversely proportional to the average are 45 Ω and 85 Ω respectively. Find its
time between the collisions (τ). temperature co-efficient of resistance.
In metals, if the temperature increases, Solution
the average time between the collision (τ)
decreases and n is independent of temperature. T0 = 10 0C, T = 40 0C, R0= 45 Ω , R = 85 Ω
In semiconductors when temperature 1 ∆R
α=
increases, n increases and τ decreases, but R ∆T
increase in n is dominant than decreasing τ, 1  85 − 45  1  40 
so that overall resistivity decreases. α=   =  
45  40 −10  45  30 
α = 0.0296 per C
The resistance of certain
materials become zero below
certain temperature Tc. 2.3
This temperature is known as critical
ENERGY AND POWER IN
temperature or transition temperature.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
The materials which exhibit this property
are known as superconductors. This
phenomenon was first observed by When a battery is connected between the
Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911. He found
ends of a conductor, a current is established.
that mercury exhibits superconductor
The battery is transporting energy to the
behaviour at 4.2 K. Since R = 0, current
device which is connected in the circuit.
once induced in a superconductor persists
Consider a circuit in which a battery of
without any potential difference.
voltage V is connected to the resistor as
shown in Figure 2.15.

E X A M P L E 2. 13 I

If the resistance of coil is 3 Ω at 20 0C and b c

α = 0.004/0C then determine its resistance
+
at 100 0C.
- V R

Solution
a d
R0= 3 Ω, T = 100 C, T0 = 20 C
0 0

α = 0.004/0C, RT= ?
RT= R0(1 + α(T-T0)) Figure 2.15 Energy given by the battery
R100 = 3(1 + 0.004 × 80)
R100 = 3(1 + 0.32) Assume that a positive charge of dQ
R100 = 3(1.32) moves from point a to b through the battery
R100 = 3.96 Ω and moves from point c to d through the
resistor and back to point a. When the charge
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 moves from point a to b, it gains potential Usually these voltage rating refers AC
energy dU = V.dQ and the chemical potential RMS voltages. For a given bulb, if the voltage
energy of the battery decreases by the drop across the bulb is greater than voltage
same amount. When this charge dQ passes rating, the bulb will fuse.
through resistor it loses the potential energy
Using Ohm’s law, power delivered to the
dU = V.dQ due to collision with atoms in the
resistance R is expressed in other forms
resistor and again reaches the point a. This
process occurs continuously till the battery
is connected in the circuit. The rate at which P = IV = I (IR) = I2R(2.33)
the charge loses its electrical potential
energy in the resistor can be calculated. V V2
P = IV = V= (2.34)
The electrical power P is the rate at which R R
the electrical potential energy is delivered,

dV d dQ The electrical power

P= = (V .dQ ) = V (2.31)
dt dt dt
produced (dissipated) by
dQ a resistor is I2R. It depends
Since the electric current I = .
dt on the square of the current. Hence,
So the equation (2.31) can be rewritten as if current is doubled, the power
will increase by four times. Similar
P = VI(2.32) explanation holds true for voltage also.

This expression gives the power delivered

by the battery to any electrical system, where The total energy used by any device
I is the current passing through it and V is is obtained by multiplying the power and
the potential difference across it. The SI unit duration of the time when it is ON. If the
of electrical power is watt (1W = 1 J s-1). power is in watts and the time is in seconds,
Commercially, the electrical bulbs used in the energy will be in joules. In practice,
houses come with the power and voltage electrical energy is measured in kilowatt
rating of 5W-220V, 30W-220V, 60W-220V hour (kWh). 1 kWh is known as 1 unit of
etc. (Figure 2.16). electrical energy.
(1 kWh = 1000 Wh = (1000 W) (3600 s)
= 3.6 x 106 J)

The Tamilnadu
Electricity Board is charging
for the amount of energy you
use and not for the power. A current
of 1A flowing through a potential
difference of 1V produces a power of
Figure 2.16 Electrical bulbs with power
rating 1W.

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 E X A M P L E 2. 15 that, the 30W has twice as much as
A battery of voltage V is connected to resistance as 60 W bulb.
30 W bulb and 60 W bulb as shown in (c) When these two bulbs are connected
the figure. (a) Identify brightest bulb in series, the current passing through
(b) which bulb has greater resistance? each bulb is the same. It is equivalent
(c) Suppose the two bulbs are connected in to two resistors connected in series.
series, which bulb will glow brighter? The bulb which has higher resistance
30W has higher voltage drop. So 30W
bulb will glow brighter than 60W
bulb. So the higher power rating does
not always imply more brightness
e f and it depends whether bulbs are
60W connected in series or parallel.

E X A M P L E 2. 1 6
c d Two electric bulbs marked 20 W – 220 V
and 100 W – 220 V are connected in series
– to 440 V supply. Which bulb will be fused?
a
+

b
V Solution
To check which bulb will be fused, the
Solution voltage drop across each bulb has to be
(a)  he power delivered by the battery
T calculated.
P = VI. Since the bulbs are connected The resistance of a bulb,
in parallel, the voltage drop across
2
each bulb is the same. If the voltage is V 2 (Rated voltage)
R= =
kept fixed, then the power is directly P Rated power
proportional to current (P ∝ I). For 20W-220V bulb,
So 60 W bulb draws twice as much
2
as current as 30 W and it will glow (220)
R1 = Ω = 2420 Ω
brighter then others. 20
(b)  o calculate the resistance of the
T For 100W-220V bulb,
V2
bulbs, we use the relation P = . 2
R (220)
R2 = Ω = 484 Ω
In both the bulbs, the voltage drop 100
is the same, so the power is inversely
proportional to the resistance or Both the bulbs are connected in series. So
resistance is inversely proportional the current which passes through both the
  bulbs are same. The current that passes
to the power R ∝ 1 . It implies V
 P  through the circuit, I =
Rtot
.

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 Rtot = (R1 + R2 ) is connected to a circuit, electrons flow
from the negative terminal to the positive
Rtot = (484 + 2420) Ω = 2904Ω
terminal through the circuit. By using
440V chemical reactions, a battery produces
I= ≈ 0.151 A
2904Ω potential difference across its terminals.
The voltage drop across the 20W bulb is This potential difference provides the
440 energy to move the electrons through the
V1 = IR1 = ×2420 ≈ 366.6 V
2904 circuit. Commercially available electric cells
The voltage drop across the 100W bulb is and batteries are shown in Figure 2.18

440
V2 = IR2 = × 484 ≈ 73.3 V
2904

The 20 W bulb will be fused because its

voltage rating is only 220 V and 366.6 V is
dropped across it. Figure 2.18 Electric cells and Batteries

2.4 If we connect copper and

zinc rod in a lemon, it acts
ELECTRIC CELLS AND
as an electric cell. The citric
BATTERIES
acid in the lemon acts as an electrolyte.
The potential can be measured using a
An electric cell converts chemical energy multimeter.
into electrical energy to produce electricity.
It contains two electrodes immersed in an
electrolyte as shown in Figure 2.17.

+ –
Terminal Terminal

Carbon + – Zinc
electrode electrode
(+) (-)

Sulfuric acid

Figure 2.17 Simple electric cell

Several electric cells connected together

form a battery. When a cell or battery
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 2.4.1 Electromotive force
ξ r
and internal resistance + –
A battery or cell is called a source of
electromotive force (emf). The term
‘electromotive force’ is a misnomer since it
does not really refer to a force but describes
a potential difference in volts. The emf of
+ V
–
a battery or cell is the voltage provided by
(a) Voltmeter
the battery when no current flows in the
external circuit. It is shown in Figure 2.19.
ξ r
+ –

I + V
–
R

(b)
V
Figure 2.19 Measuring the emf of a cell
Figure 2.20 Internal resistance of the cell
Electromotive force determines the
amount of work a battery or cell does to The emf of cell ξ is measured by
move a certain amount of charge around the connecting a high resistance voltmeter
circuit. It is denoted by the symbol ξ and to across it without connecting the external
be pronounced as ‘xi’. An ideal battery has resistance R as shown in Figure 2.20(a).
zero internal resistance and the potential Since the voltmeter draws very little current
difference (terminal voltage) across the for deflection, the circuit may be considered
battery equals to its emf. But a real battery as open. Hence the voltmeter reading gives
is made of electrodes and electrolyte, there the emf of the cell. Then, external resistance
is resistance to the flow of charges within R is included in the circuit and current I
the battery. This resistance is called internal is established in the circuit. The potential
resistance r. For a real battery, the terminal difference across R is equal to the potential
voltage is not equal to the emf of the battery. difference across the cell (V) as shown in
A freshly prepared cell has low internal Figure 2.20(b).
resistance and it increases with ageing. The potential drop across the resistor R is

V = IR (2.35)
2.4.2 Determination of
internal resistance
Due to internal resistance r of the cell,
The circuit connections are made as shown the voltmeter reads a value V, which is less
in Figure 2.20. than the emf of cell ξ. It is because, certain
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 amount of voltage (Ir) has dropped across voltage and the internal resistance of the
the internal resistance r. battery (b) power delivered by the battery
Then V = ξ – Ir and power delivered to the resistor

Ir = ξ – V(2.36) Solution
The given values I = 3.93 A, ξ = 12 V,
Dividing equation (2.36) by equation
R=3Ω
(2.35), we get
Ir ξ − V (a)  he terminal voltage of the battery
T
=
IR V is equal to voltage drop across the
 ξ −V  resistor
r=  R (2.37)
 V  V = IR = 3.93 × 3 = 11.79 V
Since ξ, V and R are known, internal The internal resistance of the battery,
resistance r can be determined. We can
also find the total current that flows in the  ξ −V  12 −11.79 
r= R =   ×3 = 0.05 Ω
circuit.  V   11.79 
Due to this internal resistance, the power (b) The power delivered by the battery P
delivered to the circuit is not equal to power = Iξ = 3.93 × 12 = 47.1 W
rating mentioned in the battery. For a battery
The power delivered to the resistor = I2 R
of emf ξ, with an internal resistance r, the
= 46.3 W
power delivered to the circuit of resistance
R is given by The remaining power = (47.1 – 46.3)
P = 0.772 W is delivered to the internal
P = Iξ = I (V + Ir) (from equation 2.36)
resistance and cannot be used to do useful
Here V is the voltage drop across the work. (it is equal to I2 r).
resistance R and it is equal to IR.
Therefore, P = I (IR +Ir)
2.4.3 Cells in series
P = I2 R + I2 r(2.38) Several cells can be connected to form a
battery. In series connection, the negative
Here I2 r is the power delivered to the terminal of one cell is connected to the
internal resistance and I2 R is the power positive terminal of the second cell, the
delivered to the electrical device (here it negative terminal of second cell is connected
is the resistance R). For a good battery, to the positive terminal of the third cell
the internal resistance r is very small, then and so on. The free positive terminal of the
I2 r << I2 R and almost entire power is first cell and the free negative terminal of
delivered to the resistance. the last cell become the terminals of the
battery.
E X A M P L E 2. 17
Suppose n cells, each of emf ξ volts and
A battery has an emf of 12 V and connected internal resistance r ohms are connected in
to a resistor of 3 Ω. The current in the series with an external resistance R as shown
circuit is 3.93 A. Calculate (a) terminal in Figure 2.21

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 Thus series connection of cells is
advantageous only when the effective
internal resistance of the cells is negligibly
small compared with R.

Activity
Construct lemon cells in series and
Cella in series (Schematic diagram) observe the potential of this combination
ξ ξ ξ ξ
+ –

Cells in series (circuit diagram)

Figure 2.21 cells in series

The total emf of the battery = nξ

The total resistance in the circuit = nr + R E X A M P L E 2. 1 8
By Ohm’s law, the current in the circuit is
From the given circuit,
total emf nξ
I= = (2.39) 9V 9V 9V 9V
total resistance nr + R + -

Case (a) If r << R, then, 0.1Ω 0.1Ω 0.1Ω 0.1Ω

I
nξ
I= ≈ nI1(2.40)
R R = 10Ω
where, I1 is the current due to a single cell
 
 I1 = ξ  Find
 R  i) Equivalent emf of the combination
Thus, if r is negligible when compared
ii) Equivalent internal resistance
to R the current supplied by the battery is n
iii)  otal current
T
times that supplied by a single cell.
iv)  otential difference across external
P
nξ ξ resistance
Case (b) If r>>R, I = ≈ (2.41)
nr r
v) Potential difference across each cell
It is the current due to a single cell. That is, Solution
current due to the whole battery is the same as
that due to a single cell and hence there is no i) Equivalent emf of the combination
advantage in connecting several cells. ξeq = nξ = 4 9 = 36 V

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 ii) Equivalent internal resistance req = nr ξ
= 4 × 0.1 = 0.4 Ω + –

nξ ξ
iii) Total current I = + + – –
R + nr
4 ×9 ξ
= I + –-
10 + (4 ×0.1)
4 ×9 36
= = V
10 + 0.4 10.4
I = 3.46 A R
cells in parallel (Circuit diagram)
iv)  otential difference across external
P
resistance V = IR = 3.46 × 10 = 34.6
V. The remaining 1.4 V is dropped
across the internal resistance of cells.
v) Potential difference across each cell
V 34.6
= = 8.65V
n 4

2.4.4 Cells in parallel Cells in parallel (Schematic diagram)

In parallel connection all the positive Figure 2.22 Cells in parallel

terminals of the cells are connected to one
point and all the negative terminals to a second nξ
point. These two points form the positive and I= (2.42)
r + nR
negative terminals of the battery.
Let n cells be connected in parallel nξ
Case (a) If r >> R, I = = nI1(2.43)
between the points A and B and a resistance r
R is connected between the points A and B where I1 is the current due to a single cell
as shown in Figure 2.22. Let ξ be the emf ξ
and is equal to when R is negligible. Thus,
and r the internal resistance of each cell. r
The equivalent internal resistance of the the current through the external resistance
1 1 1 1 n due to the whole battery is n times the
battery is = + + .... (nterms) = . So current due to a single cell.
req r r r r
r ξ
req = and the total resistance in the circuit Case (b) If r<<R, I = (2.44)
n R
r
= R + . The total emf is the potential
n
difference between the points A and B, When the car engine is
which is equal to ξ. The current in the started with headlights
circuit is given by turned on, they sometimes
ξ become dim. This is due to the internal
I=
r resistance of the car battery.
+R
n
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 The above equation implies that current I
v) Current from each cell, I ′ =
due to the whole battery is the same as that n
due to a single cell. Hence it is advantageous 0. 5
I′ = = 0.125 A
to connect cells in parallel when the external 4
resistance is very small compared to the
internal resistance of the cells. 2.5
E X A M P L E 2. 19 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
From the given circuit

5V Ohm’s law is useful only for simple circuits.

For more complex circuits, Kirchhoff ’s rules
0.5 Ω
5V can be used to find current and voltage. There
are two generalized rules: i) Kirchhoff ’s
0.5 Ω
5V current rule ii) Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule.
0.5 Ω
I 5V 2.5.1 Kirchhoff’s first rule
0.5 Ω (Current rule or Junction rule)
It states that the algebraic sum of the
currents at any junction of a circuit is zero.
It is a statement of conservation of electric
R = 10 Ω charge. All charges that enter a given
junction in a circuit must leave that junction
Find since charge cannot build up or disappear at
i) Equivalent emf a junction. Current entering the junction
ii) Equivalent internal resistance is taken as positive and current leaving the
iii) Total current (I) junction is taken as negative.
iv) Potential difference across each cell
v) Current from each cell
Solution I1 I2
i) Equivalent emf ξeq = 5 V
ii) Equivalent internal resistance, A I3
r 0. 5
Req = = = 0.125 Ω
n 4 I4
ξ I5
iii) total current, I =
R+ r
5 5 n
I= = Figure 2.23 Kirchhoff ’s current rule
10 + 0.125 10.125
I ≈ 0.5 A
Applying this law to the junction A in
iv) Potential difference across each cell
Figure 2.23
V = IR = 0.5 × 10 = 5 V
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 I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 – I5 = 0 The product of current and resistance is
(or) taken as positive when the direction of the
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5 current is followed. Suppose if the direction
of current is opposite to the direction of the
E X A M P L E 2. 20 loop, then product of current and voltage
From the given circuit find the value of I. across the resistor is negative. It is shown
in Figure 2.24 (a) and (b). The emf is
considered positive when proceeding from
the negative to the positive terminal of the
cell. It is shown in Figure 2.24 (c) and (d).
0.4A
0.6A Going from a to b
0.2A
0.5A R
I
I 0.7A
a b
(a) V = +IR

Going from b to a
R
I

Solution (b)
a
V = -IR
b

Applying Kirchoff ’s rule to the point P in Going from a to b

the circuit, ξ

The arrows pointing towards P are positive

- +
a b
and away from P are negative. (c) V = +ξ

Therefore, 0.2A – 0.4A + 0.6A – 0.5A + Going from b to a

0.7A – I = 0 ξ

1.5A – 0.9A – I = 0
- +
a b
0.6A – I = 0 (d) V = –ξ
I = 0.6 A
Figure 2.24 Kirchhoff voltage rule

2.5.2 Kirchhoff’s Second rule Kirchhoff voltage rule has to be applied

(Voltage rule or Loop rule) only when all currents in the circuit reach
a steady state condition (the current in
It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic
various branches are constant).
sum of the products of the current and
resistance of each part of the circuit is equal
E X A M P L E 2. 2 1
to the total emf included in the circuit. This
rule follows from the law of conservation of The following figure shows a complex
energy for an isolated system (The energy network of conductors which can be
supplied by the emf sources is equal to the divided into two closed loops like ACE and
sum of the energy delivered to all resistors). ABC. Apply Kirchoff ’s voltage rule.

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 ξ We can denote the current that flows from
+ - 9V battery as I1 and it splits into I2 and I1
– I2 in the junction according Kirchoff ’s
I1 E I3
current rule (KCR). It is shown below.
R1 R3
I2
Now consider the loop EFCBE and apply
A C KVR, we get
R2
R4 R5
1I2 + 3I1 + 2I1 = 9
I4 I5
5I1 + I2 = 9 (1)

B Applying KVR to the loop EADFE, we get

3 (I1 – I2 ) – 1I2 = 6
Solution
3I1 – 4I2 = 6 (2)
Thus applying Kirchoff ’s second law to the
closed loop EACE Solving equation (1) and (2), we get

I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 = ξ I1 = 1.83 A and I2 = -0.13 A

and for the closed loop ABCA It implies that the current in the 1 ohm
I4R4 + I5R5-I2R2= 0 resistor flows from F to E.

E X A M P L E 2. 22 2.5.3 Wheatstone’s bridge

Calculate the current that flows in the 1 Ω An important application of Kirchhoff ’s
resistor in the following circuit. rules is the Wheatstone’s bridge. It is used
to compare resistances and also helps in
A E B
2Ω
determining the unknown resistance in
6V electrical network. The bridge consists of
four resistances P, Q, R and S connected
1Ω
9V as shown in Figure 2.25. A galvanometer
3Ω
G is connected between the points B and
3Ω
D. The battery is connected between the
D F C
points A and C. The current through the
Solution galvanometer is IG and its resistance is G.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s current rule to
A E B junction B
I1 - I2 2Ω
I2 I1 I1 – IG – I3 = 0 (2.45)
6V
1Ω
9V Applying Kirchhoff ’s current rule to
junction D,
3Ω 3Ω
D F I1 C I2 + IG – I4 = 0 (2.46)

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 B Dividing equation (2.52) by equation
I3 (2.51), we get
P P +Q R + S
IG Q =
P R
I1
Q S
A
1+ = 1+
I2 G
C P R
Q S
=
P R
R I4 S
P R
= (2.53)
I I Q S
D
This is the bridge balance condition.
ξ Only under this condition, galvanometer
shows null deflection. Suppose we know
the values of two adjacent resistances, the
Figure 2.25 Wheatstone’s bridge
other two resistances can be compared. If
three of the resistances are known, the value
Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule to loop of unknown resistance (fourth one) can be
ABDA, determined.
I1P + IGG – I2R = 0 (2.47)

Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule to loop

ABCDA,

I1P + I3Q – I4S – I2R = 0 (2.48)

When the points B and D are at the

same potential, the bridge is said to be
balanced. As there is no potential difference
between B and D, no current flows through A galvanometer is an instrument used
galvanometer (IG = 0). Substituting IG = 0 in for detecting and measuring even very
equation (2.45), (2.46) and (2.47), we get small electric currents. It is extensively
useful to compare the potential
I1= I3(2.49)
difference between various parts of
the circuit.
I2 =I4(2.50)

I1P =I2R(2.51)
Substituting the equation (2.49) and E X A M P L E 2. 2 3
(2.50) in equation (2.48)
In a Wheatstone’s bridge P = 100 Ω, Q =
I1P + I1Q – I2S – I2R = 0 1000 Ω and R = 40 Ω. If the galvanometer
I1 (P + Q) = I2 (R +S) (2.52) shows zero deflection, determine the value
of S.
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 Solution 2.5.4 Meter bridge
P R The meter bridge is another form of
=
Q S Wheatstone’s bridge. It consists of a uniform
Q manganin wire AB of one meter length.
S= ×R
P This wire is stretched along a meter scale
1000 on a wooden board between two copper
S= × 40 S = 400 Ω
100 strips C and D. Between these two copper
strips another copper strip E is mounted
E X A M P L E 2. 24 to enclose two gaps G1 and G2 as shown in
Figure 2.26. An unknown resistance P is
What is the value of x when the Wheatstone’s
connected in G1 and a standard resistance
network is balanced?
Q is connected in G2. A jockey (conducting
P = 500 Ω, Q = 800 Ω, R = x + 400, wire) is connected to the terminal E on the
S = 1000 Ω central copper strip through a galvanometer
(G) and a high resistance (HR). The exact
position of jockey on the wire can be read
500Ω on the scale. A Lechlanche cell and a key (K)
800Ω
P Q are connected across the ends of the bridge
wire.
G

x
R P Q
S
1000Ω C E D
400Ω G1 G2

G HR

ξ
J
A B
l1 l2

Metre Scale
Solution
( )
P R
= ξ K
Q S
500 x + 400 Figure 2.26 Meter bridge
=
800 1000
x + 400 500
= The position of the jockey on the wire is
1000 800
adjusted so that the galvanometer shows zero
500
x + 400 = ×1000 deflection. Let the point be J. The lengths
800
5 AJ and JB of the bridge wire now replace
x + 400 = ×1000
8 the resistance R and S of the Wheatstone’s
x + 400 = 0.625 × 1000 bridge. Then
x + 400 = 625 P R R ′. AJ
x = 625 – 400 = = (2.54)
Q S R ′. JB
x = 225 Ω

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 where R′ is the resistance per unit length P l1
=
of wire Q l2
P AJ l1
= = (2.55) P = Q l1
Q JB l2 l2
l
P = Q 1 (2.56) P = 15 3 = 22.5 Ω
l2 2
The bridge wire is soldered at the ends of
the copper strips. Due to imperfect contact,
E X A M P L E 2. 2 6
some resistance might be introduced at the
contact. These are called end resistances. In a meter bridge, the value of resistance in
This error can be eliminated, if another the resistance box is 10 Ω. The balancing
set of readings are taken with P and Q length is l1 = 55 cm. Find the value of
interchanged and the average value of P is unknown resistance.
found.
Solution
To find the specific resistance of the
material of the wire in the coil P, the radius Q = 10 Ω
r and length l of the wire is measured. The P l1 l
= = 1
specific resistance or resistivity ρ can be Q 100 − l1 l2
calculated using the relation l1
P = Q×
l 100 − l1
Resistance = ρ
A 10×55
P=
By rearranging the above equation, we get 100 − 55
550
A P= = 12.2 Ω
ρ = Resistance × (2.57) 45
l

If P is the unknown resistance equation

(2.57) becomes, 2.5.5 Potentiometer
πr 2 Potentiometer is used for the accurate
ρ= P
l measurement of potential differences,
current and resistances. It consists of ten
E X A M P L E 2. 25 meter long uniform wire of manganin or
constantan stretched in parallel rows each of
In a meter bridge with a standard resistance
1 meter length, on a wooden board. The two
of 15 Ω in the right gap, the ratio of
free ends A and B are brought to the same
balancing length is 3:2. Find the value of
side and fixed to copper strips with binding
the other resistance.
screws. A meter scale is fixed parallel to
Solution the wire. A jockey is provided for making
Q = 15 Ω, l1:l2 = 3:2 contact.
The principle of the potentiometer is
l1 3 illustrated in Figure 2.27. A steady current is
=
l2 2 maintained across the wire CD by a battery
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 Bt. The battery, key and the potentiometer series. This is the primary circuit. The end
wire are connected in series forms the C of the wire is connected to the terminal
primary circuit. The positive terminal of M of a DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw)
a primary cell of emf ξ is connected to the switch and the other terminal N is connected
point C and negative terminal is connected to a jockey through a galvanometer G and
to the jockey through a galvanometer G a high resistance HR. The cells whose emf
and a high resistance HR. This forms the ξ1 and ξ2 to be compared are connected to
secondary circuit. the terminals M1,N1 and M2,N2 of the DPDT
switch. The positive terminals of Bt, ξ1 and
Bt K
( )
ξ2 should be connected to the same end C.

Rh
l
D Bt
C
J K
( )
G HR
ξ
J
Figure 2.27 Potentiometer C D

M1 ξ1 N1
Let contact be made at any point J
M N HR
on the wire by jockey. If the potential G
M2 N2
difference across CJ is equal to the emf of ξ2
the cell ξ then no current will flow through
the galvanometer and it will show zero
deflection. CJ is the balancing length l. The Figure 2.28 Comparison of emf of two
potential difference across CJ is equal to Irl cells
where I is the current flowing through the
wire and r is the resistance per unit length The DPDT switch is pressed towards M1,
of the wire. N1 so that cell ξ1 is included in the secondary
circuit and the balancing length l1 is found
Hence ξ = Irl(2.58)
by adjusting the jockey for zero deflection.
Then the second cell ξ2 is included in
Since I and r are constants, ξ ∝ l. The
the circuit and the balancing length l2 is
emf of the cell is directly proportional to the
determined. Let r be the resistance per unit
balancing length.
length of the potentiometer wire and I be
the current flowing through the wire.
2.5.6 Comparison of
emf of two cells with a we have ξ1 = Irl1(2.59)
potentiometer
ξ2 = Irl2 (2.60)
To compare the emf of two cells, the
circuit connections are made as shown By dividing equation (2.59) by (2.60)
in Figure 2.28. Potentiometer wire CD is ξ1 l1
= (2.61)
connected to a battery Bt and a key K in ξ2 l2

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 By including a rheostat (Rh) in the A suitable resistance (say, 10 Ω) is
primary circuit, the experiment can be included in the resistance box and key K2 is
repeated several times by changing the closed. Let r be the internal resistance of the
current flowing through it. cell. The current passing through the cell
and the resistance R is given by
ξ
2.5.7 Measurement of I=
R +r
internal resistance of a cell by
potentiometer The potential difference across R is
ξR
To measure the internal resistance of V=
R +r
a cell, the circuit connections are made as When this potential difference is
shown in Figure 2.29. The end C of the balanced on the potentiometer wire, let l2 be
potentiometer wire is connected to the the balancing length.
positive terminal of the battery Bt and the
ξR
negative terminal of the battery is connected Then ∝ l2 (2.63)
R +r
to the end D through a key K1. This forms
the primary circuit. From equations (2.62) and (2.63)
R + r l1
Bt K1 = (2.64)
R l2
( )
r l1
1+ = ;
J D R l2
C
l 
r = R  1 −1
ξ l 
2 
 
∴ r = R  l1 − l2 (2.65)
G HR
 l 
( )

K2
2

R Substituting the values of the R, l1

and l2 , the internal resistance of the cell is
Figure 2.29 measurement of internal
resistance determined. The experiment can be repeated
for different values of R. It is found that the
The positive terminal of the cell ξ whose internal resistance of the cell is not constant
internal resistance is to be determined is but increases with increase of external
also connected to the end C of the wire. The resistance connected across its terminals.
negative terminal of the cell ξ is connected
2.6
to a jockey through a galvanometer and a
high resistance. A resistance box R and key HEATING EFFECT OF
K2 are connected across the cell ξ. With K2 ELECTRIC CURRENT
open, the balancing point J is obtained and
the balancing length CJ = l1 is measured. When current flows through a resistor,
Since the cell is in open circuit, its emf is some of the electrical energy delivered to
ξ ∝ l1(2.62) the resistor is converted into heat energy
and it is dissipated. This heating effect of
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 current is known as Joule’s heating effect.
2.6.2 Application of Joule’s
Just as current produces thermal energy,
heating effect
thermal energy may also be suitably used
to produce an electromotive force. This is 1. Electric heaters
known as thermoelectric effect. Electric iron, electric heater, electric
toaster shown in Figure 2.30 are some of
2.6.1 Joule’s law the home appliances that utilize the heating
If a current I flows through a conductor effect of current. In these appliances, the
kept across a potential difference V for a heating elements are made of nichrome, an
time t, the work done or the electric potential alloy of nickel and chromium. Nichrome
energy spent is has a high specific resistance and can be
heated to very high temperatures without
W = VIt(2.66)
oxidation.
In the absence of any other external effect,
this energy is spent in heating the conductor.
The amount of heat(H) produced is
H = VIt(2.67)
For a resistance R,
H = I2Rt(2.68)
This relation was experimentally verified (a) (b) (c)

by Joule and is known as Joule’s law of

heating. It states that the heat developed
in an electrical circuit due to the flow of
current varies directly as
(i) the square of the current
(ii) the resistance of the circuit and
(iii) the time of flow. (a) (b) (c)

E X A M P L E 2. 27 Figure 2.30 (a) Electric Iron box,

(b) electric heater (c) electric Toaster
Find the heat energy produced in a
resistance of 10 Ω when 5 A current flows
through it for 5 minutes.
E X A M P L E 2. 2 8
Solution
An electric heater of resistance 10 Ω
R = 10 Ω, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes = 5 × 60 s
connected to 220 V power supply is
H = I2 R t
immersed in the water of 1 kg. How long
= 52 × 10 × 5 × 60
the electrical heater has to be switched on
= 25 × 10 × 300
to increase its temperature from 30°C to
= 25 × 3000
60°C. (The specific heat of water is s = 4200
= 75000 J (or) 75 kJ
J kg-1)

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 Solution Contacts Fuse wire

According to Joule’s heating law H = I2 Rt

The current passed through the electrical
220V
heater = = 22 A
10 Ω Fuse
carrier
The heat produced in one second by the Base
(b)
electrical heater H = I2 R
Contacts Fuse wire
(a)

The heat produced in one second H = (22)2

× 10 = 4840 J = 4.84 k J. In fact the power
rating of this electrical heater is 4.84 k W.
The amount of energy to increase the
temperature of 1kg water from 30°C to Fuse
60°C is Base carrier
Figure 2.31 Electric Fuse
(b)
(a)
Q = ms ∆T (Refer XI physics vol 2, unit 8)
Here m = 1 kg,
Whenever there is an excessive current
s = 4200 J kg-1,
produced due to faulty wire connection, the
∆T = 30,
circuit breaker switch opens. After repairing
so Q = 1 × 4200 x 30 = 126 kJ the faulty connection, we can close the
circuit breaker switch. It is shown in the
The time required to produce this heat
Q 126×103 Figure 2.32.
energy t = = ≈ 26.03 s
I 2R 4840

2. Electric fuses
Fuses as shown in Figure 2.31, are
connected in series in a circuit to protect the
electric devices from the heat developed by Figure 2.32 circuit breakers
the passage of excessive current. It is a short
length of a wire made of a low melting point
material. It melts and breaks the circuit if 3. Electric furnace
current exceeds a certain value. Lead and Furnaces as shown in Figure 2.33 are
copper wire melts and burns out when used to manufacture a large number of
the current increases above 5 A and 35 A technologically important materials such
respectively. as steel, silicon carbide, quartz, gallium
The only disadvantage with the above arsenide, etc). To produce temperatures up
fuses is that once fuse wire is burnt due to to 1500°C, molybdenum-nichrome wire
excessive current, they need to be replaced. wound on a silica tube is used. Carbon
Nowadays in houses, circuit breakers arc furnaces produce temperatures up to
(trippers) are also used instead of fuses. 3000 °C.
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 2.7.1 Seebeck effect
Seebeck discovered that in a closed circuit
consisting of two dissimilar metals, when
the junctions are maintained at different
temperatures an emf (potential difference)
is developed. The current that flows due to
Figure 2.33 Electric furnace the emf developed is called thermoelectric
current. The two dissimilar metals
4. Electrical lamp connected to form two junctions is known
It consists of a tungsten filament (melting point as thermocouple (Figure 2.35).
3380 0C) kept inside a glass bulb and heated
G
to incandescence by current. In incandescent Cu

electric lamps only about 5% of electrical energy Fe

Metal A

is converted into light and the rest is wasted as

Ice - cubes Water HOT CO

Junction 1 Metal B Junc

heat. Electric discharge lamps, electric welding

and electric arc also utilize the heating effect of V

current as shown in Figure 2.34. G

(a) (b)
Tungsten filament Cu
Metal A
Fe
Ice - cubes Water HOT COLD

Junction 1 Metal B Junction 2

(a) (b)

Figure 2.35 Seebeck effect (Thermocouple)

If the hot and cold junctions are

interchanged, the direction of current also
Figure 2.34 Electric bulb, electric arc
and electric welding reverses. Hence the effect is reversible.
The magnitude of the emf developed in
a thermocouple depends on (i) the nature
2.7
of the metals forming the couple and (ii)
THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT the temperature difference between the
junctions.
Conversion of temperature differences
into electrical voltage and vice versa Applications of Seebeck effect
is known as thermoelectric effect. 1. Seebeck effect is used in
A thermoelectric device generates voltage thermoelectric generators (Seebeck
when there is a temperature difference on generators).These thermoelectric
each side. If a voltage is applied, it generates generators are used in power plants
a temperature difference. to convert waste heat into electricity.

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 2. This effect is utilized in automobiles as gets heated and junction B gets cooled as
automotive thermoelectric generators shown in the Figure 2.36(b). Hence Peltier
for increasing fuel efficiency. effect is reversible.
3. Seebeck effect is used in
thermocouples and thermopiles to 2.7.3 Thomson effect
measure the temperature difference Thomson showed that if two points in a
between the two objects. conductor are at different temperatures,
the density of electrons at these points
2.7.2 Peltier effect will differ and as a result the potential
difference is created between these points.
In 1834, Peltier discovered that when
Thomson effect is also reversible.
an electric current is passed through a
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved
at one junction and absorbed at the other

Potential

Potential
junction. This is known as Peltier effect. Heat Heat Heat Heat
absorbed evolved evolved absorbed

I A C B A C B
I
Cu
+ - Cu - A
+
M N B A M N B
Copper bar Iron bar

A B A B
Cooled Heated Cooled Heated
(a) Positive thomson effect (b) Negative thomson effect

Fe Figure
Fe 2.37 (a) Positive Thomson effect
(a) (b)
(b) Negative Thomson effect

Cu
+ - Cu - +
If current is passed through a copper bar
B AB which is heated at the middle point C,
B A
Heated Cooled Heated the point C will be at higher potential. This
indicates that the heat is absorbed along
Fe Fe
(a)
AC and evolved along CB of the conductor
(b)
as shown in Figure 2.37(a). Thus heat is
Figure 2.36 Peltier effect: Cu – Fe transferred due to the current flow in the
thermocouple direction of the current. It is called positive
Thomson effect. Similar effect is observed
In the Cu-Fe thermocouple the junctions in metals like silver, zinc, and cadmium.
A and B are maintained at the same When the copper bar is replaced by
temperature. Let a current from a battery an iron bar, heat is evolved along CA and
flow through the thermocouple (Figure 2.36 absorbed along BC. Thus heat is transferred
(a)). At the junction A, where the current due to the current flow in the direction
flows from Cu to Fe, heat is absorbed and the opposite to the direction of current. It is
junction A becomes cold. At the junction B, called negative Thomson effect as shown in
where the current flows from Fe to Cu heat the Figure 2.37(b). Similar effect is observed
is liberated and it becomes hot. When the in metals like platinum, nickel, cobalt, and
direction of current is reversed, junction A mercury.

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 SUMMARY

dQ
„„ The current, I flowing in a conductor I = , where dQ is the charge that flows
dt
through a cross-section in a time interval dt. SI unit of current is ampere (A).
1A = 1 C s-1.
 
„„ The current density J in a conductor is the current flowing per unit area.  J = I 
„„ Current is a scalar but current density is a vector.
 A 
 
„„ The general form of Ohm’s law J = σE
„„ Practical form of Ohm’s law states that V ∝ I, or V = IR where I is the current.
V
„„ The resistance R of a conductor is R = . SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) and
I
1V
1Ω=
1A
l
„„ The resistance of a material R = ρ where l is length of the material and A is the area
A
of cross section.
„„ The resistivity of a material determines how much resistance it offers to the flow of
current.
„„ The equivalent resistance (RS) of several resistances (R1, R2, R3……..) connected in
series combination is RS = (R1+R2 +R3……..)
„„ The equivalent resistance (RP) of several resistances (R1, R2, R3……..) connected in
1 1 1 1
parallel combination is = + + + ......
RP R1 R2 R3
„„ Kirchoff ’s first rule (Current rule or junction rule): The algebraic sum of the currents
at any junction is zero.
„„ Kirchoff ’s second rule (Voltage rule or loop rule): In a closed circuit the algebraic
sum of the products of the current and resistance of each part of the circuit is equal
to the total emf included in the circuit.
„„ Electric power is the rate at which energy is transformed.
„„ If a current I flows across a potential difference V, the power delivered to the circuit
is P = IV.
V2
„„ In a resistor R, the electrical power converted to heat is P = I R =
2
R
„„ The energy equivalent of one kilowatt-hour (kWh) is 1kWh = 3.6 X 106 J.
„„ Metre bridge is one form of Wheatstone’s bridge.
„„ Potentiometer is used to compare potential differences.
„„ Joule’s law of heating is H = VIt (or) H = I2Rt.
„„ Thermoelectric effect: Conversion of temperature differences into electrical voltage
and vice versa.

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 CONCEPT MAP

CURRENT
ELECTRICITY

Flow of Charges

Drift velocity Mobility Current density

Resistance
Ohm’s Law V-I Graph Resistivity

Series
Carbon resistor Combination
Parallel

Temperature coefficient of resistance

Current rule
Kirchoff rule Wheatstone’s bridge Applications

Voltage rule

Heating effects of electric eurrent

Joule’s law of heating Thermoelectric effects

Applications

Seebeck effect Peltier effect Thomson effect

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 EVALUATION

I Multiple Choice Questions 4. A carbon resistor of (47 ± 4.7 ) k Ω to be

1. The following graph shows current marked with rings of different colours
versus voltage values of some unknown for its identification. The colour code
conductor. What is the resistance of sequence will be
this conductor? a) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold
b) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
V
c) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver
5
d) Green – Orange – Violet - Gold
4

3
5. What is the value of resistance of the
2
following resistor?
1

0 1 2 3 4 5
I

(a)2 ohm (b) 4 ohm

(c) 8 ohm (d)1 ohm (a)100 k Ω (b)10 k Ω
2. A wire of resistance 2 ohms per meter (c) 1k Ω (d)1000 k Ω
is bent to form a circle of radius 1m. 6. Two wires of A and B with circular cross
The equivalent resistance between its section made up of the same material
two diametrically opposite points, A with equal lengths. Suppose RA = 3 RB,
and B as shown in the figure is then what is the ratio of radius of wire
A to that of B?
(a) 3 (b) 3
1 1
A B
(c) (d)
3 3
7. A wire connected to a power supply
of 230 V has power dissipation P1.
Suppose the wire is cut into two equal
π
(a) π Ω (b) Ω pieces and connected parallel to the
2
same power supply. In this case power
π P
(c) 2πΩ (d) Ω dissipation is P2. The ratio 2 is
4 P1

3. A toaster operating at 240 V has a (a)1 (b) 2

resistance of 120 Ω. The power is (c) 3 (d) 4
a) 400 W b) 2 W
c) 480 W d) 240 W

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 8. In India electricity is supplied for a) 1A b) 2A
domestic use at 220 V. It is supplied at c) 3A d) 4A
110 V in USA. If the resistance of a 60W 12. The temperature coefficient of
bulb for use in India is R, the resistance resistance of a wire is 0.00125 per °C.
of a 60W bulb for use in USA will be At 300 K, its resistance is 1 Ω. The
(a) R (b) 2R resistance of the wire will be 2 Ω at
a) 1154 K b) 1100 K
(c) R (d) R c) 1400 K d) 1127 K
4 2
9. In a large building, there are 15 bulbs 13. The internal resistance of a 2.1 V cell
of 40W, 5 bulbs of 100W, 5 fans of 80W which gives a current of 0.2 A through
and 1 heater of 1kW are connected. The a resistance of 10 Ω is
voltage of electric mains is 220V. The a) 0.2 Ω b) 0.5 Ω
minimum capacity of the main fuse of c) 0.8 Ω d) 1.0 Ω
the building will be (IIT-JEE 14. A piece of copper and another of
2014) germanium are cooled from room
(a) 14 A (b) 8 A temperature to 80 K. The resistance of
(c) 10 A (d) 12 A a) each of them increases
10. There is a current of 1.0 A in the circuit b) each of them decreases
shown below. What is the resistance of c) 
copper increases and germanium
P? decreases
d) 
copper decreases and germanium
3 increases
15. In Joule’s heating law, when I and t are
constant, if the H is taken along the y
9V 2.5 
axis and I2 along the x axis, the graph is
a) straight line b) parabola
P c) circle d) ellipse

Answers
a) 1.5 Ω b) 2.5 Ω
1) a 2) b 3) c 4) b 5) a
c) 3.5 Ω d) 4.5 Ω
6) c 7) d 8) c 9) d 10) c
11. What is the current out of the battery?
11) a 12) d 13) b 14) d 15) a

II Short Answer Questions

5V 15  15  15 
1. Why current is a scalar?
2. Distinguish between drift velocity and
mobility.
3. State microscopic form of Ohm’s law.

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 4. State macroscopic form of Ohm’s law. 5. State and explain Kirchhoff ’s rules.
5. What are ohmic and non ohmic 6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance
devices? in Wheatstone’s bridge.
6. Define electrical resistivity. 7. Explain the determination of unknown
7. Define temperature coefficient of resistance using meter bridge.
resistance. 8. How the emf of two cells are compared
8. What is superconductivity? using potentiometer?
9. What is electric power and electric
energy? IV Numerical problems
10. Define current density. 1. The following graphs represent the
11. Derive the expression for power P=VI current versus voltage and voltage
in electrical circuit. versus current for the six conductors
12. Write down the various forms of A,B,C,D,E and F. Which conductor
expression for power in electrical has least resistance and which has
circuit. maximum resistance?
13. State Kirchhoff ’s current rule. V I

14. State Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule. 5

C
5
F
4 4
15. State the principle of potentiometer. 3
B
3
E

16. What do you mean by internal 2

A
2
D

resistance of a cell? 1 1

17. State Joule’s law of heating. 0 1 2

I
3 4 5 0 1 2
V
3 4 5

18. What is Seebeck effect?

19. What is Thomson effect? Ans: Least: RF = 0.4 Ω, maximum RC = 2.5 Ω
20. What is Peltier effect? 2. Lightning is very good example of
21. State the applications of Seebeck effect. natural current. In typical lightning,
there is 109 J energy transfer across the
III Long Answer Questions potential difference of 5 × 107 V during
a time interval of 0.2 s.
1. Describe the microscopic model of
current and obtain general form of
Ohm’s law
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s
law from its microscopic form and
discuss its limitation.
3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a
series and parallel resistor network
4. Explain the determination of the
internal resistance of a cell using
voltmeter.

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v

Using this information, estimate the A B C

following quantities (a) total amount of

charge transferred between cloud and
ground (b) the current in the lightning

+
 S
bolt (c) the power delivered in 0.2 s. -
 Ans: charge = 20 C, I = 100 A, P = 5 GW
3. A copper wire of 10-6 m2 area of cross Suddenly the switch S is closed. (a)
section, carries a current of 2 A. If the Calculate the current in the circuit when
number of electrons per cubic meter is S is open and closed (b) What happens
8 × 1028, calculate the current density to the intensities of the bulbs A,B and
and average drift velocity. C. (c) Calculate the voltage across the
 Ans: J = 2 × 106 Am−2 ; vd= 15.6 × 10−5 ms−1 three bulbs when S is open and closed
(d) Calculate the power delivered to the
4. The resistance of a nichrome wire at 0 circuit when S is opened and closed (e)
0
C is 10 Ω. If its temperature coefficient Does the power delivered to the circuit
of resistance is 0.004/0C, find its decreases, increases or remain same?
resistance at boiling point of water.
Ans:
Comment on the result.
Electrical Switch S is
Switch S is open
 Ans: RT= 14 Ω. quantities closed
As the temperature increases the resistance Current ξ ξ
of the wire also increases. 3R 2R
Voltage ξ ξ
5. The rod given in the figure is made up VA = , VA = ,
of two different materials. 3R 2R
ξ ξ
VB = , VB = ,
3R 2R
ξ VC = 0
25 cm 70 cm VC =
3R
Power ξ2 ξ2
Both have square cross sections of 3 PA = , PA = ,
9R 4R
mm side. The resistivity of the first ξ2 ξ2
PB = , PB = ,
material is 4 x 10-3 Ω.m and it is 25 9R 4R
cm long while second material has ξ2 PC = 0
PC =
resistivity of 5 x 10-3 Ω.m and is of 70 9R Total power
cm long. What is the resistivity of rod increases
Intensity All the bulbs The
between its ends?
glow with equal intensities of the
 Ans: 500 Ω intensity bulbs A and B
equally increase.
6. Three identical lamps each having Bulb C will
not glow since
a resistance R are connected to the no current pass
battery of emf as shown in the figure. through it.

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 7. The current through an element is 11. A potentiometer wire has a length of 4
shown in the figure. Determine the m and resistance of 20 Ω. It is connected
total charge that pass through the in series with resistance of 2980 Ω and
element at a) t = 0 s, b) t = 2 s, c) t = 5s a cell of emf 4 V. Calculate the potential
along the wire.
I(A)
10  Ans: Potential = 0.65 × 10-2 V m-1.
12. Determine the current flowing through
5
the galvanometer (G) as shown in the
0 1 2 3 4 5 figure.
t (s)

I1 Q I -I
Ans: At t= 0s,dq = 0 C, At t=2 s, 1 g

dq = 10 C; At t=5 s, dq = 0 C 5 10 
Ig
8. An electronics hobbyist is building 2A P R 2A
a radio which requires 150 Ω in her G 10 
circuit, but she has only 220 Ω, 79 Ω I2 + Ig
and 92 Ω resistors available. How can 15  20 
I2
she connect the available resistors to S
get desired value of resistance?
Ans: Parallel combination of 220 Ω and 1
 Ans: Ig = A
79 Ω in series with 92 Ω 11
13. Two cells each of 5V are connected in
9. A cell supplies a current of 0.9 A
series across a 8 Ω resistor and three
through a 2 Ω resistor and a current of
parallel resistors of 4 Ω, 6 Ω and 12 Ω.
0.3 A through a 7 Ω resistor. Calculate
Draw a circuit diagram for the above
the internal resistance of the cell.
arrangement. Calculate i) the current
 Ans: 0.5 Ω
drawn from the cell (ii) current through
10. Calculate the currents in the following each resistor
circuit. 2
Ans: The current at 4 Ω , I = = 0.5 A,
4
I2 2
I1 the current at 6 Ω, I = = 0.33 A ,
6
+ –
9V
2
the current at 12 Ω, I = = 0.17 A
+ I3
12
15V
100Ω R3 100Ω
–
14. Four light bulbs P, Q, R, S are connected
100Ω in a circuit of unknown arrangement.
When each bulb is removed one at
I1 I2
a time and replaced, the following
behavior is observed.
Ans : I1 = 0.070 A, I2 = -0.010 A and
I3 = 0.080 A

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 15. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell
P Q R S
of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point
P removed * on on on at 35 cm length of the wire. If the cell
Q removed on * on off is replaced by another cell and the
balance point shifts to 63 cm, what is
R removed off off * off the emf of the second cell?
 Ans: emf of the second cell is 2.25 V
S removed on off on *

Draw the circuit diagram for these bulbs.

Ans:
R

Q
+

 –
P
S

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE:

1. Douglas C.Giancoli, , “Physics for Scientist &Engineers with Modern Physics”, Pearson
Prentice Hall, Fourth edition
2. James Walker, Physics, Pearson- Addison Wesley publishers, Fourth edition
3. Tipler, Mosca, “Physics for scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics”, Freeman and
Company, sixth edition
4. Purcell, Morin, Electricity and magnetism, Cambridge university press, third edition
5. Serway and Jewett, “Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics”, Brook/Coole
publishers, eighth edition
6. Tarasov and Tarasova, “Questions and problems in School Physics”, Mir Publishers
7. H.C.Verma, “Concepts of Physics Vol 2, Bharthi Bhawan publishers
8. Eric Roger, Physics for the Inquiring Mind, Princeton University press

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 ICT CORNER
Electric current

In this activity you will be able to

(a) measure the potential difference of cells Topic: Potentiometer
(b) measure the internal resistance of a
given primary cell

STEPS:
• Open the browser and type “olabs.edu.in” in the address bar. Click physics tab and then click
“Potentiometer-Internal Resistance of a Cell” in class 12 section. Go to “simulator” tab to do
the experiment.
• Construct the electric circuit as per the connection diagram by clicking “show circuit diagram”
tab. You can connect wires between electric component by dragging the mouse between the
component.
• To check whether the connections are correct or not, drag the jockey and place it at the two end
points of the wire. If the galvanometer shows opposite deflections, the connections are correct.
(keep both keys on)

Step1 Step2

Step3 Step4

Find the balancing length. Calculate the internal resistance for the observed balancing lengths. Repeat the
experiment for five times and take the average.

Note:
1. One time sign up is needed to do simulation. Then login using that username and password.
2. Read theory, procedure and animation to get the theory by clicking the corresponding tab.
URL:
http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=6&sim=147&cnt=4
* Pictures are indicative only.
* If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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