A

Technical Seminar Report On

ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Submitted to the

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)
In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Submitted by

K.NISHITHA 17WJ1A0245

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Ch.Srisailam,
M.Tech.,(Ph.D.)
Assistant Professor
EEE, GNITC

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS

(AUTONOMOUS)

(Accredited by NAAC & NBA A+ , Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad)

IBRAHIMPATNAM

2020-2021
 GURU NANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS
(AUTONOMOUS)
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

CERTIFICATE

ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING

DIODE K.NISHITHA bearing roll no.17WJ1A0245,
in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering department from Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus,
Ibrahimpatnam, affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad
(JNTUH).

INTERNAL GUIDE TECHNICAL SEMINAR CO-ORDINATOR

Ch. Srisailam, Ch.Srisailam
M.Tech.,(Ph.D.) M.Tech.,(Ph.D.)
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
EEE, GNITC EEE, GNITC

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr. K. Santhi,
M.E., Ph.D.
Professor & Head
EEE, GNITC
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I express my sincere gratitude to our beloved Sri. Tanvindar Singh Kohli,
chairman, GNI and Sri. Gangadeep Singh Kohli, Vice Chairman, GNI who has the visionary with
a very good foresight and a wide angled in all en-compassing ideology.
I would like to acknowledge the positive involvement and support of our beloved Managing Director
Dr. H. S. Saini, Managing Director GNI who is all my well-wisher and helpful in my seminar. I would
like to thank Dr. K Venkat Rao, Director GNITC for providing facilities.
I would like to thank sincerely Dr.P.Parthasarathy, Joint Director GNITC, for providing an
opportunity to complete the technical seminar.
I would like to thank sincerely Dr.K.Santhi, Head of the Department-EEE for having guided us in
developing the requisite capabilities for taking up this technical seminar.
I thank my Technical Seminar Co-ordinator Mr. Ch.Srisailam,Assistant Professor for providing
seamless support and right suggestions are given in the development of the technical seminar.

I specially thank my internal guide Mr Ch.Srisailam, Assistant Professor, for his suggestions and
constant guidance in every stage of the technical seminar. I would also like to thank all my lecturers for
supporting me in every possible way whenever the need arose.

In all Sincerity
K.NISHITHA 17WJ1A0245
 INDEX

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

NO

ABSTRACT i
LIST OF FIGURES ii
LIST OF TABLES iii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-4

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 HISTORY 2
1.3 WHAT IS OLED 4

CHAPTER 2 OLED 5-9

2.1 OLED COMPONENTS 5
2.2 CONSTRUCTION 6
2.3 EMISSION SPECTRUM 8
2.4 CREATION OF COLOUR 9

CHAPTER 3 OLED ARCHITECTURES 10

3.1 BOTTOM OR TOP EMMISION 10
3.2 GRADED HETERO JUNCTION 10
3.3 STACKED OLEDS 10
3.4 INVERTED OLED 10

CHAPTER 4 MANUFACTURING OF OLED 11-16

4.1 FABRICATION METHODS 11
4.1.1 PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION 11
4.1.2 SPIN COATING 12
4.1.3 INK JEF PRINTING 13
4.1.4 ROLL TO ROLL PRINTING 14
4.1.5 VACCUM SPUTTERING 15
4.2 TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS 16
CHAPTER 5 TYPES OF OLED 17-23
5.1 TYPES OF OLEDS 17
5.1.1 PASSIVE MATRIX OLEDS 17
5.1.2 ACTIVE MATRIX OLEDS 18
5.1.3 TRANSPARENT OLEDS 18
5.1.4 TOP EMITTING OLEDS 19
5.1.5 FOLDABLE OLEDS 19
5.1.6 WHITE OLEDS 20
5.2 DISCUSSIONS 20
5.2.1 COMPARISION BETWEEN LED & OLED 23
5.2.2 COMPARISION WITH EXISTING LIGHTING SYSTEMS 23

CHAPTER 6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 24-25

6.1 ADVANTAGES 24
6.2 DISADVANTAGES 25

CHAPTER 7 APPLICATIONS 26-29

7.1 APPLICATIONS OF OLED 26
7.2 CHALLENGES & CRITICAL ISSUES 28

CHAPTER 8 FUTURE SCOPE 30

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES 31
 ABSTRACT

The major reason for the big attention to these devices is that its efficiency, power consumption and
produced light. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and ordinary light bulbs consume more power than organic
diodes do.
Other reasons for the industrial attention are i.e., that eventually organic full color displays will replace
todays LCDs used in laptop computers and may even one day replace our ordinary CRT-screens.
Based on these advantages, OLEDs have been proposed for wide range of display applications
including magnified micro displays, wearable, head-mounted computers and mobile phones as well as
medical and other industrial applications.
OLED is a solid state device composed of thin films of organic molecules that create light with the
application of electricity. OLEDs can provide brighter. crisper displays on electronic devices and use less
power than conventional light emitting diodes(LEDs) used today.
Like an LED, an OLED is a solid state device that is 100 to 500 nanometres thick or about 200 times
smaller than a human hair. OLEDs can have either two layers or three layers of organic material.

Currently OLEDs are used in small-screen devices such as cell phones, PDAs and digital cameras.
Research and development in the field of OLEDs is proceeding rapidly now and may lead to future
applications in heads-up displays, automotive dash boards etc.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING i

 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO FIGURE NAME PAGE NO

Figure 1.1 OLED display panel 2

Figure 2.2(a) Basic OLED structure 5
Figure 2.2(b) Basic OLED working 7
Figure 2.3 Typical emission spectrum of organic materials 9
Figure 2.4 Structure of a pixel in OLED 9
Figure 4.1.1 Physical vapour deposition(PVD) in vaccum chamber 12
Figure 4.1.2 Spin-coating 13
Figure 4.1.3 Ink jef printing 14
Figure 4.1.4 Roll to roll printing 14
Figure 4.1.5 OLED mass production system 15
Figure 5.1.1 Passive matrix OLED structure 17
Figure 5.1.2 Active matrix OLED structure 18
Figure 5.1.3 Transparent OLED structure 19
Figure 5.1.4 Top-emitting OLED structure 19
Figure 5.1.5 Foldabale OLED 20
Figure 5.1.6 White OLED 20
Figure 5.2.1(a) Comparision of LED and OLED structure 22
Figure 5.2.1(b) Comparision of LED and OLED display 22
Figure 6.1 Comparision of LCD,LED and OLED displays 24
Figure 7.1(a) A mobile phone with OLED display 26
Figure 7.1(b) Application of OLED 27
Figure 7.3 Future possibilities of OLED 28

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING ii

 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TABLE TITLE PAGE NO.

Table 1 Technical characteristics of OLED 16

Table 2 Comparision with existing lighting system 23

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING iii

 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Can we just imagine of having a TV which can be rolled up? Would we not like to be able
to read off the screen of our laptop in direct sunlight? Or our mobile phone battery to last much
longer? Or our next flat screen TV to be less expensive, much flatter, and even flexible? Well,
now it is possible by an emerging technology based on the revolutionary discovery that, light
emitting; fast switching diode could be made from polymers as well as semiconductors.
We know that ordinary LED emits light when electric current is passed through. Organic
displays use a material with self luminous property that eliminates the need of a back light. These
result in a thin and compact display. While backlighting is a crucial component to improving
brightness in LCDs, it also adds significant cost as well as requires extra power. With an organic
display, your laptop might be less heavy to carry around, or your battery lasts much longer
compared to a laptop equipped with a traditional LCD screen.
An organic light emitting diode (OLED) is simply a light emitting diode (LED) whose
emissive electro luminescent layer is composed of a film of organic compounds. The layers are
made up of small organic molecules or macro polymers that conduct electricity. They have
conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, so OLEDs are considered as organic
semiconductors. The layer of organic semiconductor material is formed between two electrodes,
where at least one of the layers is transparent.
Thus, OLEDs are optoelectronic devices based on small molecules or polymers that emit
light when an electric current flows through them. Simple OLED consists of a fluorescent organic
layer sandwiched between two metal electrodes. Under application of an electric field, electrons
and holes are injected from the two electrodes into the organic layer, where they meet and
recombine to produce light. They have been developed for applications in flat panel displays that
provide visual imagery that is easy to read, vibrant in colors and less consuming of power.
Research and development in the field of OLED is proceeding rapidly and may lead to
future applications in heads-up displays, automotive dashboards, billboard-type displays, mobile
phones, television screen, home and office lighting and flexible displays.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 1

 Figure 1.1: OLED Display Panel.
HISTORY
The first observations of electroluminescence in organic materials were in the early 1950s by
A.Bernanose and co-workers at the Nancy-Université, France. They applied high-voltage
alternating current (AC) fields in air to materials such as acridine orange, either deposited on or
dissolved in cellulose or cellophane thin films. The proposed mechanism was either direct
excitation of the dye molecules or excitation of electrons.
In 1960, Martin Pope and co-workers at New York University developed ohmic dark-injecting
electrode contacts to organic crystals. They further described the necessary energetic
requirements (work functions) for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These contacts
are the basis of charge injection in all modern OLED devices. Pope's group also first observed
direct current (DC) electroluminescence under vacuum on a pure single crystal of anthracene and
on anthracene crystals doped with tetracene in 1963 using a small area silver electrode at 400V.
The proposed mechanism was field-accelerated electron excitation of molecular fluorescence.

Pope's group reported in 1965 that in the absence of an external electric field, the
electroluminescence in anthracene crystals is caused by the recombination of a thermalized
electron and hole, and that the conducting level of anthracene is higher in energy than the exciton
energy level. Also in 1965, W. Helfrich and W. G. Schneider of the National Research Council
in Canada produced double injection recombination electroluminescence for the first time in an
anthracene single crystal using hole and electron injecting electrodes, the forerunner of modern
double injection devices. In the same year, Dow Chemical researchers patented a method of
preparing electroluminescent cells using high voltage (500 1500 V) AC-driven (100 3000 Hz)
electrically-insulated one millimetre thin layers of a melted phosphor consisting of ground
anthracene powder, tetracene, and graphite powder. Their proposed mechanism involved
electronic excitation at the contacts between the graphite particles and the anthracenemolecules.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 2

Device performance was limited by the poor electrical conductivity of contemporary organic
materials. This was overcome by the discovery and development of highly conductive polymers.
For more on the history of such materials, see conductive polymers.
Electroluminescence from polymer films was first observed by Roger Partridge at the National
Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom. The device consisted of a film of poly(n-
vinylcarbazole) up to 2.2 micrometres thick located between two charge injecting electrodes. The
results of the project were patented in 1975 and published in 1983.
The first diode device was reported at Eastman Kodak by Ching W. Tang and Steven Van Slyke
in 1987.This device used a novel two-layer structure with separate hole transporting and
electron transporting layers such that recombination and light emission occurred in the middle
of the organic layer. This resulted in a reduction in operating voltage and improvements in
efficiency and led to the current era of OLED research and device production. Research into
polymer electroluminescence culminated in 1990 with J.H. Burroughes et al. at the Cavendish
Laboratory in Cambridge reporting a high efficiency green light-emitting polymer based device
using 100nm thick films of poly (p-phenylene vinylene).

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 3

 What is OLED
An OLED is a solid state device or electronic device that typically consists of organic thin films
sandwiched between two thin film conductive electrodes. When electrical current is applied, a
bright light is emitted. OLED has a carbon-based designer molecule that emits light when an
electric current passes through it. This is called electrophosphorescence. Even with the layered
system, these systems are thin, usually less than 500 nm or about 200 times smaller than a human
hair.
When used to produce displays. OLED technology produces self-luminous displays that do not
require backlighting and hence more energy efficient. These properties result in thin, very
compact displays. The displays require very little power i.e., only 2-10 volts.
OLED technology uses substances that emit red, green, blue or white light. Without any other
source of illumination, OLED materials present bright, clear video and images that are easy to
see at almost any angle. Enhancing organic material helps to control the brightness. and colour
of light, i.e., the brightness of an OLED is determined by how much power you supply to the
system.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 4

 CHAPTER 2
OLED COMPONENTS
Like an LED, an OLED is a solid-state semiconductor device that is 100 to 500 nanometers thick or about 200
times smaller than a human hair. OLEDs can have either two layers or three layers of organic material; in the
latter design, the third layer helps transport electrons from the cathode to the emissive layer. In this article, we
will be focusing on the two layer design.
An OLED consists of the following parts:
Substrate (clear plastic, glass, foil) -The substrate supports the OLED.
Anode (transparent) - The anode removes electrons (adds electron holes) when a current flows through the
device.
Organic layers- These layers are made up of organic plastic molecules that transport " holes" from the
anode. One conducting polymer used in OLEDs is polyaniline.
Emissive layer- This layer is made of or ganic plastic molecules (differ ent ones from the
conducting layer) that transport electrons from the cathode; this is where light is made. One polymer used
in the emissive layer is polyflourene.
Cathode (may or may not be transparent depending on the type of OLED) -The cathode injects
electrons when a current flows through the device.
CONSTRUCTION
A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the anode and
cathode, all deposited on a substrate. The organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of
delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or the entire molecule. These materials have
conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered organic
semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (HOMO and LUMO) of
organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence and conduction bands of inorganic semiconductors.

Figure 2.2(a) : Basic OLED structure

(Source : http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled1.htm )

Originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer. One example was the first light-
emitting device synthesized by J. H. Burroughes , which involved a single layer of poly (p-phenylene

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 5

vinylene). However multilayer OLEDs can be fabricated with two or more layers in order to improve device
efficiency.
As well as conductive properties, different materials may be chosen to aid charge injection at electrodes by
providing a more gradual electronic profile, or block a charge from reaching the opposite electrode and being
wasted. Many modern OLEDs incorporate a simple bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive layer and an
emissive layer.

Figure 2.2(b): Basic OLED working

(Source: http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled1.htm )

During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode. Anodes are picked based upon the quality of their optical transparency, electrical conductivity, and
chemical stability. A current of electrons flows through the device from cathode to anode, as electrons are
injected into the LUMO of the organic layer at the cathode and withdrawn from the HOMO at the anode. This
latter process may also be described as the injection of electron holes into the HOMO. Electrostatic forces
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 6
bring the electrons and the holes towards each other and they recombine forming an exciton, a bound state of
the electron and hole. This happens closer to the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are
generally more mobile than electrons. The decay of this excited state results in a relaxation of the energy levels
of the electron, accompanied by emission of radiation whose frequency is in the visible region. The frequency
of this radiation depends on the band gap of the material, in this case the difference in energy between the
HOMO and LUMO.
When a DC bias is applied to the electrodes, the injected electrons and holes can recombine in the organic
layers and emit light of a certain color depending on the properties of the organic material. Since charge carrier
transport in organic semiconductors relies on individual hopping processes between more or less isolated
molecules or along polymer chains, the conductivity of organic semiconductors is several orders of magnitude
lower than that of their inorganic counterparts. Before actually decaying radiatively, an electron-hole pair will
form an exciton in an intermediate step, which will eventually emit light when it decays. Depending on its
chemical structure, a dye molecule can be either a fluorescent or a phosphorescent emitter. Only in the latter,
all excitons singlets and triplets are allowed to decay radiatively. In the former, however, three quarters of
all excitons the triplet excitons do not emit any light. Fluorescent emitters therefore have a maximum
intrinsic efficiency of only 25 % and their application is avoided if possible. However, up to now, the lifetimes
of phosphorescent emitters, especially at a short wavelength (blue), are inferior to those of fluorescent ones.

Fig 2.2(c): Energy Level diagram

As electrons and holes are fermions with half integer spin, an exciton may either be in a singlet state or a triplet
state depending on how the spins of the electron and hole have been combined. Statistically three triplet
excitons will be formed for each singlet exciton. Decay from triplet states (phosphorescence) is spin forbidden,
increasing the timescale of the transition and limiting the internal efficiency of fluorescent devices.
Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes make use of spin orbit interactions to facilitate intersystem
crossing between singlet and triplet states, thus obtaining emission from both singlet and triplet states and
improving the internal efficiency.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 7
Indium tin oxide (ITO) is commonly used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible light and has a high
work function which promotes injection of holes into the HOMO level of the organic layer. A typical
conductive layer may consist of PEDOT: PSS as the HOMO level of this material generally lies between the
work function of ITO and the HOMO of other commonly used polymers, reducing the energy barriers for hole
injection. Metals such as barium and calcium are often used for the cathode as they have low work functions
which promote injection of electrons into the LUMO of the organic layer. Such metals are reactive, so they
require a capping layer of aluminum to avoid degradation.

Experimental research has proven that the properties of the anode, specifically the anode/hole transport layer
(HTL) interface topography plays a major role in the efficiency, performance, and lifetime of organic light
emitting diodes. Imperfections in the surface of the anode decrease anode-organic film interface adhesion,
increase electrical resistance, and allow for more frequent formation of non-emissive dark spots in the OLED
material adversely affecting lifetime. Mechanisms to decrease anode rou ghness for ITO/glass substrates
include the use of thin films and self-assembled monolayers. Also, alternative substrates and anode materials
are being considered to increase OLED performance and lifetime. Possible examples include single crystal
sapphire substrates treated with gold (Au) film anodes yielding lower work functions, operating voltages,
electrical resistance values, and increasing lifetime of OLEDs.

Single carrier devices are typically used to study the kinetics and charge transport mechanisms of an organic
material and can be useful when trying to study energy transfer processes. As current through the device is
composed of only one type of charge carrier, either electrons or holes, recombination does not occur and no
light is emitted. For example, electron only devices can be obtained by replacing ITO with a lower work
function metal which increases the energy barrier of hole injection. Similarly, hole only devices can be made
by using a cathode made solely of aluminum, resulting in an energy barrier too large for efficient electron
injection.
EMISSION SPECTRUM
Typical emission spectra of organic molecules are broad (as shown in figure). As stated before, the emission
color is a material property. Thus, the total emission can be tuned to virtually any color, including white at
any color temperature, by stacking several different emitting layers in a single device. This is possible since
the organic layers are almost transparent in the visible spectral range.
Most white OLEDs contain a red, a green and a blue emission layer to create high-quality white light.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 8

 Fig 2.3: Typical emission spectra of organic materials.
The diagram shows spectra of red, green and blue emitters and their superposition which yields white emission
at a high color rendering index.
CREATION OF COLOR
OLED has more control over color expression because it only expresses pure colors when electric current
stimulates the relevant pixels. The primary color matrix is arranged in red, green and blue pixels which are
mounted directly to a printed circuited board. Each individual OLED element is housed in a special micro
cavity structure designed to greatly reduce ambient light interference that also improves overall color contrast.
The thickness of the organic layer is adjusted to produce the strongest light to give a color picture. Further, the
colors are refined with a filter and purified without using a polarizer to give outstanding color purity.
The color of the light depends on the type of organic molecule in the emissive layer . Manufacturers place
several types of organic films on the same OLED to make color displays. The intensity or brightness of the
light depends on the amount of electrical current applied. The more the current, the brighter is the light. The
structure of pixel created is shown below.

Fig 2.4: Showing structure of a Pixel in OLED.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 9

 CHAPTER 3
OLED ARCHITECTURES

BOTTOM OR TOP EMISSION

This is suited for active-matrix applications as they can be more easily integrated with a non-transparent
transistor backplane. The TFT array attached to the bottom substrate on which AMOLEDs are manufactured
are typically nontransparent, resulting in considerable Bottom or top distinction refers not to orientation of the
OLED display, but to the direction that emitted light exits the device. OLED devices are classified as bottom
emission devices if light emitted passes through the transparent or semi-transparent bottom electrode and
substrate on which the panel was manufactured. Top emission devices are classified based on whether or not
the light emitted from the OLED device exits through the lid that is added following fabrication of the device.
Top-emitting OLEDs are better blockage of transmitted light if the device followed a bottom emitting scheme.

GRADED HETEROJUNCTION
Graded Heterojunction OLEDs gradually decrease the ratio of electron holes to electron transporting
chemicals. This results in almost double the quantum efficiency of existing OLEDs.

STACKED OLEDs
Stacked OLEDs use a pixel architecture that stacks the red, green, and blue sub pixels on top of one another
instead of next to one another, leading to substantial increase in gamut and color depth, and greatly reducing
pixel gap. Currently, other display technologies have the RGB (and RGBW) pixels mapped next to each other
decreasing potential resolution.

INVERTED OLED
In contrast to a conventional OLED, in which the anode is placed on the substrate, an Inverted OLED uses a
bottom cathode that can be connected to the drain end of an nchannel TFT especially for t he low cost
amorphous silicon TFT backplane useful in the manufacturing of AMOLED displays.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 10

 CHAPTER 4

MANUFACTURING OF OLED
The technological process of manufacturing OLEDs does not have fundamental differences. In all cases, the
process involves four basic steps: preparation of the substrate with the anode layer, applying polymer layers,
applying cathode layer and encapsulation, i.e. coating the device with dense chemical resistant material layer,
or gluing between glass plates to isolate from the surrounding atmosphere. This method allows to greatly
increasing the lifetime of the device, which is critical for industrial designs. In the production of model devices
intended for research purposes, the last stage is often omitted, since the encapsulation does not affect the basic
operating characteristics of the OLED (except for the duration of the operation), but considerably complicates
the process. Significant differences from the mentioned schemes have roll technology, which promising for
making large luminous surfaces.
Fabrication Methods
There are two main methods of fabricating the OLED devices, which differ in the method of applying nano
layers of polymer materials: a method of evaporation-condensation of material in a vacuum, and the method
of coating layers of solutions. In both cases, deposition of the metallic cathode layer is nearly always carried
out by evaporation in a vacuum.
Mandatory and an important step in the fabrication of OLEDs, regardless of the method, is the step of preparing
the substrate surface. Insufficient clarity causes to the low efficiency, or complete absence of luminescence
even using efficient fluorescent materials. In most cases, the substrate is a glass plate covered with a layer of
ITO, i.e. the surface of this particular layer is subjected to the treatment. Sufficiently clean surface provides a
primary rinsing sample in distilled water with containing detergents, mechanical cleaning, followed by
washing with deionized water and then with isopropyl alcohol in an ultrasonic bath. Good results are obtained
by subsequent irradiation with UV simultaneously treated the surface with ozone. In this case, not only
additional cleaning is achieved, but improved hole injection properties of the ITO layer.

Physical vapor Deposition

When evaporation-condensation method is used, the polymer layers of the device formed by evaporating
-4
material with a thermal resistive evaporator at Pa) and its condensation on the
substrate installed above the evaporator at a distance of 10-20 cm.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 11

 Figure 4.1.1: Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) in vacuum chamber
(Source: http://www.ewh.ieee.org/soc/cpmt/presentations/cpmt0401a.pdf )

The method of vacuum evaporation-condensation has significant limitations. The main limitation of
substances, that have to be capable to sublime without decomposition, i.e. having sufficient volatility and
thermal stability. This dramatically reduces the number of potential electro luminous.
When using small molecule layers, evaporative techniques are commonly chosen. The small molecules are
evaporated in a vacuum chamber onto a substrate and form a thin layer. Another method is called chemical
vapor deposition (CVD). In CVD, a substrate is placed in a vacuum and a chemical is introduced causing the
film to condense onto the substrate. A disadvantage of this method is that everything inside the vacuum will
get coated, leading to waste of material.
Spin coating
In spin- coating method the organic materials are deposited in liquid form. To obtain uniform layers in
designing laboratory samples special centrifuges are used, which allow changing the acceleration, speed, and
duration of rotation. The substrate is mounted in the center of the centrifuge and one or more drops of solution
are dropped on it. The substrate is rotated at high speed causing the liquid to spread out and dry. The liquid
will uniform thin solid layer of dissolved compounds.
The thickness of the layer is determined by the amount of rotating time and the drying rate of the material.
Films produced this way tend to have an inconsistent thickness as well as poor surface smoothness.

Figure 4.1.2: In Spin coating, a drop of the material is deposited onto a substrate and rotated at high speed until it spreads
to the desired thickness. (Source: OLED Fabrication for Use in Display Systems / Chris Summitt / 06.12.2006 )

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 12

 Ink Jet Printing
Ink jet technology has many advantages in comparison with photolithography. Since, it is used much a small
volume of material, and the process is "dry", i.e. there is no air pollution harmful liquids. In addition, the
manufacturing process consists of fewer steps. This technology is best suites for multi-layer structures since
the interlayer connection can be directly applied to the substrate. Thus, ink jet printing allows making
multilayer OLED, which has a low cost and without any harm to the environment. Two kinds of ink used in
the process of manufacturing multilayer structures by ink jet printing - conductive and insulating. In other
methods of ink jet printing is used heated colorant with a very high temperature before being discharged,
which is not suitable for printing polymer materials
To get the necessary precision in display manufacturing, at first micro-grooves are made on a substrate by
photolithography. Then they are filled (printed by technological jet printer) in series red, blue, and green
polymer, forming the structure of the RGB-subpixels. Electronics of display combines every three sub-pixels
in one full-color pixel. This method provides a pixel pitch of 128 microns with the size of each sub-pixel 40
microns. To improve the clarity of the print OLEDs, used another technological trick. Grooves on the substrate
are covered with a hydrophilic material, and the surface between them - hydrophobic. These substances
respectively attract or repel the polymer solution, providing the required printing accuracy. All the micro
droplets of liquid polymer falling into the grooves with minimum smearing the polymer on barrier layer. In
the industrial production the solutions are applied to the substrate in the form of dots by devices such ink jet
printers.

Figure 4.1.3: Ink jet printing to pattern polymers (Full Color Applications)
(Source: http://www.ewh.ieee.org/soc/cpmt/presentations/cpmt0401a.pdf )

Roll to roll Printing (R2R)

Method of ink jet printing and using a polymer base allows producing flexible, large area luminous panel, but
this technology has number of limitations related with protection of polymer layers from the environment.
Roll printing (lamination technology) allows to solve these problems and improve OLED performance. The
key point of this method is using two components of panel - an anode and a cathode, which each of them is
prepared individually in the preliminary stage of the process. The cathode material is a polymer film or metal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 13

foil with deposited cathode, electron injection and emission layers. The anode material is a polymer film
deposited with anode and hole transport layers. Then two components are combined to form a multi-layered
OLED flexible material.

(Source: http://www.schott.com/newsfiles/com/foto_tesa_oleds_produktionsprozess.jpg )

Vacuum sputtering
In the production of full-color OLED-panels an active matrix are used as the base, on which polymer layers
sputter. Each element (pixel) is an independent OLED-cell containing a controlling field transistor OFET.
There are two types of facilities for industrial production - with radial and linear arrangement of chambers for
the preparation of the substrate, the application of the polymer layers, cathode and encapsulation.
In a linear arrangement all cameras are disposed in series, which allows to assemble panels in a continuous
mode. Most industrial facilities, providing high quality products with high performance, combined radial and
linear sections.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 14

 Figure 4.1.5: OLED mass production system
(Source: http://www.canon-tokki.co.jp/eng/product/el/images/img_mass02.gif )

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 15

 Technical Characteristics
To evaluate the efficiency of the OLED more than 10 parameters is used. For some of them have not worked
out the exact criteria that must be considered when comparing the characteristics of the LEDs.

Energy Efficiency 180 lm/Wt

40 cd/A

Internal Quantum Efficiency (Exiton/Photon) 100%

External Quantum Efficiency (Illuminated photon/Formed

40%
photon)

Operating Voltage 5-8V

Inclusion Voltage 3-9V

Angle of View

Brightness 1000 cd/m²

Contrast 100:1

Life Time 6 - 11 years

Temperature Range - o
C

Table 1:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 16

 CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF OLED
There 6 different types of OLED available at the moment and all of them are designed for a different aim.
Types are the below:
1. Passive-Matrix OLED
2. Active-Matrix OLED
3. Transparent OLED
4. Top-Emitting OLED
5. Foldable OLED
6. White OLED

Passive Matrix OLEDs (PMOLEDs):

They have strips of cathode, organic layers and stripes of anode. Anode and cathode stripes are placed
perpendicular each other. Pixels are generated at the region where cathode and anode are intersected with
the emitted light. A current is applied to some strips of cathode and anode to determine pixels whether on
or off. Also this amount of this current affects the brightness. Although this type of OLED is easy to
produce; compared to others, they consume more power which is because of the supplied current. However
power consumption is still less than LCDs and they are suitable for text or icon based small screens around
2-3 inches. For instance, some cell phones and MP3 players have this type of OLEDs.

Figure 5.1.1: Passive-Matrix OLED structure.

(Source: http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled1.htm )

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 17

 Active Matrix OLEDs (AMOLEDs):
AMOLEDs have full layers of cathode, organic molecules and anode, but the anode layer overlays a thin film
transistor (TFT) array that forms a matrix. The TFT array itself is the circuitry that determines which pixels
get turned on to form an image.
AMOLEDs consume less power than PMOLEDs because the TFT array requires less power than external
circuitry, so they are efficient for large displays. They are used in computer monitors, large-screen TVs and
electronic signs or billboards. The life expectancy of it is 30,000 hours.

Figure 5.1.2: Active-Matrix OLED structure.

(Source: http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled1.htm )

Transparent OLEDs
Transparent OLEDs have only transparent components that are substrate, cathode and anode. When turned
off, they are 85% as transparent as their substrate. When a transparent OLED display is turned on, it allows
light to pass in both directions. TOLEDs can greatly improve contrast, making it much easier to view displays
in bright sunlight. This technology can be used in Head-up displays, smart windows or augmented reality
applications.

Figure 5.1.3: Transparent OLED structure

(Source: http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled1.htm )

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 18

 Top-emitting OLEDs:
Top-emitting OLEDs have a substrate that is either opaque or reflective. The top-emitting OLED
display includes providing a handling substrate. A composite layer is formed on the handling substrate. An
organic light emitting unit is formed on the composite layer. A top electrode is formed on the organic light
emitting unit. A reflective type display and fabrication method thereof is provided. The reflective type display
includes providing a handling substrate. A composite layer is formed on the handling substrate; a thin film
transistor array is formed on the composite layer. These displays are used in smart cards. The efficiency is 500
cd/m2 and the life span is 17,000 hours.

Figure 5.1.4: Top-Emitting OLED Structure

(Source: http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled1.htm )

Foldable OLEDs:
Foldable OLEDs have substrates made of very flexible metallic foils or plastics. They are very light-
weight and durable. Their use in devices such as cell phones and PDAs can reduce breakage, a major cause
for return or repair. Potentially, these displays can be attached to fabrics to create smart clothing, such as
outdoor survival clothing with an integrated computer chip, cell phone, GPS receiver and OLED display sewn
into it. They are less breakable and more impact resistant, than other displays. With glass breakage a major
cause of display-containing product returns, this is a highly desirable commercial alternative. They are very
flexible. Such displays may be made to bend, flex and conform to many surfaces. The luminance is 200cd/m2.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 19

 Figure 5.1.5: Foldable OLED
( Source: http://l-light-h.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/oled_lighting_differentiation4_en.jpg )

White OLEDs:
White OLEDs emit white light that is brighter, more uniform and more energy efficient than that emitted by
fluorescent lights. They also have the true-color qualities of incandescent lighting. They can replace
fluorescent lights that are currently used in homes and buildings because they can be made in large sheets.
Their use could potentially reduce energy costs for lighting. Its efficiency is 90lm/W at a brightness of
1000cd/m2.

Figure 5.1.6: White OLED

(Source: http://i222.photobucket.com/albums/dd126/xrox/3112_zps7201dfe3.jpg~original )

DISCUSSIONS
Comparison between LED and OLED
Although OLED name has been heard much more recently, it is not a new technology in the technology world.
In the beginning of 2000s, we used them in mobile phone screens. However LED took much place
more in daily life afterwards. Technically, OLEDs emit light but LEDs diffuse or reflect and this seems the
main difference between these two light sources.

What is LED? : Light-emitting diode is one of the widely used and known light sources these days. But its
history is about a solid state device that makes light with the help of electrons through a semi-conductor. Also
this type is smaller than some other sources such as compact fluorescent and incandescent light bulbs. However
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 20
it provides higher brightness than its rivals. Although it has some advantages in this area, it is not enough to
be used as a pixel of the television just because of its size. Therefore it became popular in lighting industry.

What is OLED? : Organic light-emitting diode includes some organic compounds that light when electricity
supplied. There is not much difference about architecture between LED and OLED but being thin, small and
flexible are the main advantages of OLEDs. Also each pixel on OLED televisions works individually.

As can be seen from the definitions of LED and OLED, they have some differences and these strongly affect
the quality of the end product. For instance, backlight is used to illuminate their pixels in LED but pixels
produce their own light in OLED. pixels called emissive. Therefore OLEDs provide the flexibility of
brightness control through pixel by pixel changes. Tests of a LED display in dark conditions show that parts
of an image are not perfectly black because backlight is showed through.

The great advantage for LEDs looks about economy since its production costs are much cheaper. However
after OLED market is developed, it is predicted that the difference will be made up. Production of an OLED
is easier and it is possible to produce it in larger sizes. Its content plays the main role for this because plastic
is a suitable material for this but it is harder to do it with liquid crystals.

Figure 5.2.1(a): Comparison of LED and OLED structure

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 21

At the moment, OLED TVs provide a wider viewing range around 170 degrees because it produces its own
light. Since it is open to development, OLED is quite appropriate tool for TV and monitor industry. Plastic
and organic layers in OLED are thinner than inorganic crystal layers in LED, brighter light is generated.
Additionally, it is required to support LED with glass and this absorbs some of the light as well however there
is no such a need in OLED.

Figure 5.2.1(b): Comparison of LED and OLED Display

(Source: http://4k.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/led-vs-oled.jpg)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 22

5.2.2 COMPARISON TABLE
A simple comparison with existing lighting systems will serve the purpose of discussion.

Incandescent Fluorescent
OLED lighting LED
light bulbs lamps

Illustration

Ultraviolet
Emits light by rays generated
Emits light by sending an by an electric Emits light by
Principle of applying a electric current collide applying a
light emission voltage to current to a with voltage to an
organic matter metallic fluorescent inorganic
material to semiconductor
filament
produce visible
light

Illuminates
large area Size of area
(surface light illuminated is
Illuminates Illuminates
source) between point
small area small area (point
Energy light source
(point light light source)
efficient and surface
source) Energy
Low heat- light source
High power efficient
generation (linear light
Characteristics consumption Long life
Slim, source)
High heat- Easy to reduce
lightweight Energy
generation size
Flexible (when efficient
Closely
plastic substrate Uses
approximates Environmentally
used) hazardous
natural light sound
substance
Environmentally (mercury)
sound

Applications Photographic
include living lighting, living Living spaces, Indirect lighting,
floor level
spaces, offices, spaces such as offices,
Uses decorative dining rooms commercial lighting,
spotlights for
illumination, car or bedrooms, premises, etc.
retail spaces, etc.
interior lighting, etc.

Table 2: Comparison Table with existing lighting systems

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 23

 CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages of OLED
biodegradable.

-up displays embedded in

textiles. This is because the substrate used in OLED is plastic rather than the glass used for an LCD or an
LED.
are brighter than LEDs. They have greater artificial contrast ratio as shown in figure 17. Because
the organic layers of an OLED is much thinner than the corresponding inorganic crystal layers of an LED,
the conductive and emissive layers of an OLED can be multi-layered and does not require glass which
absorbs some part of light.

Figure6.1: Comparison of LCD, LED and OLED displays

(Source:http://www.hometheaterequipment.com/attachments/led-lcd-39/1262d1336855683-oled-tvwhat-you-need-know-
oled.jpg,http://icdn6.digitaltrends.com/image/lcd-vs-oled-diagram-325x337.jpg )

An OLED does not require backlight as in the case of an LCD as shown in above figure 17. This in turn
reduces the power consumption by an OLED. requires illumination to produce visible image which
light.
Process of producing an OLED is easier and it can be made into large thin sheets. It is much more difficult
to grow so many liquid crystal layers.
OLED have wider viewing angles compared to LCD as an OLED pixel emits light directly. OLED pixel
colors are not shifted as we change the angle of observation to 90° from normal.
An OLED has much faster response time compared to an LCD.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 24

 Disadvantages:
Limited lifetime of the organic materials. While red and green OLED films have longer lifetimes, blue
organics currently have much shorter lifetimes. However, the lifespan of OLED displays can be increased
by improving light outcoupling.
The intrusion of water into displays can damage the organic materials and limit the longevity of more
flexible displays. Therefore, improved sealing processes are important for practical manufacturing.
The fabrication of the substrate is complex and expensive process in the production of TFT LCD, so
flexible substrates such as roll-up displays and displays embedded in fabrics or clothing can be used.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 25

 CHAPTER 7
7.1 APPLICATIONS OF OLED:
Due to its light-weight, they can be used in cellular phones, PDAs, notebooks, digital cameras, DVD
players, car stereos, televisions, etc.
They can be used as solid-state light sources.
In heads-up displays, automotive dashboards, billboard-type displays, home and office lighting and
flexible displays.
Due to its faster response than LCDs almost 1000 times faster, a device with an OLED display could
change information almost in real time.
In video images for more realistic and constant updates.
Light sources made from organic materials are of immense potential value for a range of applications.
Large area, flat light sources with surface brightness have potential applications such as space lighting, back
lighting or advertising displays. Organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) offer the potential for such a source.
OLEDs promise a cheap, light weight source which potentially can be made any size and on to a range of
substrates (including flexible plastic).

Figure 7.1(a): A Mobile Phone with OLED Display.

Samsung applications
In January 2005, Samsung announced the world's largest OLED TV at the time, at 21 inches (53 cm). This
OLED featured the highest resolution at 2.3 million pixels (WUXGA: widescreen ultra -extended graphics
array) at the time. In addition, the company adopted AM-based technology for its low power consumption and
high-resolution qualities.
In January 2008, Samsung showcased the world's largest and thinnest OLED TV at the time, at 31-inches and
4.3 mm.
In May 2008, Samsung unveiled an ultra-thin 12.1 inch laptop OLED display concept, with a 1,280×768
resolution with infinite contrast ratio. According to Woo Jong Lee, Vice President of the Mobile Display
Marketing Team at Samsung SDI, the company expects OLED displays to be used in notebook PCs as soon
as 2010.
In October 2008, Samsung showcased the world's thinnest OLED display, also the first to be 'flappable' and
bendable. It measures just 0.05 mm (thinner than paper), yet a Samsung staff member said that it is "technically

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 26

possible to make the panel thinner". To achieve this thickness, Samsung etched an OLED panel that uses a
normal glass substrate. The drive circuit was formed by low-temperature polysilicon TFTs. Also, low-
molecular organic EL materials were employed. The pixel count of the display is 480 × 272. The contrast ratio
is 100,000:1, and the luminance is 200cd/m². The color reproduction range is 100% of the NTSC standard.
In October 2008, Samsung unveiled the world's largest OLED Television at 40-inch with a Full HD resolution
of 1920×1080 pixel. In the FPD International, Samsung stated that its 40-inch OLED Panel is the largest size
currently possible. The panel has a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, a color gamut of 107% NTSC, and a
luminance of 200cd/m² (peak luminance of 600cd/m²).
At the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 2010, Samsung demonstrated a laptop computer with a
large, transparent OLED display and an animated OLED display in a photo ID card.

players and digital cameras. Its ability to be foldable and flexible makes it weight and space saving
technology. Some of the applications are as shown in figure 18. In March 2003, Kodak released a first
digital camera using OLED display.
Several companies have prototypes for built in Monitors and TV screens that use OLED technology. Nokia
has come up with the concept of scroll laptop. The Fraunhofer Institute has created a miniaturized OLED
display with SVGA (600x800) resolution measuring just 0.6-inches diagonal. That provides a pixel density
of 1,667 pixels-per- expanding.

Figure 7.1(b): Applications of OLED

Source:(http://pics.computerbase.de/6/4/0/2/3/logo-115x115.6c6c63da.jpg;
http://media.treehugger.com/assets/images/2012/01/Rooftop_OLED_Solar_Panels.jpg,
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_fokZa4MKGi0/SM8Vfag9EsI/AAAAAAAACmE/NmLWV7WSyWU/s400/118430_recIU
OfU4LzMIUM21IDuQImlP.jpg)

-input/multiple-output (MIMO) wireless optical channels.

xible sheets of plastic.
High transmission speed of can be used in visible optical communications. The communication field
is limited near the emitting area of an OLED, resulting in a safe data transmission.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 27

7.2 CHALLENGES & CRITICAL ISSUES:
Even though remarkable progress has been made, OLEDs still face great challenges before commercialization
as white-light sources can be even considered. OLEDs have already achieved power conversion efficiencies
close to those needed for energy efficient operation, but only for the green and red light, and with
insufficient luminance. Other colors are still far beyond. The peak brightness can be greater than several
hundreds of thousands cd/m2, but these devices degrade very quickly. The operating voltages can be as low
as the desired
2.6 - 4 V but the luminance is still too low under those voltages. For white light and the desired luminance,
the passing electric currents are still too high, and the power conversion efficiencies are low. The useful
lifetime of white-light emitting devices with the desired luminance needs to be increased by more than one
order of magnitude. The surface area of the largest devices made to date is only of the order of a couple of
square inches, while the illumination panels will have to cover several square feet. The uniformity of these
devices is far worse than desired, etc.
The technological issues facing OLEDs can be summarized into the four main categories:
Operational life
Power conversion efficiency
Cost of manufacturing
The lack of infrastructure
Specifically, to effectively compete with, and eventually displace fluorescent lighting, these challenges are:
(1). Efficiency improvement to obtain 120 lm/W for white light for a 1000 lm white source and useful life
20,000 hrs.
(2). Cost of manufacturing so as to be lower than for traditional light sources
(3). Development of new infrastructure including powering of high current-low voltage distributed sources,
new industries and technologies that are enabled by attributes of OLED SSL.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 28

 CHAPTER 8
FUTURE SCOPE AND CONCLUSION
8.1 FUTURE SCOPE
Achieving higher data rate, such as 10-15 Mbit/s, so that OLED can be adopted in standard 10BASE-T
Ethernet communications. Working with the manufacturers to improve the device response time (newer
display has faster response and wider dynamic contrast range). The newspaper of the future might be an OLED
display automotive dashboards, billboard-type displays, home and office lighting.

Figure 7.3: Future Possibilities of OLED

8.2 CONCLUSION
A great progress has been made in the field of organic electronics and devices in terms of synthesis,

effectiveness of the OLED device is governed by three important processes: charge injection, charge transport
and emission. Light emission through phosphorescent dyes has been utilized in OLEDs and gives good results.
OLEDs have achieved long operational stability. The performance of OLEDs meets many of the targets
necessary for applications in displays.
Research and development in the field of OLEDs is proceeding rapidly and may lead to future
applications in heads-up displays, automotive dashboards, billboard-type displays, home and office lighting
and flexible displays. OLEDs refresh faster than LCDs (almost 1,000 times faster). A device with an OLED
display changes information almost in real time. Video images could be much more realistic and constantly
updated. The newspaper of the future might be an OLED display that refreshes with breaking news and like a
regular newspaper, you could fold it up when you're done reading it and stick it in your backpack or briefcase.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 29

 REFERENCES

1. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/engineering/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-organiclight-emitting-
diodes-engineering-essay.php , Published: 23, March 2015
2. http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/oled6.htm
3. http://www.oledinfo.com/introduction
4.
5. Edition.
6. Ghassan E. Jabbour et al., Screen Printing for the Fabrication of Organic Light-Emitting Devices, IEEE 7:5, 2001
7. OLED Fabrication for Use in Display Systems / Chris Summitt / 06.12.2006.
8. "World's Largest 21-inch OLED for TVs from Samsung". Physorg.com. 2005-01-04.
http://www.physorg.com/news2547.html. Retrieved 2009-08-17.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING 30